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Visit www.CengageBrain.com to view over 10,000 digital, print, and audio study tools SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY EIGHTH EDITION JIUnlimited SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY EIGHTH EDITION SAUL KASSIN John Jay College STEVEN FEIN Williams College HAZEL ROSE MARKUS Stanford University Australia • Brazil • Japan • Korea • Mexico • Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Saul Kassin, Steven Fein, and Hazel Rose Markus Senior Publisher: Linda Schreiber-Ganster Executive Editor: Jon-David Hague Developmental Editor: Tangelique Williams Assistant Editor: Rebecca Rosenberg © 2011, 2008 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning ALL RIGHTS RESERVED No part of this work covered by the copyright herein may be reproduced, transmitted, stored or used in any form or by any means graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including but not limited to photocopying, recording, scanning, digitizing, taping, Web distribution, information networks, or information storage and retrieval systems, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without the prior written permission of the publisher Editorial Assistant: Alicia McLaughlin Media Editor: Lauren Keyes Senior Marketing Manager: Jessica Egbert Marketing Coordinator: Anna Andersen Associate Marketing Manager: Molly Felz Executive Marketing Communications Manager: Talia Wise Senior Content Project Manager: Pat Waldo For product information and technology assistance, contact us at Cengage Learning Customer & Sales Support, 1-800-354-9706 For permission to use material from this text or product, submit all requests online at www.cengage.com/permissions Further permissions questions can be emailed to permissionrequest@cengage.com Library of Congress Control Number: 2009942871 Creative Director: Rob Hugel Student Edition Art Director: Vernon Boes ISBN-13: 978-0-495-81240-1 Print Buyer: Karen Hunt ISBN-10: 0-495-81240-4 Rights Acquisitions Account Manager, Text: Bob Kauser Loose-Leaf Edition Rights Acquisitions Account Manager, Image: Don Schlotman ISBN-10: 0-8400-3217-X Production Service: Jennifer Bonnar, Lachina Publishing Services Text Designer: Diane Beasley Photo Researcher: Roman Barnes Copyeditor: Kate Babbitt Cover Designer: Irene Morris Cover Photo: JIUnlimited Compositor: Lachina Publishing Services ISBN-13: 978-0-8400-3217-1 Wadsworth 20 Davis Drive Belmont, CA 94002-3098 USA Cengage Learning is a leading provider of customized learning solutions with office locations around the globe, including Singapore, the United Kingdom, Australia, Mexico, Brazil, and Japan Locate your local office at: www.cengage.com/global Cengage Learning products are represented in Canada by Nelson Education, Ltd To learn more about Wadsworth, visit www.cengage.com/wadsworth Purchase any of our products at your local college store or at our preferred online store www.CengageBrain.com Printed in the United States of America 13 12 11 10 We dedicate this book to Bob Zajonc, an inspiration to us all This page intentionally left blank vii Preface Brief Contents PREFACE xix ABOUT THE AUTHORS PA R T PA R T PA R T PA R T I I I I I I I V Introduction CHAPTER WHAT IS SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY? CHAPTER DOING SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY RESEARCH 25 Social Perception CHAPTER THE SOCIAL SELF CHAPTER PERCEIVING PERSONS CHAPTER STEREOTYPES, PREJUDICE, AND DISCRIMINATION 55 101 145 Social Influence CHAPTER ATTITUDES CHAPTER CONFORMITY CHAPTER GROUP PROCESSES 203 251 293 Social Relations CHAPTER ATTRACTION AND CLOSE RELATIONSHIPS 339 CHAPTER 10 HELPING OTHERS 389 CHAPTER 11 AGGRESSION 435 PA R T V Applying Social Psychology CHAPTER 12 LAW 485 CHAPTER 13 BUSINESS 529 CHAPTER 14 HEALTH 569 GLOSSARY G-1 REFERENCES CREDITS R-1 C-1 NAME INDEX I-1 SUBJECT INDEX I-17 vii This page intentionally left blank I-14 Name Index Titus, L T., 302 Tjaden, P., 475 Tobin, A M., 464 Toch, H., 295 Todorov, A., 102, 103t, 104, 120 Tolin, D F., 573 Tollestrup, P A., 500 Tolstedt, B E., 373 Toma, C L., 21 Tomada, G., 452 Tomasello, M., 64, 396 Tonander, G R., 166 Toobin, J., 490 Top, T J., 156 Tormala, Z L., 213, 214 Törngren, G., 560 Tourangeau, R., 205, 206 Towles-Schwen, T., 214 Trafi mow, D., 69, 71 Trawalter, S., 153, 154, 181 Trevor, W., 68 Triandis, H C., 16, 47t, 69, 267, 540 Triplett, N., 12, 27, 300–301 Tripp, C., 219 Trivers, R L., 358, 393 Troll, L E., 95 Trope, Y., 104, 105, 120 Tropp, L R., 193 Trudeau, J V., 60 Trzesniewski, K H., 72 Tsai, W C., 417 Tsang, B Y.-P., 375 Tsapelas, I., 381 Tubre, T C., 297 Tuckman, B W., 296 Turchin, J M., 348 Turner, J C., 162, 264 Turner, M E., 193, 541t Turner, S M., 340 Turpie, C., 155 Tversky, A., 116, 518, 563 Twain, M., 62 Twenge, J M., 75, 283 Tyler, T R., 510, 522 Uchida, Y., 89 Uchino, B N., 340, 597, 598 Uleman, J S., 120 Underwood, J., 223 Underwood, M K., 442, 450 Unkelbach, C., 186 Urada, D I., 167 Urland, G R., 167 USA Today, 538f U.S Bureau of Labor Statistics, 157t, 529 U.S Department of Justice, 442, 475, 500 Uziel, L., 304 Vaillancourt, T., 445, 451 Vaish, A., 129, 422 Valentine, P., 362 Vallacher, R R., 287 Van Bavel, J J., 18, 34, 168, 195 van Bokhoven, I., 446 Vandello, J A., 42t, 105, 415, 442, 452, 453, 454 VanderStoep, S W., 26 VanDeusen, K M., 473 van Dijk, E., 326 Van Dyne, L., 266, 419 Van Eerde, W., 553 Vangelisti, A L., 382 Van Goozen, S H M., 447 Van Iddekinge, C H., 536 van Knippenberg, D., 322, 541 van Koppen, P J., 522 Van Lange, P A M., 325 Van Prooijen, J.-W., 522 van Straaten, I., 355 Van Vugt, M., 296 Varchaver, N., 485 Vathanophas, V., 321 Vecchio, R P., 551 Veenhoven, R., 606 Vega, V., 471 Vermillion, M., 31 Verona, E., 457 Vetlesen, A J., 276 Vidmar, N., 488, 510 Vierikko, E., 443, 446 Viki, G T., 156 Vinokur, A., 313 Visintainer, M., 582 Visser, P S., 213 Viswesvaran, C., 574 Vittengl, J R., 372 Vogel, D L., 382 Vohs, K D., 56, 79, 80, 88, 91, 588 Vollhardt, J., 398, 417 von der Pahlen, B., 446 Von Glinow, M A., 551 von Hippel, C., 189 von Hippel, W., 116, 151, 170, 181 Vonk, R., 92 Von Lang, J., 276 Voracek, M., 348 Vorauer, J D., 154, 155, 330, 343, 425 Voss, A., 33, 184 Vrij, A., 111, 112, 486 Vroom, V H., 546, 548, 553 Wade, K A., 496 Wageman, R., 320 Wagner, D T., 531 Wagstaff, G F., 302 Waldman, D A., 552 Walker, I., 161 Walker, L., 521, 522 Wallace, H M., 58 Walster, E., 125, 219, 355, 356, 366, 370, 420 Walster, E H., 346 Walster, G W., 420 Walters, A E., 557 Walther, E., 210 Walton, G., 190 Wampold, B E., 364, 601 Wang, S., 251 Wann, D L., 164 Warburton, W A., 457 Ward, M L., 175, 176 Warneken, F., 64, 396 Waschull, S B., 72 Waterman, R H., 549 Watkins, E R., 596 Watkins, M J., 257 Watson, D., 606 Wax, E., 375 Wayment, H A., 397 Weary, G., 112 Webster, D M., 131, 140 Weeden, J., 362 Wegener, D T., 215, 216, 228 Wegge, J., 320 Wegner, D M., 81, 180, 319, 357, 593 Weiner, B., 113 Weinstein, N D., 84, 605 Weinstein, R S., 136 Weis, K., 369 Weisbuch, M., 21 Weiss, D E., 222 Weiss, E., 461 Weiss, W., 218 Welbourne, T M., 553 Weldon, M S., 305 Wells, G L., 206, 217, 499, 500, 504, 505, 506, 507 Wener, R E., 575 Wenzlaff , R M., 593 Werner, C., 340–41 Werner, N E., 452 West, S G., 424 West, T., 154 Westbay, L., 369 Westcott, D R., 270 Westen, D., 207, 215 Wheelan, S A., 296 Wheeler, B C., 392 Wheeler, L., 65, 350, 608 Wheeler, M E., 153 Whitbeck, L B., 344 White, G L., 371, 459 White, K M., 212 White, L T., 503 Whitehead, H., 253 Whiteside, K., 149 Whittaker, J O., 368 Whorf, B L., 121 Whyte, G., 316 Wicker, A W., 211 Wicker, B., 108 Wicklund, R A., 76 Widmeyer, W N., 130 Wiener, R L., 487, 512 Wiesenfeld, B M., 556 Wiesner, W H., 536 Wike, R., 147f Wilder, D A., 170, 261 Wildschut, T., 326 Wilkinson, D L., 451 Willer, R., 227 Willging, T E., 512 Williams, D R., 187 Williams, J E., 174 Williams, K D., 257, 258, 296, 306, 340, 458, 486 Williams, K Y., 541 Name Index Williams, M J., 21, 166 Williamson, G., 426, 581 Willis, J., 102, 103t Wills, T A., 86, 427 Wilson, A E., 86 Wilson, D S., 349, 394 Wilson, D W., 424 Wilson, M., 442 Wilson, M I., 445 Wilson, T D., 58–59, 60, 204 Winch, R F., 355 Windschitl, P D., 84 Winne, P., 140 Winquist, J., 76, 595 Winter, D G., 547 Wise, R A., 506 Wishman, S., 488 Wissler, R L., 511 Wittenbrink, B., 179, 209 Woehr, D J., 536 Wolf, S., 265, 511 Wolgemuth, L., 534 Wolitski, R., 605 Wong, R Y.-m., 326, 327f Wood, J V., 86 Wood, N., 56 Wood, W., 213, 216, 224, 232, 240, 264–65, 266, 382 Woodard, E., 419, 470 Woodward, B., 132 Woolley, A W., 297–98, 320, 321f Word, C O., 172 Word, L E., 406 Worth, L T., 228 Worthy, D A., 18 Wright, D., 501 Wright, L., 591 Wright, N S., 300 Wright, P H., 374 Wright, R A., 356, 357 Wrightsman, L S., 205, 486, 487 Wroblewski, J., 518 Wyer, N A., 150, 166, 181 Wyland, C L., 31 Yablo, P D., 421 Yahya, K A., 279 Yamagishi, T., 48, 326, 328, 329 Yamawaki, N., 156 Yantz, C L., 302 Yee, N., 253 Yetton, P W., 548 Yeung, N C J., 189 Yopyk, D J A., 189 Young, R D., 77 Young, R K., 104 Yousif, Y H., 397, 414 Yu, D W., 348 Yuille, J C., 500 Yuki, M., 165, 326 Yzerbyt, V Y., 167, 170 Zaccaro, S J., 546 Zajonc, R B., 62, 301–2, 303, 344–45 Zander, A., 299 Zanna, M P., 203, 213, 241 Zárate, M A., 161 Zavalloni, M., 313 Zebrowitz, L A., 104 Zebrowitz-McArthur, L., 104 Zeisel, H., 489, 514, 515 Zelazo, P D., 448 Zell, E., 87 Zemack-Rugar, Y., 417, 418 Zhang, J., 234 Zhang, L., 563 Zhang, S., 375 Zhou, X., 559 Zhu, Y., 331 Zick, A., 147 Zillmann, D., 370–71, 456, 459, 461 Zimbardo, P., 67, 275, 307, 341, 342, 495, 519, 521 Zimerman, S., 17 Zitek, E M., 298 Zongker, B., 455 Zucker, K J., 379 Zuckerman, M., 111, 135 Zukier, H., 132 Zuwerink, J R., 226 I-15 This page intentionally left blank References Subject Index Page numbers followed by c indicate captions; page numbers followed by f indicate figures; page numbers followed by t indicate tables Abilities, matching to group roles, 297–98 Abortion, 435, 595 Abu Ghraib, 521 Academic performance, and stereotype threat, 188–92 Acceptance, of persuasive message, 215–16 Accident victims, 125 Accountability cues, 307–8 Acquaintance rape, 473–74 Acquisition, 500–501 Acquisition stage, of memory, 500–501 Actual self, 75 Adaptation-level theory, 608 Additive group tasks, 310 Adjourning stage, of groups, 270t Adolescents aggression, 442, 443, 448, 455 alcohol use, 136 homosexual activity, 376–77 loneliness, 343 self-esteem, 74 smoking, 206 violent media exposure, 463–70 Adoption studies, 378, 446 Adrenaline, 575, 576, 581 The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (Twain), 62 Adversarial model of justice, 522 Advertising beauty, 221 celebrity spokespersons, 219, 220, 221, 224c, 604 cultural differences, 234 gender stereotypes, 175–77 overheard communicator technique, 219 political, 226, 233 positive emotions, 227 public service, 227 and sexual aggression, 10c subliminal messages, 228–30 See also Media; Persuasion and persuasive communication Affect See Emotion; Negative affect/emotion Affective forecasting, 59 Affi liation, 66, 159, 340–42 Affirmative action, 32, 537–40, 541t Affluence, 267, 606–9 African Americans beauty, 348 leadership positions, 552–53 self-concept, 69 self-esteem, 75 stereotypes, 148 stereotype threat, 189, 190 stress, 575 as violent crime victims, 441–42 See also Minorities; Racism Age analyses attribution, 121 loneliness, 343 mate selection, 359 self-esteem, 72 self-monitoring, 94 self-recognition, 57 stereotype suppression, 181 violent crime, 441 The Age of Manipulation (Key), 229 Aggression, 435–83 and alcohol use, 31, 46, 461–62 archival studies, 35 and arousal, 456, 458–59 and athletics, 449, 450–51, 456 behavior genetics, 446 biological factors, 446–48, 460 bullying, 35, 440 cognitive factors, 459–62 cultural differences, 45, 437–42, 452–54 definition of, 436–37 emotional, 437 evolutionary psychological perspective, 444–46 examples of, 435–36 and frustration, 454–57 gender differences, 442–43, 445–47, 451–52 genetic factors, 446 and heat, 457–58 individual differences, 443–44 instrumental, 437 as learned behavior, 448–51 measurement in experiments, 31 media’s influence, 462–72, 476–77 nature vs nurture, 454 and negative affect, 457–58, 462f and personality traits, 443–44 and pornography, 470–72 proactive, 437 reactive, 437 reduction strategies, 475–78 relational, 442–43, 445–46, 452, 467–68 sexual, 470, 472, 473–74, 477 situational influences, 454–62, 476 and violent video games, 39f See also Violence AIDS/HIV attitudes toward patients, 424 prevention, 32, 603–5 research ethical dilemmas, 44 self-presentation risk, 92 volunteerism, 403 AIG (American International Group), 293 Alarm reaction, 575 Alcohol myopia, 461–62 Alcohol use adolescents, 136 and aggression, 31, 46, 461–62 college students’ perceptions of peers’, 261, 604 and memory, 500 and self-awareness, 77–78 and sexual aggression among college students, 473–74 and stereotype suppression, 181 Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland (Carroll), 132 Allies, in dissent, 262–63 Altruism, 393–95, 399–404, 421–23 Altruistic personality, 421–23 Ambiguity, 297 Ambivalent sexism, 156 American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 467 American Academy of Family Physicians, 467 American Academy of Pediatrics, 467 American Heart Association, 577 The American Jury (Kalven and Zeisel), 515 American Medical Association, 467 American Psychiatric Association, 467 American Psychological Association (APA), 10–11, 48, 467, 493 “American Skin (41 Shots),” 183 Amish, 440, 441 Amnesty International, 281, 524 Amygdala, 153, 207 Anchoring effect, 518 Anger, 108, 437 Animals, 57–58, 106 Anonymity and deindividuation, 307, 309 and diff usion of responsibility, 409 in groups, 325 Anorexia nervosa, 351 Antisocial behavior and corporal punishment, 449 and deindividuation, 307–9 See also Aggression Anxious attachment style, 367, 368t APA (American Psychological Association), 10–11, 48, 467, 493 Ape studies, 57–58 Apodaca v Oregon, 516 Appearance, physical, 102–4, 345 See also Facial features and expressions Apple Computer, 234c Applewhite, Marshall, 276 Applied research, 29–30 Appraisal, of situation, 570, 583–88 Appraisals, performance, 542–45 Arakawa, Shizuka, 82c Arbitrators, 330 Archival studies, 35 Aristotle, 378 Arousal and aggression, 456, 458–59, 468–69 and attitude measures, 206 and cognitive dissonance, 241 and deindividuation, 307 fear appeals, 226–27 memory impact, 500 and physical attraction, 370–71 social facilitation, 301–2 stress, 575–77 in two-factor theory of emotion, 66–67 Arousal: cost-reward model, of helping, 397 Artwork, 65 Asian Americans helping others, 428 self-concept, 69, 71–72 social support, 601 stereotype threat, 190 Assertiveness, 252f, 274–75 Assessment centers, 536 Astronauts, 580 I-17 I-18 Subject Index Athletes and athletics aggression, 449, 450–51, 456 “choking,” 80, 82c counterfactual thinking, 118 mob behavior of fans, 307–8 racism, 149–50 stereotype threat, 189, 190 team cohesiveness, 299 Attachment styles, 367–69 Attention, 56 Attentional cues, 308 Attitude change See Persuasion and persuasive communication Attitude-discrepant behavior, 236–38, 240–41, 245 Attitudes and attraction, 353–54 and behavior, 211–14 definition of, 203–4 formation of, 209–10 functions of, 204 measurement of, 204–9 positive and negative dimensions, 204 strength of, 204, 212–14 Attitude scales, 205 Attorneys, 488–89 Attraction evolutionary psychology perspective, 344 familiarity, 344–45 fascination with, 339 first encounters, 352–57 hard-to-get effect, 356–57 liking others who like us, 355–56 relationship rewards, 343–44 and similarity, 352–55 and time, 357 two-stage model, 354 See also Physical attraction and attractiveness Attribution errors, 118–20, 497 Attributions biases, 116–20 and cognitive dissonance, 241 cultural differences in, 121–22 definition of, 113 depressive explanatory style, 583–84 distress-maintaining, 382–83 in intimate relationships, 382–83 jury’s’ reaction to confession evidence, 497–98 personal, 113, 121, 125–32 relationship-enhancing, 382 situational, 113, 118–20, 121 and stereotypes, 170 in stock market investing, 561 Attribution theories, 112–16, 119–20 Audience, of persuasive communication, 217, 230–33 Audience inhibition, 410 Authoritarian personality, 279 Authority, obedience to See Obedience Autobiographical memories, 67–68 Automatic processes aggression, 459–60 in compliance, 268–69 social influence, 252–54 stereotypes as, 17–18, 178–79 Availability heuristic, 116–17 Averaging model of impression formation, 126 Aversive racism, 150 Avoidance, 592–94 Avoidant attachment style, 367, 368t Baby-facedness, 104 The Bachelor, 4c Bad moods, 417–18, 419t Balinese culture, 441t Ballew v Georgia, 516 Banking, 563 Bantu, 268 Barbie, 352 Bari tribe, 362, 363c Baseball, 150, 193, 457 Base-rate fallacy, 117 Basic research, 29–30 Bask in reflected glory (BIRG), 85–86 Batson v Kentucky, 489 Bay of Pigs invasion, 314–15 BBC, 520 Beauty, 176c, 221, 345–52, 532 See also Physical attraction and attractiveness Behavior and attitudes, 211–14 division into units, 106 “hot” vs “cold” perspective, 16 nonverbal, 106–10 social perception of, 105–10 See also specific index headings Behavior genetics, 18, 446 Beijing Olympics, 294c Belief in a just world, 124–25 Belief perseverance, 132–34 Benevolent sexism, 156 Berra, Yogi, 35 Bias and attitude change, 216 attribution, 116–20 for beauty, 345–52, 532 confirmation, 132–38, 171–72 cross-race identification, 501 in experience sampling, 135 familiarity-induced, 506 hostile attribution, 461 impact, 59–60 in job interviews, 531–32 in jury selection, 488–89 leniency, 515 motivational, 123–25 negativity, 128–29 in performance appraisals, 543–44 positivity, 123–24 See also Discrimination; Prejudice Biased sampling, 318–19 Bicultural people, 123 See also Minorities “Big Dig,” 317–18 Biological Exuberance (Bagemihl), 377 Biological perspectives, 18, 446–48, 460 See also Brain processes; Evolutionary psychology; Genetic factors BIRG (bask in reflected glory), 85–86 Birth control, 211 Bisexuality, 377, 378 Blame, 591–92 Blink (Gladwell), 109 Blood donation, 403–4 Blood glucose levels, 80 Body image, 56, 176–77, 351–52 Body language, 106–12 Body posture, 62 Body size, 346–47, 348 Bogus pipeline technique, 32, 206 Bone marrow donation study, 420 Bono, 422 Bonuses, 554–55 Boston “Big Dig,” 317–18 Bounded rationality, 139 Bowling Alone (Putnam), 343 Brain-imaging technology, 20, 33–34, 57, 207 Brain processes aggression, 448 attitude measurement, 207 beauty, 349 conformity, 258–59 foul odors, 108 helping others, 397 homosexuality, 378 interracial perceptions, 153 negative images, 129 romantic love, 374 self-concept, 57 social brain hypothesis, 295–96 social categorization, 168 social facilitation, 302 social neuroscience perspective, 18 social rejection or loss, Brainstorming, 311–12 Brain waves, 207 Brazil, culture of honor, 453 Breast cancer patients, 87, 599 Bribes, 555 Brown, Chris, 477c “Brownie points,” 265 Brown v Board of Education of Topeka, 192 Bulger, James, 407 Bulimia nervosa, 351 Bullying, 35, 440 Burnout, 574 Burns, Ursula, 552c Bush (George W.) administration, 132 Business, economic decision making in, 558–63 See also Workplace Bybee, Charles, 399 Bystander effect, 406, 410–12 California, Proposition 8, 380 Campaigns, political See Presidential elections Cancer, 87, 92, 582, 598, 599 Candid Camera, 275–76 Car dealers, negotiation with, 330 Careers, in social psychology, Career women, 170, 178 Castro, Fidel, 315 Catastrophic stress, 571–73 Categorization, 166–69 See also Stereotypes Catharsis, 455, 456, 472, 594 Cause-and-effect relationship, 38–39 Celebrity spokespersons, 219, 220, 221, 224c, 604 Central Park jogger case, 494, 495 Central route to persuasion, 215–16 Central traits, 130 CEOs, 109 Challenger, 316, 318–19 Chameleon effect, 253 Change, in attitude See Persuasion and persuasive communication Change, stress caused by, 574 Change-of-meaning hypothesis, 132 Charitable giving, 391c, 415–16 CHD (coronary heart disease), 577–79, 585 Cheating, 360, 361, 496 Chewong culture, 440 Child pornography, 471 Children abuse of, 445, 475, 478 aggression in, 11, 39f, 442, 443, 449–51 bullying, 35, 440 corporal punishment use, 449 eyewitness testimony, 502–4 helping others, 398, 419, 421 hostile attribution bias, 461 interracial interactions, 155 reward and intrinsic motivation, 63–64 Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Subject Index sexual orientation, 379 social exclusion impact, social loafing, 306 violent media exposure, 463–70 See also Infants Child support, 362 Chimpanzee studies, 393–94, 396–97 China and Chinese people advertising in, 234 aggression, 438 attribution, 123 group cohesiveness, 300 marriage in, 375 negotiation, 331 self-concept, 69–70 social dilemma responses, 326–27 Choice, 113–14, 240, 602 “Choking,” 80, 82c Christianity, 267 Circadian rhythm, 181 Cities, helpfulness in, 413–14 Classic trait model of leadership, 546–47 Clinical psychology, 10 Clinton, Bill, 376 Clinton, Hilary, 8c, 158c Cliques, 322 Close relationships See Intimate relationships Closure, need for, 131–32 CNN, Cocktail party effect, 56 Cognition aggression, 459–62 integration with emotion and motivation, 17–18 need for cognition (NC), 230–31 research, 16 stereotype activation role, 179t and stereotype suppression, 181–82 Cognitive ability tests, 534 Cognitive clarity, 341–42 Cognitive dissonance theory, 236–42, 244f, 245–46 Cognitive heuristics, 116–18, 139–40, 217 Cognitive psychology, 11 Cohesiveness, of groups, 299–300 Cold viruses, 581–82 Collective effort model, 306 Collectives, 295 See also Groups Collectivism and aggression, 438 cognitive dissonance, 245 and conformity, 267–68 coping, 600–601 definition of, 267 helping others, 415, 428 negotiation, 331–32 persuasion, 234 self-concept, 69–70 self-esteem, 89–90 social comparison, 87–88 social dilemma responses, 326–27 social identity, 164–65 social loafing, 306–7 College basketball game study, 171 Colleges acquaintance rape, 473–74 alcohol use, 261, 604 Color, 121, 125, 349 Color-Blind (Cose), 186 Columbia, 314 Commitment, 272, 365–66, 369, 384 Common experiences, 355 Common ground, 332–33 Common Ingroup Identity Model, 195 Commons dilemma, 324 Common sense, 11–12 Communal relationships, 367, 426 Communication and biased sampling, 318–19 channels, 111 evaluation of, 217 in intimate relationships, 382 negotiation, 329–30, 331 networks, 319 See also Persuasion and persuasive communication Commuting, 575 Companionate love, 370, 372–74 Comparative law, 523 Comparison level (CL), 364 Comparison level for alternatives (CLalt), 364–65 Compensation, 553–58 Competence, 130, 219 Competition vs cooperation in social dilemmas, 323–33 cultural differences, 441 between groups, 161, 177–78 Competitive social value orientation, 326 Complementarity hypothesis, 355 Complexity, of society, 267 Compliance, 268–75 definitions of, 259, 268 and mindlessness, 268–69 and norm of reciprocity, 269–70 police confessions as act of, 495 resistance to, 274–75 sequential request strategies, 270–74 on social influence continuum, 252f Composite sketches, 504f, 505 Compromises, 329 Computers databases, 28 electronic brainstorming, 312 group support systems, 321 groupthink prevention, 317 social psychologists’ use, 33 Conceptual variables, 30–31 Condoms, 32 Confederates, in experimental research, 46 Confessions, 494–98, 522–23, 594–95 Confidence, 506–7 Confirmation bias, 132–38, 171–72 Conflict in groups, 160–61, 323–33 in marriage, 381–83 Conflict resolution, 329–33 Conflict spirals, 327 Conformity, 254–68 classic studies of, 15, 28, 46, 255–57 cultural differences, 266–68 definition of, 254 gender differences, 263 juries, 515 majority influence, 260–63, 265–66 minority influence, 263–66 reasons for, 257–59 resistance to label of, 254–55 on social influence continuum, 252f types of, 259–60 Conjunctive tasks, 310 Consensus information, 115 Consistency hypothesis, of minority influence, 264–65 Consistency information, 115 Construct validity, 31 Consumer information, 26–27 Contact hypothesis, 192–93 Context, 32, 47, 211–12 Contingency model of leadership, 547–48 Contrast effect, 543 Control and attitude-behavior link, 212 and coping with stress, 591 in experimental research, 39, 44 illusion of, 84 and justice perceptions, 521 self-, 79–81, 181–82 Control groups, 44 Convenience samples, 45 Conversion (private conformity), 259–60, 265 Cooperation, vs competition in social dilemmas, 323–33 Coping, 588–601 cultural differences, 600–601 definition of, 570 emotion-focused, 590, 592–96 and impact bias in affective forecasting, 60 overview of strategies, 588–90 proactive, 590, 596–600 problem-focused, 589–92 process, 570, 571t Coronary heart disease (CHD), 577–79, 585 Corporal punishment, 449 Correlational research, 36–39, 40t Correlation coefficient, 37 Correspondent inference theory, 113–14 Cortisol, 580 Costs, of helping others, 399 Cotton, Ronald, 499 Counterfactual thinking, 117–18 Courageous resistance, 399 Courtroom proceedings See Trials Covariation principle, 114–16 Covert integrity tests, 535 Covert measures, of attitude, 206–7 Credibility, 218–19, 222–24 Crime, 448–49 See also Violent crime Criminal Interrogation and Confessions (Inbau et al.), 494 Criminal justice system, 485–527 justice, 521–22 overview of, 486, 487f prisons, 519–21 sentencing, 492–93 See also Trials Crises, and stress, 406–12, 571–73 Cronkite, Walter, 218c Cross-cultural research, 16c, 19, 46–47 See also Cultural differences Cross-race identification bias, 501 Crowds bystander effect, 406, 410–12 and deindividuation, 307–9 mob behavior, 307–8 CSI effect, 510 Cuba Bay of Pigs invasion, 314–15 missile crisis, 317 Cultivation, 469 Cults, 276 Cultural differences aggression, 45, 437–42, 452–54 attribution, 121–22 beauty, 346, 348 body image, 177 cognitive dissonance, 245–46 conformity, 266–68 coping, 600–601 group cohesiveness, 300 helping others, 414–16, 428–29 law and justice, 522–24 I-19 I-20 Subject Index Cultural differences (continued) love, 374–75 moods, 41–42, 43f negotiation, 330–31 nonverbal communication, 110 persuasion, 234 self-concept, 69–72 self-esteem, 89–90 social comparisons, 87–88 social dilemma responses, 326–27 social identity, 164–65 socialization, 172–73 social loafing, 306–7 social scripts, 105 Cultural perspectives, 18–20 Culture definition of, 19 and stereotype activation, 172–77, 179t, 195–96 transmission via imitation, 253 See also Cultural differences Cultures of honor, 442, 452–54 Cultures of Multiple Fathers (Beckerman et al.), 362 Cyberhelping, 412 Cyberloafing, 305 Cycle of violence, 475 Cyclists, 12, 13c, 300–301 Daily hassles, 574–75 Dalai Lama, 422c Darkness, 159 Darrow, Clarence, 488 Databases, 28 Dateline NBC, 411 Date rape, 473–74 Dating attachment styles, 368 first date script, 105 interracial, 194 online, 353 self-disclosure, 373 similarity of attitudes, 354 “speed,” 352, 356, 361 See also Intimate relationships “Dear Abby,” 398 Death fear of, 73, 160 hopelessness and risk of, 587 principal causes of, 569–70 self-efficacy for prevention, 585 Death penalty, 151, 492–93, 512, 518–19, 524 Death qualification, 492–93 Debriefing, 49 Decategorization, 195 Deception, 46, 49, 110–12 Decision control, 521 Decision making and cognitive dissonance, 239 economic, 558–63 in emergency situations, 409 by groups, 312–13 by juries, 513–17 and leadership, 548 Declaration of Independence, 605–6 DeCristoforo, Sarah, 403c Defiance, 252f, 283–84 Dehumanization, 168–69, 328 Deindividuation, 307–9 Demand/withdraw interaction pattern, 382 Demographic similarity, 353 Dependent variables, 42 Depression, 88, 583–84 Depressive explanatory style, 583–84 Deprivation, relative, 161 Dershowitz, Alan, 522 Descriptive research, 34–36 Desegregation, 192–93 Desensitization, 468–69 Desire, 357–63 Deterrence, insufficient, 238 Dewey, Thomas, 36c Dialecticism, 71–72 Diallo shooting, 182–85 Diana, Princess of Wales, 399 Dieting, 79 Diff usion of responsibility, 409 Diminishing returns, law of, 261 Discounting cue hypothesis, 222–23 Discovery, 486 Discrepancy, message, 225–26 Discrimination approaches for combating, 192–96 definition of, 148 gender-based, 156–59 hiring practices, 531–32 intergroup and motivational factors, 159–65 perceptions of, 186–87 sexism, 147–48, 155–59, 173–75 See also Prejudice; Racism; Stereotypes Disgust, 108 Disjunctive tasks, 310 Disobedience, 283–84 Displacement, 455–56 Dispositional optimism, 586–87 Dissent, 262–66 Dissent in Dangerous Times (Sarat), 263 Dissonance, cognitive, 236–42, 244f, 245–46 Distinctiveness information, 115 Distraction, 593 Distraction-conflict theory, 303 Distress-maintaining attributions, 382–83 Diversity, 322, 540–42 See also Cultural differences Divorce, 380, 383–84 DNA tests, 493, 499 Dolphins, 58 Domestic violence cultural differences, 439, 453–54 factors in, 475 helping victims of, 406–7 and male finger-length ratios, 447 reduction strategies, 478 social context, 477–78 statistics, 474 wife-to-husband, 474 Doom, 464 Door-in-the-face technique, 272–73 Dopamine, 374 Do’s and Taboos Around the World (Axtell), 105, 267 Double standard, in sex discrimination, 155–59 Downward social comparisons, 86–88 Driving tests, 302 Drugs use/abuse, 85, 92 Due process model of performance appraisal, 545 Duke University, 491 Duty to rescue laws, 399 Earthquakes, 572 Eating disorders, 92, 351 Economic decision making, 558–63 Economic reward models of work motivation, 553–54 Economics, Education, about media consumption, 477 EEG (electroencephalograph), 207 Effort, justification of, 238–39 Egoism, vs altruism, 399–404 Egotism, implicit, 82–83 EHarmony, 255 Eichmann, Adolf, 280 Eisenhower, Dwight, 36 Elaboration, of persuasive message, 216 Elderly persons, 128, 585 Electroencephalograph (EEG), 207 Electromyograph (EMG), facial, 206–7 Electronic brainstorming, 312 Elizabeth II, 109c E-mail, 287 Embarrassment, 341 Emergencies, 406–12, 571–73 Emoticons, 108, 109f Emotion and aggression, 437 and coping, 590, 592–96 in economic decision making, 562 empathic concern, 395–96 and eyewitness testimony, 500 fear appeals, 226–27 integration with cognition, 17–18 during negotiation, 332 positive, 227–28, 458, 592 predictions about future, 59–60 research, 16 self-perceptions of, 61–62 two-factor theory, 66–67, 370 See also Mood; Negative affect/emotion Emotional aggression, 437 Emotional intelligence, 547 Emotional susceptibility, 443 Emotion-focused coping, 590, 592–96 Empathy, 395–97, 400–402, 422–23, 458 Empathy-altruism hypothesis, 400–402 Employee selection See Personnel selection Employment See Workplace Endowment effect, 562 Entrapment, 562–63 Environmental conservation, 14c Epinephrine, 66–67 Equity, norm of, 420 Equity theory, 366–67, 555–58 “Erotic becomes erotic” theory of sexual orientation, 379 Erotic plasticity, 379 ERP (event-related potential), 20 Escalation effect, 317–18, 563 Ethical codes, 48 Ethical issues debriefing, 49 in experimental research, 15 group norms, 298–99 informed consent, 49 institutional review boards (IRBs), 48 Milligram’s research, 48 moral values, 49–50 scientific jury selection, 490–91 Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (APA), 48 Evaluation apprehension theory, 303 Evaluative conditioning, 210 Event-contingent self-reports, 32–33 Event-related potential (ERP), 20 Evidence confessions, 494–98 eyewitness testimony, 499–509 inadmissible testimony, 510–11 lie-detector tests, 498–99 lineups, 505–6, 508 Subject Index Evolutionary psychology aggression, 444–46 attraction, 344 definition of, 18 helping others, 391–97 mate selection, 358–60 punishment, 325 The Evolution of Desire (Buss), 358 Exchange relationships, 367, 426 Excitation transfer, 371, 458–59 Executive functioning, 448, 461 Exercise, 371, 458–59 Exhaustion stage, 575 Expectancy theory, 553 Expectations of experimenters, 15, 44 and first impressions, 133 positive and helping behavior, 418t and self-fulfi lling prophecy, 135–38 social exchange theory, 364–65 and stress treatment success, 602 The Experiment, 520 Experimental realism, 45–46 Experimenter expectancy effects, 44 Experiments vs correlations, 40t deception in, 46 definition and characteristics of, 39–40 ethical issues, 15, 48–49 example of, 7–9 field, 41 independent vs dependent variables, 42 internal vs external validity, 43–46 laboratory, 40–41 random assignment, 39–40 replication, 43 statistical significance, 43 subject variables, 42–43 Experts, persuasive communication of, 218–19 Expert witnesses, 219, 508–9 The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (Darwin), 107 External validity, 44–46 Extreme positions, 225–26 Extrinsic motivation, 63–64, 554 Extroversion, 128, 134, 138 Eye contact, 109 Eye-tracking technology, 33 Eyewitness testimony, 257, 499–509 Facebook, 90, 295c Facial electromyograph (EMG), 206–7 Facial features and expressions as attitude measure, 206–7 beauty associated with, 347 and death penalty, 151f and emotion identification, 61–62, 107–8 and fertility, 362 first impressions from, 102–3, 104 interracial perceptions, 152–53, 168 Facial feedback hypothesis, 61–62 Failure downward social comparisons, 86–88 and self-handicapping, 84–85 Fairness, 420, 545 Fairy tales, 350 Faking behavior, 532–33, 535 False confessions, 495–98 False-consensus effect, 116–17, 123 Familiarity, 344–45 Familiarity-induced bias, 506 Family violence, 445, 475, 478 See also Domestic violence Fathers, 361–62 Fear appeals, 226–27 Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), 438t Female genital mutilation, 440 Fertility, 362 Field experiments, 41 Fields, W C., 558 50 Cent, 468c Fight Club, 464c “Fight or flight,” 576–77 File sharing, 394 Financial crisis (2008-2009), 293, 294c, 299, 314 Financial pressure, personal, 575 Finger-length ratios, 446–47 Finland, school shooting in, 28c First dates, 105 First impressions See Impression formation Fish test, 121–22, 123f Fixed-pie syndrome, 329, 330 Flashbulb memories, 68 Flash mobs, 251 FMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging), 20, 153, 258–59, 342, 349, 499 Focused relaxation, 596 Foot-in-the-door technique, 270–71 Forepersons, 514 Forewarning, 232–33 Forgiveness, 283 Forming stage, of groups, 270t Fortune 500 companies, 551 Frank, Barney, 318 Fraternity members, 446 Freedom of choice, 240 Free riding, 312t Friendship health benefits, 4, 598 helping behavior in, 426 proximity effect, 344 Sternberg’s triangular theory of love, 370 Frontal lobe, 448 Frustration-aggression hypothesis, 454–57 F-Scale, 279 Fundamental attribution error, 118–20, 497 Funt, Allen, 275–76 Gallup surveys, 36, 134, 219, 529 Gambling, 84, 302 Gates, Bill, 422, 549 Gaze, 109 Gender differences aggression, 442–43, 445–47, 451–52 conflict in intimate relationships, 382 in conformity, 263 depression, 583 helping others, 426–27 jurors, 488 leadership, 551–52 mate selection, 357–63 negotiation, 330 research issues, 19–20 salary negotiation, 557 self-concept, 65 self-disclosure in intimate relationships, 374 self-esteem, 74 sexual attitudes and behavior, 377 sexual orientation, 379 social loafing, 306 social value orientation, 326 sports team cohesiveness, 299 stress response, 576–77, 596 Gender identity, 174 Gender roles, 175, 451–52 Gender stereotypes, 155, 173–78, 189, 190, 551–52 Gender wage gap, 557–58 General adaptation syndrome, 575–77 Generation Me (Twenge), 283 Genetic factors aggression, 446 attitude formation, 210 helping behaviors, 391–93, 421 homosexuality, 379 race, 166 Genetics, behavior, 18, 446 Genovese, Kitty, 405, 411 Germany, 164 GHB (Gamma Hydroxy Butyrate), 474 Gill, Kimveer, 463 Giuliani, Rudolph, 547 Glass ceiling, 157–58, 551 Globalization, 540 Glucose, 80 Glwi culture, 441t Goals group, 320 work, 553–54 Good mood effect, 417 Good Samaritan laws, 399 Good Samaritan parable, 413 Google, 553c Gorillas, 395 Gossiping, 162 Government employees, 299 Grade inflation, 68, 69f Grades, 83 Gradual escalation, 281 Graduated and reciprocated initiatives in tension-reduction (GRIT), 329 Great Person Theory, 546 Greece, 161 GRIT (graduated and reciprocated initiatives in tension-reduction), 329 Group cohesiveness, 299–300 Group development stages, 296–97 Group-level altruism, 394–95 Group performance, 310–22 brainstorming, 311–12 and diversity, 322 escalation effect, 317–18 and group cohesiveness, 300 and group polarization, 312–14 and groupthink, 314–17 improvement strategies, 319–21 information and skill utilization, 318–19 process loss, 310–11 and social facilitation, 300–304 and social loafing, 304–7 virtual teams, 321–22 Group polarization, 312–14 Groups cohesiveness, 299–300 conflicts and conflict resolution, 160–61, 323–33 definition of, 148, 294–95 deindividuation, 307–9 development stages, 296–97 fundamental motives between, 159–60 goals, 320 ingroups vs outgroups, 148 intergroup contact, 192–95 minimal, 162 norms, 255, 298–99, 319–20 presence of others, 300–309 reasons for joining, 295–96 roles, 297–98 size of and conformity levels, 261 social dominance orientation, 165 social facilitation effects, 300–304 Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part I-21 I-22 Subject Index Groups (continued) social identity theory, 162–65 social loafing, 304–7 virtual teams, 321–22 Group selection, 394–95 Group support systems (GSSs), 321 Groupthink, 314–17, 321t GSS (group support systems), 321 Guilt, 181, 273, 417–18 Gun-related violence, 438, 459, 476 Habituation, 468 Halaberstam, David, 293 Halloween trick-or-treating study, 308–9 Halo effect, 543 Happiness, 605–9 affective forecasting, 59 baseline level of, 608–9 and beauty, 352 marital, 380–81 and persuasive message impact, 228 predictors of, 606 pursuit of, 605–9 and stress, 574 and wealth, 606–9 Hard-to-get effect, 356–57 Harris, Josephine, 389–90, 430c Harrisburg Seven, 489–90 Harris polls, 205, 529 Hawthorne effect, 530 Hazing, 239 Health and discrimination perceptions, 187 friendship benefits, and helping others, 397–98 prevention, 603–5 and self-esteem, 74 social comparison impact, 87 See also Stress Hearst, Patty, 234, 235c Heart disease, 577–79, 585 Heat, and aggression, 442, 457–58 Helping others, 389–433 altruism vs egoism, 399–404 bystander responsiveness, 405–12 and characteristics of receiver, 423–24 and connection to others, 429–30 cultural differences in, 414–16, 428–29 evolutionary factors, 391–97 examples, 389–91 and fit between giver and receiver, 425–26 gender differences in, 426–27 interpersonal influences, 423–29 location impact, 413–14 and mood, 416–19 personal influences, 421–23 reactions to receiving, 427–28 rewards and costs of, 397–99 role models, 419 situational influences, 404–21 social norms, 419–21 time pressure, 412–13 and violent media use, 469 Help-seeking behavior, 427 Herodotus, 121 Heterogeneity, 267 Heterosexuality, 377 Heuristics, cognitive, 116–18, 139–40, 217 The Hidden Persuaders (Packard), 228 Higher-order cognitive processing, 461 Hiring process See Personnel selection Hispanics, 69, 72, 452 Hitler, Adolf, 216 Hitler’s Willing Executioners (Goldhagen), 276 HIV See AIDS/HIV Hockey, 449, 450–51 Holocaust, 276, 283, 328 Holocaust Memorial Museum, 435, 436c, 455 Holtman, Mallory, 400–401 Homelessness, 429 Homicide rates, 438t, 439f, 441–42, 473, 474 Homogeneity, 267 Homosexuality, 181–82, 377–80, 443, 594, 598 Honesty, in job interviews, 532–33 Honor, cultures of, 442, 452–54 Hope, 587, 602 Hopelessness, 583–84, 587 Horse racing, 239 Hostage situations, 593c Hostile attribution bias, 461 Hostile sexism, 156 Hostility, 437, 578–79 Housewives, 178 How to Win Friends and Influence People (Carnegie), 220 Human nature, 287–88 Hunters, 459 Hurricane Katrina, 168, 429–30, 571 Hussein, Saddam, 524 Hyman, Misty, 122 Hypotheses, 28–29 IAT (Implicit Association Test), 151–52, 207–9 Ibrahim, Rage, 405 Ideal self, 75 Identity See Self-concept Idiosyncrasy credits, 265 Ifaluk culture, 440 Illness, 581–82 Illusions, 88–89 Illusory correlations, 169–70 Imitation, 252–54 Immediacy, 285–86, 287 Immigrants, 185–86 Immune system, 579–81 Impact bias, 59–60 Implicit Association Test (IAT), 151–52, 207–9 Implicit attitudes, 207–9 Implicit egotism, 82–83 Implicit personality theory, 129–30, 131f, 488, 543 Implicit racism, 150–52, 153, 154 Impression formation, 125–32 behavioral clues, 105–10 confirmation biases, 132–38 definition of, 126 and implicit personality theories, 129–30 and perceiver characteristics, 126–27 and physical appearance, 102–4 primacy effect, 130–32 priming effects, 127–28 and social situations, 105 and target characteristics, 128–29 theories, 126 Impression-management theory, 243, 244f Impulsivity, 443–44 Inadmissible testimony, 510–11 Inclusion of Other in the Self (IOS) Scale, 384f Income, 606–9 Independence, on social influence continuum, 252f See also Individualism Independent variables, 42 Independent view of self, 69 India and Indian people aggression attitudes, 439 bone marrow donation study, 420 marriage in, 375 Indirect aggression, 442–43, 445–46, 457, 467–68 Indirect reciprocity, 394–95 Individual differences in aggression, 443–44 in helping behaviors, 421 in self-monitoring, 93–95 in social identity process, 163–64 Individualism and aggression, 438 cognitive dissonance, 245 and conformity, 267–68 coping, 600 definition of, 267 helping others, 415–16, 428 love, 375 negotiation, 331–32 persuasion, 234 self-concept, 69–70 self-esteem, 89–90 social loafing, 306 Individuals, as focus in social psychology, Industrial/organizational (IO) psychology, 529 Infants attachment, 367–68 empathy, 396 imitation, 253 physical attractiveness, 347–48 self-recognition, 57–58 shyness, 342 as social beings, 339–40 Infidelity, 360, 361 Influence: The Psychology of Persuasion (Cialdini), 270 Informational influence, 257–59, 515 Informational persuasive communication strategies, 224–25 Information integration theory, 126 Information processing, 319 Informed consent, 49 Ingratiation, 91–92 Ingroup favoritism, 162 Ingroups, 148, 160, 167–68, 425–26 See also Groups Inoculation hypothesis, 233 Inquisitorial model of justice, 522 In Search of Excellence (Peters and Waterman), 549 Insecure attachment style, 367–69 Insight, 58–60 Institutional review boards (IRBs), 48 Instrumental aggression, 437 Insufficient deterrence, 238 Insufficient justification, 237 Integration, 125–32 Integrative agreements, 329 Integrity tests, 534–36 Intelligence, 215–16, 363 Intelligence tests, 180, 534 Intention, 212 Interactionist perspective, 14 Interdependence, in intimate relationships, 383 Intergroup conflict, 160–61 Intergroup contact, 33, 192–95 Internalization, 495–96 Internal validity, 43–44 Internet bystander effect, 410, 412 conformity studies, 257 cyberloafing, 305 dating, 353 deindividuation effects, 308 and flash mobs, 251 helping behaviors, 412 research searches, 28 Subject Index research topics, 21 social impact theory, 287 INTERPOL, 438 Interpretation, in emergency situations, 406–8 Interracial perceptions and interactions, 33, 152–55, 192–95 Interrater reliability, 33 Interrogations, 494–98, 522–23 Interval-contingent self-reports, 32 Interventions, group, 320–21 Interviews, job See Job interviews Intimacy, in triangular theory of love, 369 Intimacy model, 599 Intimate relationships, 363–84 breakups, 383–84 closeness of, 383, 384f communication in, 382 conflict in, 381–83 cultural differences, 374–75 definition of, 363 equity theory, 366–67 jealousy in, 360, 362 love types in, 369–74 mate selection, 357–63 rewards of, 363–64 same-sex, 379–80 and sexuality, 375–77 and sexual orientation, 377–80 social exchange theory, 364–66 stage theories, 363 types of, 367–69 See also Attraction; Dating; Marriage and married couples Intrinsic motivation, 63–64, 554–55 Introspection, 58–60 Introversion, 134, 138 Intuit culture, 441t Intuitive approach, to jury selection, 488–89 Investment, in social exchange theory, 365–66 Investment decisions, 139–40, 313, 559–63 Investment model, 365–66 Iran, 522c IRBs (institutional review boards), 48 Ironic processes, 81 Israel and Israelis, 136, 332, 439 It’s a Wonderful Life, James, LeBron, 6, 220c Japan and Japanese people aggression, 439–40 attribution, 121–23 cognitive dissonance, 245 parent-child suicide, 523 persistence, 88 portrayal by Americans during WWII, 328 prosocial video game study, 470 self-awareness, 76 self-concept, 69 self-esteem, 89 Jealousy, 18, 360, 362, 445 Jeopardy!, 120c Jewish people, 147f, 163, 276, 283, 328 Jigsaw classroom, 194 Job, Book of, 583, 588 Job interviews bias of employers, 531–32 confi rmation bias and self-fulfi lling prophecies, 172 face-to-face vs computer-mediated, 536–37 honesty of applicants, 532–33 interviewer competence, 159 racism, 186 strategic self-presentation, 91 structured interviews, 536 Jobs, generally See Workplace Jobs, Steve, 549 Johnson v Louisiana, 516, 517t Jones, Jim, 276, 284 Journal of the American Medical Association, 376 Judges, 511–13, 515, 517–19 Judgments, 139–40 See also Impression formation Juries confession evidence reaction, 496–98 deliberation, 513–17 diversity, 322 eyewitness testimony, 506–8 judge’s instructions to, 511–13 less-than-unanimous verdicts, 516–17 minority influence, 264 pretrial publicity impact, 509–10 selection of jurors, 487–93 size, 515–16 See also Trials Jury consultants, 489–91 Jury deliberation, 513–17 Jury nullification, 512–13 Jury selection, 487–93 Jury trials See Trials Justice, 420, 521–22, 545 Justice Department, 442, 499–500 Justification, insufficient, 237 Kehoe, Mike, 390c Kelsor, Terrence, 390, 400, 409 Kennedy, Robert, 315–16, 317 Kennedy administration, 293, 314–15, 317 Kennedy assassination, 67–68, 500c Kervorkian, Jack, 512–13 Khat, 523 King, Martin Luther, Jr., 548c Kin selection, 392 Kinsey, 376 Kinsey Institute, 376, 377 Kool-Aid study, 242 Korea advertising, 234 beauty, 350 Kretschmer, Tim, 435–36, 455, 464 Laboratory experiments, 40–41 See also Experiments Ladakhis culture, 441t Landon, Alfred, 36 Language, 47, 121, 268–69 Latin, 37, 38–39 Latino Americans, 69, 72, 452 Law See Criminal justice system Lawyers, 488–89 Leadership, 545–53 Leading questions, 503 Learned helplessness, 583 Learning, 210, 448–51 Legal system See Criminal justice system Length, of message, 224 Leniency bias, 515 Lewinsky, Monica, 376 Lie-detector tests, 498–99, 533–34 Life expectancy, 570 Likeability, 220–21 Likert Scale, 205 Liking, 352–56, 370 Line judgment study, 255–57 Lineups, 505–6, 508 Littering, 261–62 Lockhart v McCree, 493 Loneliness, 343, 598 Looking glass self, 58 The Lost Self (Feinberg and Keenan), 57 Lottery winners, 608 Love, 369–75 See also Intimate relationships Lowballing, 271c, 272 Lust: What We Know About Human Sexual Desire (Regan and Bersheid), 371 Lying, 46, 49, 110–12 Lymphocytes, 579 Machismo, 452 Madoff, Bernie, 101, 485–86 Magazines, 234 Magnum Force, 464 Maines, Natalie, 258c Majority influence, 260–63, 265–66 “Majority rules,” 515 Major League Baseball, 150, 193, 457 Major life events, 573–74 Malvo, Lee Boyd, 517 The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat (Sacks), 55 The Man Who Shocked the World (Blass), 281 Markoff, Philip, 485, 486c Marriage and married couples cancer survival, 598 coping strategies, 598 cultural differences, 374–75 equity in, 366–67 self-concepts, 93 similarity, 353–54 trajectory of satisfaction, 380–81 without love, 374–75 See also Intimate relationships Masai culture, 607 Matching hypothesis, 355 Materialism, 608 Maternal aggression, 445 Mate selection, 357–63, 375 Math ability, 27, 173, 189, 190 McCain, John, McDonald’s, 284c Mean Girls, 442c Media, 175–77 beauty bias, 176c, 350, 352 pornography, 470–72 pretrial news stories, 509–10 violence in, 462–70, 476–77 See also Advertising; Television Mediators, 330 Memory autobiographical, 67–68 of eyewitnesses, 500–506 flashbulb, 68 reconstructive, 501–2 and sleeper effect, 222–24 three-stage process of, 500–506 transactive, 319 Men body image, 177 pornography and sexually-aggressive behavior, 470, 471 stereotypes, 155, 173–78 stereotype threat, 189, 190 See also Gender differences Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus (Gray), 375 Mental health and catastrophic stress, 571–73 depression, 88, 583–84 treatment, 601–2 I-23 I-24 Subject Index Mentoring, 552 Mere exposure effect, 344–45 Mere presence theory, 303 Message, 217, 224–30 Meta-analysis, 46 Metastereotypes, 154 Mexicans, 47 Microstressors, 574–75 Middle Eastern immigrants, 452 Military, 136, 299, 572–73 Miller, Bode, 82c Miller-El v Dretke, 489 Mimicry, social, 252–54 Mindlessness, 268–69 Mind perception, 106 Minimal groups, 162 Minorities affi rmative action, 32, 537–40 bicultural identity, 123 leadership, 551–53 self-esteem, 74–75 workplace diversity, 540–42 See also specific groups Minority influence, 263–66 Miranda rights, 494 Mirror images, 328 “Misery loves company,” 341–42 Misinformation effect, 502–3 Mixed motives, 323 MLQ (Multifactor Leader Questionnaire), 550 Mob behavior, 307–8 Modeling, 419, 449–51 Modern racism, 149–50 Mondale, Walter, 8–9 Money, symbolic power of, 558–59 Monkey studies, 393, 394, 395 Monroe, Marilyn, 351 Monster.com, 531c Mood contagious nature of, 254 cultural differences, 41–42, 43f and happiness, 606, 609 and helping others, 416–19 and impression formation, 127 and self-focus, 76, 595–96 Morality, 49–50, 395, 422–23 Moss, Kate, 221c The Most Dangerous Animal (Smith), 444 Mothers, expectations of, 136 Motivation of groups, 159–60 integration with cognition, 17–18 intergroup dominance and status, 165 intrinsic vs extrinsic, 63–64 money as, 558–59 research, 16 self-perceptions of, 62–64 and stereotype activation, 179–81 workplace, 553–58 Motivational biases, 123–25 Mount St Helens eruption, 572 Movies, 350 Muhammad, John Allen, 517 Multicultural research, 19 See also Cultural differences Multicultural workplace, 540–42 Multifaceted self, 95 Multifactor Leader Questionnaire (MLQ), 550 Multisystemic therapy, 475–76 Mundane realism, 45 Murder rates, 438t, 439f, 441–42, 473, 474 Music lyrics, 41, 43, 44, 463–70 Muslims, 147f, 195 Mutombo, Dikembe, 422 Mutual funds, 560 Names, personal, 82–83, 103–4 Narcissism, 443 Narrative studies, 33 NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration), 314, 315–16, 319, 580 National Center for Education Statistics, 74 National Institute of Justice, 499 National Opinion Research Center, 205, 377 National Parkinson’s Foundation, 604 Native Americans, 523 Natural disasters, 571–72 The Nature of Prejudice (Allport), 15, 192 Nature vs nurture debate, 454 Nazis, 275c, 276, 280, 283, 328, 421 Need for affi liation, 340–42 Need for closure, 131–32 Need for cognition (NC), 230–31 Negative advertising, 226 Negative affect/emotion and aggression, 457–58, 462f equity theory, 366 and helping others, 402, 424 immune system impact, 580 jealousy, 18, 360, 362, 445 and negotiation, 332 persuasion resistance strategy, 232t and self-discrepancy, 75 and stress, 578, 581f Negative affect reciprocity, 382 Negative consequences, 240 Negative feedback, 11, 186–87 Negative reinforcement, 448 Negative state relief model, 398 Negativity bias, 128–29 Negotiation, 329–33, 557 Neuropsychological testing, 302 New England Journal of Medicine, 251 New York City crime, 448–49 Diallo shooting, 182–85 New York Post, 169c NHL (National Hockey League), 450–51 9/11/01 See September 11, 2001 Nominal groups, 311–12 Nonverbal behavior, 106–12 Nonviolent cultures, 440–41 Normative influence, 258–59, 515 Normative model of leadership, 548 Norming stage, of groups, 270t Norm of equity, 420 Norm of reciprocity, 269–70, 420 Norm of social responsibility, 420 Norms, of groups, 255, 298–99, 319–20 See also Social norms Northern Ache, 394 Noticing, in emergency situations, 406 Obama, Barack, 5c debates with McCain, inauguration, 145 platform of change, 547 race issue, 144–46, 168–69 Obama, Michelle, 109c Obedience, 275–84 authority’s influence over, 275–76, 279–80 crimes of, 276 defiance, 283–84 definition of, 276 Milgram’s research, 15, 48, 276–83 on social influence continuum, 252f Obedience to Authority (Milgram), 276 Objectivity, 49–50 Observational studies, 35 Observations, 33, 35 Occupations, gender differences, 157t, 158t See also Workplace The Office, 299c Ogburn, Louise, 284c Olympic athletes, 118, 122–23 Online activity See Internet “Opening up,” 594–95 Operational definitions, 30–31 Opinion polls, 204–6 See also Attitudes “Opposites attract,” 355 Oprah, 6c Optimal distinctiveness theory, 160 Optimism, 83–84, 586–88 Oral-genital sex, 376 Ostracism, 258 Others being with as fundamental human motive, 339–43 and downward social comparisons, 86–88 perceptions of during group confl ict, 328 presence of in group processes, 300–309 self-concept impact, 65–67 Outgroup homogeneity effect, 167–68 Outgroups, 148, 167–69 See also Groups Overcorrection, 216 Overestimation, of group, 169–70 Overheard communicator technique, 219 Overjustification effect, 63 Overt integrity tests, 535 Palin, Sarah, 158c Parenting, 173, 174–75, 395 Parents Television Council, 463 Passion, 369 Passionate love, 370–72, 374 Pay-for-performance, 554–55 Pearl Harbor attack, 314 Peers, 196 See also Friendship Pendulum experiment, 81 Perception See Social perception Perception Analyzer, 34c Perceptual contrast, 273 Peremptory challenges, 488–91 Performance overrating of own, 82 and rewards, 63–64 self-fulfi lling prophecy, 135–38 self-handicapping, 84–85 social facilitation, 12–13, 300–304 See also Group performance Performance appraisals, 542–45 Performance matching, 312t Performing stage, of groups, 270t Peripheral route to communication, 215, 216–17 Persistence, 88 Personal ads, 358, 359–60 Personal attribution, 113, 121, 125–32 Personal involvement, persuasive power of, 221–22, 230 Personality psychology, 10–11 Personality tests, 534, 535 Personality traits and aggression, 443–44 altruism, 421–23 Subject Index central traits, 130 and impression formation, 126–32 and leadership, 546–47 mother’s choices for children, 287–88 and persuasion, 230–31 Personnel selection, 531–42 affirmative action, 537–40, 541t applicant’s reactions to, 536–37 diversity, 540–42 lie-detector tests, 533–34 standardized tests, 534–36 See also Job interviews Perspective taking, 401 Persuasion and persuasive communication, 214–46 and attitude strength, 213–14 audience, 217, 230–33 cognitive dissonance theory, 236–42, 244f, 245–46 cultural differences, 234 definition of, 214 impression-management theory, 243, 244f message, 217, 224–30 by own actions, 234–46 resistance to, 232–33 role playing, 235 routes of, 214–18 self-esteem theories, 243–45 self-perception theory, 242–43, 244f sleeper effect, 222–24, 225c source, 217, 218–24 Persuasive arguments theory, 313 PET (positron emission tomography), 20 Peyote, 523 Phelps, Michael, 224c, 302c Phrenology, 103 Physical aggression, 442, 443, 446 See also Aggression Physical appearance, 102–4, 345 See also Facial features and expressions Physical attraction and attractiveness and arousal, 370–71 beauty bias, 345–52, 532 and helping behavior, 423–24 matching hypothesis, 355 media influences, 176c, 350, 352 “opposites attract,” 355 persuasive power, 221 in sexual partners, 361 Physical health See Health Physiognomy, 104 Placebo effect, 602 Planned behavior, theory of, 212 Planning, group, 320–21 Playboy, 35, 348 Pluralism, 15–16 Pluralistic ignorance, 408 PNI (psychoneuroimmunology), 579–80 Poker players, 112c Police interrogations, 494–98, 522–23 lineups, 505–6, 508 presumption of guilt or innocence, 136–37 racial profi ling, 182–85 Political advertising, 226, 233 Political attitudes and ideology, 124, 210, 213 The Political Brain Drain (Westen), 215 Political campaigns, 145–46, 226–27 Political science, Pollyanna, 588 Polygraph tests, 498–99, 533–34 Population, 36, 414, 574 Pornography, 470–72 Positive emotions, 227–28, 458, 592 See also Happiness Positive illusions, 88–89 Positive reinforcement, 448 Positive thinking, 83–84, 586–88 Positivity bias, 123–24 Positron emission tomography (PET), 20 Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), 573, 584 Potok, Mark, 146 Poverty, 478 Power, 137 Praise, 180 Predictions, 59 Preferential treatment, 32, 537–40, 541t Prejudice Allport’s research, 15, 192 approaches for combating, 192–96 defi nition of, 148 effects on targets of, 186–92 interdisciplinary research, intergroup and motivational factors, 159–65 jury selection, 489 in presidential campaign (2008), 145–46 and self-esteem, 163, 164f sexism, 147–48, 155–59, 173–75 and socialization, 172–77 and stereotype activation, 179 See also Discrimination; Racism; Stereotypes Presence of others, 300–309 Presentation strategies, 224–25 See also Persuasion and persuasive communication Presidential approval ratings, 227 Presidential elections 2000, 32c 2008, 145–46 debates, 8–9 emotional appeals, 214–15 predictions through polls, 36 Pretrial publicity, 509–10 Prevention-motivated audience, 231–32 Preventive health, 603–5 Primacy effect, 130–32, 225 Primal Leadership (Goleman, Boyatzis, and McKee), 547 The Prime Movers (Locke), 546 Primetime, 283c Priming, 127–28, 182 Prisoner’s dilemma, 323–24, 326–27 Prisons, 519–21 Private conformity, 259–60, 265 Private self-consciousness, 78 Proactive aggression, 437 Proactive coping, 590, 596–600 Problem-focused coping, 589–92 Problem-solving, brainstorming, 311–12 Procedural Justice (Th ibaut and Walker), 521 Process control, 521 Process loss, 310 Procrastination, 84, 591 Production blocking, 312t Productivity, labor, 530 Profi ling, racial, 182–86 Promiscuity, 362 Promotion-motivated audience, 231–32 Propaganda, 216 Prosocial behaviors, 391, 470 Proximity effect, 344 Psychoanalytic theory, 375–76 Psychocardiology, 579 Psychological reactance, 233, 357 The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations (Heider), 113 Psychoneuroimmunology (PNI), 579–80 Psychotherapy, 239, 601–2 PsycINFO, 28 PTSD (posttraumatic stress disorder), 573, 584 Public conformity, 259–60, 263, 265 Public goods dilemmas, 325 Public image, 93–95 Public opinion, 204–6 See also Attitudes Public self-consciousness, 78 Public service advertising, 227 Punctuated equilibrium model, 297 Punishment, 448–49, 524 Pygmalion in the Classroom (Rosenthal and Jacobson), 135–36 Pygmalion myth, 351 Questions, for research, 27–28, 32 Race attitudes about, 207–8 beauty ideal, 348 cross-race identification bias, 501 and jury decision making, 489 presidential campaign issue (2008), 144–46, 168–69 self-esteem, 74–75 as social category, 166 Racial diversity, 322 Racial profi ling, 182–86 Racism aversive, 150 changes in, 148t current forms and challenges, 148–55 definition of, 147 dehumanization, 168–69 and helping behavior, 425–26 implicit, 150–52, 153, 154 interracial perceptions and interactions, 152–55 and jury selection, 491–92 measurement of, 151–52 modern, 149–50 and outgroup homogeneity effect, 167 by police, 182–86 presidential campaign (2008), 145–46 and sentencing decisions, 518–19 Random assignment, 39–40 Random sampling, 36, 40 Rape acquaintance, 473–74 coping after, 591–92 helping victims of, 410 myth, 477 in U.S., 438t and violent pornography, 472 Reactance, psychological, 233, 357 Reactive aggression, 437 Reagan, Ronald, 8–9 Realism, 45–46, 88 Realistic conflict theory, 161 Reality TV, 4c, 48 Reasoned action, theory of, 212, 604 Recategorization, 195 Recency effect, 225 Reciprocal altruism, 393–94 Reciprocal concessions, 273 Reciprocity and altruism, 393–94 definition of, 356 in established relationships, 373 in exchange relationships, 367 I-25 I-26 Subject Index Reciprocity (continued) indirect, 394–95 negative affect, 382 norm of, 269–70, 420 Reconstructive memory, 501–2 Red, 349 Regrets, 87, 118 Regulatory fit, 231–32 Rejection, social, 4, 258, 455, 458, 461, 559 Relational aggression, 442–43, 445–46, 452, 467–68 Relationship-enhancing attributions, 382 Relationships getting acquainted stage, 352–57 initial attraction, 343–45 need for affi liation, 340–42 and physical attractiveness, 345–52 rewards of, 343–44 See also Intimate relationships Relations-oriented leaders, 547 Relative deprivation, 161 Relaxation, focused, 596 Religion, 266, 599–600 Replication, 43 Representative samples, 45 Research approaches, 14, 16, 17–20 archival studies, 35 basic vs applied, 29–30 correlational, 36–39 cross-cultural, 16c, 19, 46–47 debriefing, 49 descriptive, 34–36 ethical issues, 48–50 hypotheses, 28–29 literature searches, 28 meta-analysis, 46 observations, 33, 35 questions, 27–28 reasons for learning about, 26–27 self-reports, 31–33 surveys, 35–36 technology, 20–21, 33–34 theories, 29 variables, defining and measuring, 30–34 See also Experiments Resilience, 60, 584–87 Resistance, to persuasion, 232–33 Resistance of the Heart (Stoltzfus), 283 Resistance stage, in stress response, 575 Resource dilemmas, 324–25 Responsibility and cognitive dissonance, 240–41 diff usion of, 409 in emergency situations, 408–9 social, 420 when asking for help, 424 Restriction of range problem, 543 Retrieval, of information, 504–6 Retrieval stage, of memory, 504–6 Rewards of aggression, 448–49 of helping others, 397–99 of intimate relationships, 363–64 and intrinsic motivation, 63–64 of relationships, 343–44 Reyes, Matias, 494 Rickey, Branch, 193 Rihanna, 477c Risk, misperceptions of, 117 Risky behavior, 174–75 Road rage, 447, 457 Robbers Cave study, 160–61 Roberts, Charles, 441 Robinson, Jackie, 193 Rochester Interaction Record (RIR), 33 Rohypnol, 474 Role models, 419, 449–51 Role playing, 235 Roles, in groups, 297–98 Romantic relationships See Intimate relationships Roofies, 474 Roosevelt, Franklin, 36 Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, 31 Rowley, Coleen, 314 The Runaway Jury (Grisham), 489, 490c Rwandan soap opera study, 177 Sadness, 418 Salespersons, 417 Same Sex, Different Cultures (Herdt), 377–78 Same-sex relationships, 379–80 Sampling, 36, 40, 44–45, 135, 318–19 Sandbagging, 85 SAT, 37, 38–39, 83 Satisficing, 139 Saturday Night Live, 158c Saving face, 332 Scapegoating, 455–56 Scent, 416 Scheffer; United States v., 499 Schindler’s List, 421–22 Schools bullying, 35, 440 integration, 152c jigsaw classroom, 194 segregation, 192 teachers’ beauty bias, 346 teachers’ expectations of students, 135–36 violence in, 28c, 435–36, 455, 464, 479 Science, and moral values, 49–50 Scientific jury selection, 489–91 Scientific method, Scripts, 105, 450, 469 Secret relationships, 357 Secrets, keeping, 594 Secure attachment style, 367, 368t Segregation, 192–93 Self-affirmation, 80, 243–45 Self-awareness theory, 76–78, 595–96 Self-blame, 591–92 Self-concept, 56–72 autobiographical memories, 67–68 and brain processes, 57 cultural influences, 69–72 definition of, 56 elements of, 56–58 and group processes, 309 and introspection, 58–60 other people’s influence, 65–67 self-perception theory, 29, 60–64 self-verification, 92–93 as social concept, 58 Self-consciousness, 78 Self-control, 79–81, 181–82 Self-description, 19f, 65 Self-disclosure, 372–74 Self-discrepancy theory, 75–78 Self-efficacy, 585–86, 604 Self-enhancement mechanisms, 81–88 Self-esteem, 72–90 and aggression, 444 and beauty, 351 cultural differences, 89–90 dark side of high, 88–89 definition of, 72 and discrimination perceptions, 186–87 gender differences, 74 and job satisfaction, 534 and life outcomes, 74 need for, 72–74 negative feedback impact, 11 and persuasion, 215–16 and positive illusions, 88–89 and prejudice, 163, 164f racial-ethnic differences, 74–75 and receiving help, 427–28 self-awareness trap, 76–78 and self-control, 79–81 self-discrepancy theory, 75–76 self-enhancement mechanisms, 81–88 and self-persuasion, 243–45 social context, and social identity theory, 162–63, 165 and social perceptions, 123–24 stability of, 72 and stereotype activation, 179–80 Self-evaluation maintenance model, 426 Self-evaluations, 543–44 Self-focus, 76–78, 595–96 Self-fulfi lling prophecy, 135–38, 172, 350–51 Self-handicapping, 84–85 Self-image, 271 Self-inflation, 78 Self-Insight (Dunning), 59 Self-interest, 219, 404 “Selfish gene,” 391–93 Self-monitoring, 93–95, 231, 534 Self-Monitoring Scale, 93–94 Self-perception theory, 29, 60–64, 242–43, 244f, 271 Self-persuasion, 234–46 Self-presentation, 90–95, 243, 536 Self-promotion, 91–92 Self-protection, 159–60 Self-recognition, 57–58 Self-regulation, 79–81 Self-regulation of prejudiced responses model, 181 Self-reports, 31–33, 204–6, 376, 377 Self-schemas, 56 Self-serving cognitions, 83–84 Self-verification, 92–93 Seminary student study, 413 Sentencing, 492–93 Sentencing disparity, 518 Sentencing process, 517–19 September 11, 2001 Bush’s accounts of, 68 Giuliani’s leadership, 547 Muslim’s beliefs about, 134 stories of, 389–90, 399, 430c stress experienced after, 571 women’s stories, 427 Sequential request strategies, 270–74 Serotonin, 447 Sex discussion study, 238 Sexism, 147–48, 155–59, 173–75 Sex surveys, 376, 377 Sexual aggression, 470, 472, 473–74, 477 See also Rape The Sexual Brain (Levy), 378 Sexual harassment, 157, 530 Sexuality, 375–77 Subject Index Sexual orientation, 362, 377–80 Shared identities, 194–95 Sharapova, Maria, 220c Shooter bias studies, 183–86 Shopping malls, 416 “Shutting down,” 592–94 Shyness, 342 Siblings, 392 SIDE (social identity model of deindividuation effects), 309 Signal-contingent self-reports, 32 Similarity and attraction, 352–55 and helping behavior, 425–26 persuasive power, 220–21 Simpatía, 415 Simple Heuristics That Make Us Smart (Gigerenzer), 139 Simpson, O J., 129, 490, 491, 510 Situational attribution, 113, 118–20, 121 Situational factors in aggression, 454–62, 476 in groupthink, 315 in helping others, 404–21 in intergroup conflict, 160–61 in social perception, 105, 118–20 and stereotypes, 170 60 Minutes, 499 Skin cancer, 92 Sleeper effect, 222–24, 225c Smell, 108 Smoking, 206, 604 Snake phobia treatment, 602 Snoop: What Your Stuff Says About You (Gosling), 103 Sociability, 47f Social anxiety disorders, 340 Social brain hypothesis, 295–96 Social categorization, 166–69 See also Stereotypes Social cognition, 17, 131f Social comparison theory, 65–66, 86–88, 313–14, 608 Social compensation, 306 Social connection, 429–30, 597–601 Social context, of social psychology, 6, 8–9 Social dilemmas, 323–27 Social dominance orientation, 165 Social exchange theory, 364–66 Social exclusion, Social facilitation, 300–304 Social identity model of deindividuation effects (SIDE), 309 Social identity theory, 162–65, 188, 296, 309 Social impact theory, 285–87 Social influence, 251–54, 284–88 See also Compliance; Conformity; Obedience Socialization, 172–77, 296, 451–52 Social learning theory, 449–51 Social loafing, 304–7 Social networking websites, 90 Social neuroscience, 18, 57 Social norms change over time, 196 and conformity, 261–62 definition of, 419–20 helping others, 419–21 subjective, 212 See also Conformity Social penetration theory, 373 Social perception accuracy of, 138–40 behavioral evidence, 105–10 during conflict, 328 definition of, 102 elements of, 102–12 integration, 125–32 interracial, 152–55 motivational biases, 123–25 processes of, 138, 139f social scripts, 105 truth vs deception, 110–12 See also Attributions; Impression formation Social psychology business application, 529 and common sense, 11–12 definitions, 5–7 history of, 12–16 individual context, perspectives, 14, 16, 17–20 questions and applications, vs related fields, 6, 9–11 relevance of, 3–5 social context, 6, 8–9 technology, 20–21 Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS), 573 Social responsibility, norm of, 420 Social role theory, 175 Social scripts, 105 Social status, 177–78 Social support, 597–601 Social value orientation, 326 Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues, 13 Sociocultural perspectives, 360–62 See also Cultural differences Sociology, 6, 9, 10t Song lyrics, 41, 43, 44 Source, in persuasive communication, 217, 218–24 The South, 415, 442, 452–53, 458 Soviet Union, 328 Spanking, 449 Speed dating, 352, 356, 361 Sports See Athletes and athletics Sports fans, 85–86 Spotlight effect, 90 Springsteen, Bruce, 183, 422c SRRS (Social Readjustment Rating Scale), 573 Stack and Sway (Kressel and Kressel), 491 Standardized tests, 534–36 Stanford University prison study, 519–21 State of Denial (Woodward), 132 Statistical significance, 43 Stereotype content model,177–78 Stereotype lift, 190 Stereotypes accuracy of, 172 of African vs white Americans, 148 Allport’s research, 15, 192 approaches for combating, 192–96 automatic vs intentional activation, 17–18, 178–80, 182–86 control over, 181–82 cultural impact, 172–77, 179t, 195–96 defi nition of, 148 effects on targets of, 186–92 gender-based, 155, 173–78, 189, 190, 551–52 interdisciplinary research, intergroup and motivational factors, 159–65 jury selection, 489 mechanisms, 169–72 and social categorization, 166–69 socialization of, 172–77 suppression of, 180–81 what-is-beautiful-is-good stereotype, 350 See also Discrimination; Prejudice Stereotype threat, 187–92 Stigmatization, 186–92, 428, 539 Stimulus overload, 406 Stimulus-value-role (SVR) theory, 363 Stock market, 139, 559–62 Storage stage, of memory, 501–4 Storming stage, of groups, 270t Strangers to Ourselves (Wilson), 59 Strategic self-presentation, 91–92 Stress appraisal processes, 583–88 causes of, 571–75 defi nition of, 570 due to workplace injustice, 557 health problems, 575–82 from helping others, 428 and need for affi liation, 341–42 prevention, 603–5 resilience, 584–87 symptoms of, 570 and testosterone levels, 447 top stressors, 570t treatment, 601–2 See also Coping Stressors, 570t, 571, 574 Structured interviews, 536 Subcultures, aggression variations, 441–42 Subjective norms, 212 Subjective well-being, 606–9 See also Happiness Subject variables, 42–43 Subliminal presentations and messages, 178–79, 228–30 Subliminal Seduction (Key), 229 Subtyping, 170 Subway train picture study, 171 Sucker effect, 306 Suicide, 523 Sullenberger, Chesley “Sully,” 398–99 Summation model of impression formation, 126 Sunk cost principle, 563 Superordinate goals, 161, 333 Superordinate identity, 333 Support groups, 597 Suppression of stereotypes, 180–81 of unwanted thoughts, 592–94 Supreme Court affi rmative action, 537 death penalty, 493 decision making, 487 jury size, 515–16 less-than-unanimous verdicts, 516–17 lie-detector tests, 498–99 peremptory challenge limits, 489 voting patterns, 262–63 Surveys, 35–36 Survivor, 160 SVR (stimulus-value-role) theory, 363 The Synaptic Self (LeDoux), 57 System justification, 165 Takahashi, Naoko, 122–23 Take-some dilemma, 324 Targets, in social impact theory, 286 Task-oriented leaders, 547 Taylor, Jeff, 531c I-27 I-28 Subject Index Teachers, 135–36, 346 Technology, 20–21, 33–34 See also Computers; Internet Teenagers See Adolescents Television and aggression in children, 450 commercials, 176 helping others impact, 419 quiz show study, 119 reality, 4c, 48 and self-discrepancies, 77 social facilitation effects, 303 violence, 463–70, 476–77 Temperature, and aggression, 457–58 Temporal comparisons, 86–87 Terror alerts, 227c Terror Management Theory, 73, 160 Testimony eyewitness, 499–509 inadmissible, 510–11 Testosterone, 446–47, 460 Tests, academic, 188–89, 190 Thai students, altruistic behavior study, 421 That’s-not-all technique, 273–74 Theories, 29 Theory of planned behavior, 212 Theory of reasoned action, 212, 604 Thompson, Jennifer, 499 Th reat capacity, 327–28 Th reat-to-self-esteem model, 427–28 360-degree assessment, 544–45 Tiller, George, 435, 455 Time pressure, and helping others, 412–13 Timing, 225 Titus, Steve, 505 TMS (transcranial magnetic stimulation), 20 Torres, Angel Arce, 390–91 Touch, 109–10 Tragedy of the commons, 324–25 Training, of groups, 320 Traits See Personality traits Transactional leadership, 548–49, 550 Transactive memory, 319 Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), 20 Transformational leadership, 549–51 Transitional periods, 67 Translations, 47 Transsexuals, 447 Trebek, Alex, 120c Treeing, 28 Trials context of, 486 cultural differences, 523 inadmissible testimony, 510–11 judge’s instructions, 511–13 jury deliberation, 513–17 jury selection, 487–93 pretrial publicity, 509–10 sentencing process, 517–19 See also Evidence Triangular theory of love, 369–70 True acceptance (private conformity), 259–60, 265 Truman, Harry, 36c Trust, 325 Trust-insurance system, 366–67 Trustworthiness, 104, 219 Truth, 110–12 Tucholosky, Sara, 400–401 Turkey, 161 Turner, Ted, 422 TV See Television Twelve Angry Men, 264, 513 Twin studies, 210, 378, 421, 446, 608–9 Two-factor theory of emotion, 66–67, 370 Type A personality, 443, 577–78 Tyson, Mike, 437c Ukrainians, organ donation study, 428–29 Unemployment, 529 Urban areas, helpfulness in, 413–14 U.S Department of Justice, 442, 499–500 U.S News & World Report, 534 U.S Supreme Court See Supreme Court Validity construct, 31 internal vs external, 43–46 Values, and scientific research, 49–50 Vandalism, 476 Variables conceptual, 30–31 in correlational research, 37 defi nitions, 30–31 dependent, 42 independent, 42 measurement, 31–34 subject, 42–43 Vedas, Brandon, 410 Verdicts, 513–17 Vicarious self-perception, 61 Victims, 124–25, 280, 405–12, 441–42 Video games, 11, 39f, 463–70, 472 Videotaping, 206, 498 Vietnam veterans, 86c Violence child abuse, 445, 475, 478 in cultures of honor, 442, 452–54 cycle of, 475 defi nition of, 437 and deindividuation, 307–9 desensitization to, 468–69 in media, 462–70, 476–77 in schools, 28c, 435–36, 455, 464, 479 See also Domestic violence Violent crime age of perpetuators, 441 alcohol-related, 461 archival measures, 35 cultural differences, 438 gun-related, 459 and heat, 442, 457 social learning theory, 451 statistics, 438t, 439f, 441–42, 473, 474 in U.S., 438t See also Rape Violent pornography, 471–72 Virginia Tech shooting, 5c Virtual teams, 321–22 Virtual world, 303 Viruses, 581–82, 598 Visual perception experiments, 124f, 255 Voice, 104 Voir dire, 488, 490, 493 Volunteering, 402–4, 415–16 Von Brunn, James, 435, 455 Voting, 239 Wage gap, 557–58 Waist-to-hip ratio (WHR), 346 Wallace, Liz, 400c War and warfare, 444–45, 572–73 Warmth, 130 Watergate hearings, 68 Wealth, 267, 606–9 Weapon-focus effect, 500–501 Weapons effect, 459–60 Weather, 6, 416, 457–58 What-is-beautiful-is-good stereotype, 350 Whistleblowers, 298–99 Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?, 258 WHR (waist-to-hip ratio), 346 Williams v Florida, 515–16 Winfrey, Oprah, 6c Witnesses bystander effect, 406, 410–12 eyewitness testimony, 257, 499–509 Women affirmative action, 537–40 body image, 176–77 leadership, 551–53 obedience, 279 stereotypes, 155, 173–78, 552 stereotype threat, 189, 190, 191 wage gap, 557–58 See also Gender differences Women at Ground Zero (Hagen and Carouba), 427 Woods, Tiger, 218, 220 Word, Deletha, 411 Word search study, 127 Work hours, 530c Workplace burnout, 574 commuting stressors, 575 discrimination, 157–59, 531–35 diversity, 540–42 Hawthorne effect, 530 injuries, 531 leadership, 545–53 motivation, 553–58 performance appraisals, 542–45 stress, 574 See also Personnel selection World Cup soccer (2006), 101, 102c, 113, 149, 341c World Health Organization, 570 World views, 73 World War I, 573–74 World War II, 14–15, 48, 276, 280, 283, 314, 328, 523, 573 Wrestling, professional, 472 Yale Communication and Attitude Change Program, 215 You Just Don’t Understand (Tannen), 382 Zapotec culture, 441t Zelmanowitz, Abraham, 399 Zidane, Zinedine, 101, 102c ... What Is Social Psychology? What Is Social Psychology? Defining Social Psychology Social Psychological Questions and Applications The Power of the Social Context: An Example of a Social Psychology. .. Obedience Milgram in the Twenty-First Century 281 Defiance: When People Rebel 283 276 The Continuum of Social Influence 284 Social Impact Theory 285 Perspectives on Human Nature 287 Review 288 ... 482 Media Resources 482 463 xv xvi Contents PA R T Applying Social Psychology V 12 Law 485 Putting Common Sense to the Test 485 Jury Selection 487 Trial Lawyers as Intuitive Psychologists 488