Robert a baron, nyla r branscombe, don byrne social psychology (13th edition) prentice hall (2011)

This page intentionally left blank Why Do You Need This New Edition? If you’re wondering why you should buy this new edition of Social Psychology, here are 10 good reasons! Engaging online resources to help you succeed! The new MyPsychLab provides you with online study resources to help make your study time more effective, it includes: Pearson eText, Audio Text, a personalized study plan to help you succeed in the course, and more A brand new chapter: Chapter 12, “Social Psychology: A Guide to Dealing with Adversity and Achieving a Happy Life.” This new chapter explores research by social psychologists that offers insights into the causes and effects of personal adversity and suggests means to overcoming it for a rich and meaningful life New feature essay: “EMOTIONS and ” Appearing in every chapter, these new essays emphasize recent research on emotion, ensuring that coverage of this important topic is integrated into every chapter Some examples include: “Cultural Differences in Inferring Others’ Emotions,” “Emotional Contagion,” and “Mood, Feelings of Elevation, and Helping.” New feature essay: “SOCIAL LIFE in a CONNECTED WORLD.” Appearing in every chapter, these new essays show how the discipline of social psychology is working to understand the nature and scope of the recent dramatic changes we are facing in our social world brought about by the Internet and a vast array of electronic devices that connect people to each other in many new ways Some examples include: “Breaking Up Is Hard to Do, But Help Is Available,” “Working with Others via Computer-Mediated Communication,” and “Electronic Word-of-Mouth: Marketing and Persuasion.” Every chapter is updated with new research, new findings, and new theoretical perspectives; instructors will include this information on your exams Chapter 3, “Social Perception,” includes: A new section on scent as a nonverbal clues a new discussion of fate attributions (concluding that negative events were somehow “meant to be”); and a new section on the accuracy of first impressions Chapter 4, “The Self,” includes: New research which addresses the question of whether or not others close to us can predict our behavior better than we can; new research on why introspection fails (why we apparently don’t know that spending our money on others makes us happier than spending it on ourselves); and a new section on how people can successfully engage in self control Chapter 7, “Interpersonal Attraction, Close Relationships, and Love” includes: A new section examining recent findings on the attractive properties of the color red; a new discussion of what we seek in romantic partners; and new data on the use of cooperative strategies in mate selection and attraction Chapter 8, “Social Influence,” includes: New information on “facades” of conformity (instances in which people pretend to conform in order to make a good impression); a new section on “How much we conform?”; and an entirely new section on why we choose, sometimes, not to go along with others 10 Chapter 10, “Aggression,” includes: New research on the effects of social exclusion as a cause of aggression; recent findings on the effects of exposure to media violence and playing violent video games; and new research on sexual jealousy and its foundations in evolutionary processes This page intentionally left blank T H I R T E E N T H E D I T I O N Social Psychology Robert A Baron Oklahoma State University Nyla R Branscombe University of Kansas Boston • Columbus • Indianapolis • New York • San Francisco • Upper Saddle River Amsterdam • Cape Town • Dubai • London • Madrid • Milan • Munich • Paris • Montreal • Toronto Delhi • Mexico City • Sao Paulo • Sydney • Hong Kong • Seoul • Singapore • Taipei • Tokyo Editorial Director: Craig Campanella Editor in Chief: Jessica Mosher Executive Editor: Jeff Marshall Senior Sponsoring Editor: Amber Mackey Editorial Assistant: Samantha Solano VP, Director of Marketing: Brandy Dawson Executive Marketing Manager: Jeanette Koskinas Marketing Manager: Nicole Kunzmann Managing Editor: Maureen Richardson Project Manager, Production: Shelly Kupperman Operations Supervisor: Mary Fischer Operations Specialist: Diane Peirano Creative Director: Blair Brown Art Cover Director: Leslie Osher Interior and Cover Designer: Ilze Lemesis Cover Image: BBMWF4 Alamy; ARPMGG Alamy; AEG1IRR Alamy Director, Digital Media: Brian Hyland Senior Digital Media Editor: Michael Halas Full-Service Project Management and Composition: Amy L Saucier, Laserwords Printer/Binder: R.R Donnelley & Sons Cover Printer: Lehigh-Phoenix Text Font: Janson Text 9.75/12 Credits and acknowledgments borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with permission, in this textbook appear on page 483 Copyright © 2012, 2008, 2006 by Pearson Education, Inc All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America This publication is protected by Copyright and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise To obtain permission(s) to use material from this work, please submit a written request to Pearson Education, Inc., Permissions Department, One Lake Street, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 or you may fax your request to 201-236-3290 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Baron, Robert A Social psychology / Robert A Baron, Nyla R Branscombe 13th ed    p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN-13: 978-0-205-20558-5 ISBN-10: 0-205-20558-5 1.  Social psychology.  I.  Branscombe, Nyla R.  II.  Title HM1033.B35 2011 302 dc23 2011031291 10  9  8  7  6  5  4  3  2  Student Edition ISBN-10: 0-205-20558-5 ISBN-13: 978-0-205-20558-5 Instructor’s Review Copy ISBN-10: 0-205-20627-1 ISBN-13: 978-0-205-20627-8 Books la Carte ISBN-10: 0-205-20626-3 ISBN-13: 978-0-205-20626-1 Dedication To Donn Byrne, my truest lifelong friend; Rebecca, the essential ingredient in my happiness, And Jessica, Ted, Samantha, and Melissa, the heart of my small family —Robert A Baron To Rose Croxall, Howard Branscombe, Marlene Boyd, and Elaine Haase— all of whom have known and cared about me the longest Here’s to surviving and overcoming the hardships! —Nyla R Branscombe This page intentionally left blank Brief Contents Social Psychology Social Cognition Social Perception The Self Attitudes Evaluating and Responding to the Social World 138 The Causes, Effects, and Cures of Stereotyping, Prejudice, and Discrimination 176 Interpersonal Attraction, Close Relationships, and Love 214 Prosocial Behavior The Science of the Social Side of Life How We Think About the Social World Perceiving and Understanding Others Answering the Question “Who Am I?” 34 68 102 Social Influence Changing Others’ Behavior Helping Others 10 Aggression 11 Groups and Individuals 12 Social Psychology Its Nature, Causes, and Control The Consequences of Belonging A Guide to Dealing with Adversity and Achieving a Happy Life 252 288 320 358 396 vii This page intentionally left blank Name Index Ritchie, L.D., 239 Ritzer, G., 410 Robbins, T.L., 60 Robert, R.E., 424 Roberts, A.R., 225 Roberts, S.C., 9, 10 Robin, L., 87 Robins, R.W., 87, 122, 126 Robinson, L.A., 91 Robinson, M.D., 353 Robinson, P.H., 351, 352 Rochat, F., 285 Rocher, S., 193 Rodgers, M.S., 389 Rodin, P.C., 343 Rodrigo, M.F., 388 Roese, N.J., 29, 70, 84 Rogers, R.J., 89 Rogers, R.W., 29, 330 Rogge, R.D., 403 Roggman, L.A., 225, 226 Rokach, A., 399 Roland, E., 348 Romer, D., 299 Roper, J., 306, 307 Rose, P., 405 Rosenbaum, M.E., 230 Rosenberg, M., 122 Rosenblood, L.K., 217 Rosenfield, H.W., 73 Rosenhan, D.L., 306 Rosenthal, R., 46 Rosier, J.G., 98 Roskos-Ewoldsen, D.R., 157 Rosnow, J., 29 Ross, D., 333 Ross, L., 54, 112, 113, 133 Ross, M., 7, 89, 119, 206 Ross, S., 333 Rotenberg, K.J., 399 Roth, J.A., 332 Rothman, A.J., 40 Rotton, J., 9, 346 Rowe, P.M., 217 Rozin, P., 58, 71 Rubin, J.Z., 30, 241 Rucker, D.D., 140, 143, 151, 152, 153, 167 Ruder, M., 17, 40 Rudman, L.A., 185, 198 Rusbult, C.F., 381 Russell, G.W., 341 Russell, J.A., 72 Rust, M.C., 208 Rutchick, A.M., 363 Rutkowski, G.K., 299 Ryan, M.K., 116, 185, 187, 188, 389, 392 Ryan, R.M., 315, 334, 335 S Sabini, J., 247 Sadler, P., 230 Saenz, D.S., 132 Sahdra, B., 206 Salovey, P., 161, 306 Salvarani, G., 308 Sanchez, D.T., 184 Sanders, M., 255 Sanderson, C.A., 422 Sanfey, A.G., 65 Sangrador, J.L., 243 Sani, F., 371, 372 Sanitioso, R.B., 130 Sanna, I.J., 57 Sasse, M.A., 379 Sassenberg, K., 127, 370 Saucier, D.A., 205 Savitsky, K., 106 Schachter, S., 61, 219, 222, 229, 361 Schackelford, T.K., 338 Schaller, M., 293 Schein, V.E., 184 Scheithauer, H., 350 Scherbaum, C., 132 Scheufele, D.A., 141 Schiffhauer, K., 180 Schilling, E.A., 405 Schmader, T., 132, 183 Schmeichel, B.J., 168 Schmitt, D.P., 9, 10 Schmitt, M.T., 119, 129, 131, 178, 179, 180, 188, 190, 196, 209, 370 Schnall, S., 306, 307 Schouten, A.P., 107 Schradron, G., 193 Schul, Y., 403 Schultz, P.W., 146 Schulz-Hardt, S., 389, 390 495 Schutte, J.W., 418 Schütz, A., 107 Schwartz, B., 50 Schwarz, N., 40, 60, 140, 141, 154, 155, 422 Scollon, C.N., 421, 425 Scutt, D., 246 Sczesny, S., 184 Seachrist, G.B., 211 Sears, D.O., 204 Secrist, M.F., 400 Sedikides, C., 96, 122, 128 Seeherman, K.R., 16 Seeman, T.E., 414, 415 Seery, M.D., 125 Segal, M.M., 222 Sekerak, G.J., 375 Selfhout, M., 240 Seligman, M.E.P., 89, 425 Senghas, A., 76 Sestir, M.A., 197, 336 Seta, C.E., 59 Seta, J.A., 59 Setter, J.S., 255 Seymour, B., 15 Shackelford, T.K., Shaffer, D.R., 306 Shafir, E., 117, 118, 312 Shah, A.K., 38, 280 Shah, J.Y., 9, 370 Shams, M., 399 Shanab, M.E., 282 Shane, S.A., 53, 54 Shapiro, D.L., 385 Sharp, M.J., 97 Sharpe, D., 29 Shaver, P.R., 9, 72, 218, 237, 241 Shaw, J.I., 301 Shaw, J.K., 301 Shaw, L., 109 Sheeks, M.S., 108 Sheeran, P., 156 Shek, D.T.L., 309 Sheldon, K.M., 362, 425 Shepperd, J.A., 53, 54, 160, 377 Sherif, M.A., 199, 209, 259, 384 Sherlock, K., 157 Sherman, D.K., 15 Sherman, J.W., 48 Sherman, M.D., 400 496 Name Index Sherman, S.J., 55, 57, 117, 363 Shiller, R.J., 52 Shiomi, K., 239 Shirako, A., 384 Shiv, B., 65 Shykoff, B.E., 415 Sia, C.L., 164 Sidanius, J., 207 Sigall, H., 29 Sillars, A.L., 404 Silverman, E., 116 Silverman, R.A., 188 Silvia, P.J., 129 Simmons, C., 180 Simmons, J.P., 151 Simon, B., 117, 370 Simon, L., 171 Simon-Thomas, E., 291 Simonton, D.K., 392 Simpson, J.A., 14 Simpson, P.A., 185 Sinclair, S., 192, 207 Singh, R., 231 Sirigu, A., 61 Sistrunk, F., 271 Sivacek, J., 152 Sjomeling, M., 134 Skitka, L.J., 151, 205 Slotter, E.B., 13 Smart Richman, L., 127 Smeaton, G., 231 Smith, A.E., 46 Smith, C.T., 122 Smith, E.R., 17, 195, 196 Smith, H.J., 385 Smith, K.D., 293 Smith, P.B., 260, 261 Smith, S.R., 194 Smith, S.S., 29 Smoak, N.D., 153 Smorti, A., 349 Snider, A.G., 14 Sniffen, M.J., 418 Snyder, C.R., 223, 268 Snyder, M., 295, 308 Soderlind, A., 399 Soetjipto, B.W., 255 Solomon, M.R., 225 Solomon, S., 89, 198 Sommers, S.R., 204 Sorensen, S., 424 Sorrentino, R.M., 130 Spalding, K.E., 182 Spanierman, L.B., 204, 211 Sparrow, B., 45 Sparrowe, R.T., 255 Spears, R., 195, 311, 367, 377 Spencer, S.J., 133, 171 Spencer-Rodgers, J., 142, 363 Spielmann, S.S., 14 Spina, R.R., 39 Spranca, M.D., 87 Sprecher, S., 242, 245 Srull, T.K., 44 Stack, A.D., 354 Stahl, C., 145 Stanger, C., 211 Stangor, C., 44, 45 Starratt, V.G., 338 Stasser, G., 390 Steblay, N.M., 417 Steele, C.M., 133, 171, 299 Steen, T.A., 425 Stegge, H., 342, 355 Steiner, P., 105 Steinfield, C., 108 Stephan, W.G., 198 Stern, M., 223 Sternberg, R.J., 242, 243 Sternthal, B., 40 Stevens, L.E., 97, 116 Stewart, T.L., 184, 209, 210 Stiff, C., 121 Stocks, E.L., 307 Stokes-Zoota, J.J., 285 Stone, J., 134, 172 Stotland, E., 293 Stott, C.J., 377, 378 Strack, F., 41 Strainback, K., 184 Strathman, A.J., 162 Stroebe, W., 160, 390 Stroh, L.K., 185 Strube, M., 341 Stuermer, S., 308 Sturmer, S., 295 Suh, E.M., 421 Sullivan, D., 47 Suls, J., 29 Sun, C.R., 125 Sundie, J.M., 247 Sunstein, C.R., 51, 52 Suppes, A., 17, 95 Swami, V., 18 Swann, W.B., 109 Swann Jr., W.B., 9, 122, 201, 202, 230 Swap, W.C., 223 Sweeny, K., 53, 54 Sweldens, S., 145 Swim, J.K., 204 T Tajfel, H., 114, 118, 128, 194, 198, 200, 370 Talaska, C.A., 195 Talley, A.E., 365 Tamborini, R., 346 Tan, D.T.Y., 231 Tang, J., 426 Tausch, N., 198 Taylor, B.J., 413 Taylor, D.M., 188 Taylor, K.M., 160 Taylor, S.E., 15, 36, 130, 192, 414, 415 Taylor, S.P., 347 Tellegren, A., 425 Tennen, H., 123 Terman, L.M., 403 Terry, D.J., 148, 386 Tesser, A., 10, 128, 171 Test, M.A., 301 Tetlock, P.E., 142, 389 Thaler, R.H., 51, 52 Thau, S., 206 Thelen, M.H., 400 Thill, K.P., 186 Thomaes, S., 342, 355 Thomas, G., 141 Thomley, J., 306 Thompson, E.R., 183 Thompson, J.M., 237 Thompson, L.F., 92, 383 Thomson, J.W., 338 Thurston, J.A., 363 Tice, D.M., 13, 44, 45, 63, 239, 353, 413 Tidwell, M.C.O., 237 Tiedens, L.Z., 230 Timmerman, T.A., 9, 337, 346 Todd, R.M., 291 Todorov, A., 95 Name Index Tomaskovic-Devey, D., 184 Tormala, Z.L., 140, 143, 150, 151, 152, 153, 158, 167 Towles-Schwen, T., 151, 205, 207 Townsend, S.S.M., 79, 80 Trafimow, D., 116 Trawalter, S., 180 Tredoux, C., 182 Tremblay, P.F., 331 Trent, J., 60 Trevarthen, C., 236 Trobst, K.K., 309 Trope, Y., 84, 86, 88 Trzesniewski, K.H., 122, 126 Tsang, J.A., 342 Tsao, D.Y., 75 Tsivrikos, D., 361 Tuckerman, Y.R., 227 Turner, C.W., 341 Turner, J.C., 114, 115, 117, 128, 148, 159, 194, 195, 198, 200, 201, 260, 265, 285, 370, 388, 391, 392 Turner, R.B., 424 Turnley, W.H., 274 Tversky, A., 38, 180 Twenge, J.M., 9, 116, 122, 130, 217, 218, 310, 327, 331 Tybout, A.M., 40 Tybur, J.M., 324 Tykocinski, O.E., 57, 58 Tyler, J.M., 79, 98 Tyler, R.B., 193 Tyler, T.R., 109, 385 U Uchida, Y., 79, 80 Uhlmann, E.L., 143 Umberson, D., 415 Unkelbach, C., 145 Unzueta, M.M., 182 Urbanski, L., 239 Urland, G.R., 197 V Vala, J., 182 Valdesolo, P., 244 Validzic, A., 219 Valkenburg, P.M., 107 Vallone, R.P., 53 Van Berkum, J.J.A., 15 Vanbeselaere, N., 386 Vandello, J.A., 337, 338, 339 Vandello, U.A., 259, 262 van den Bos, K., 127, 385 Vanderbilt, A., 74 Van Dick, R., 208 van Dijk, E., 381 van Knippenberg, D., 393 Van Lange, P.A.M., 381, 382 van Olden, Z., 50 van Osselaer, S.M.J., 145 Van Overwalle, F., 81, 86 van Prooijen, J.W., 385 van Straaten, I., 231 Vargas, P., 59, 60 Vasquez, M.J.T., 128 Vassar, P.M., 184 Vazire, S., 9, 22, 106 Vera, H., 205 Vertue, F.M., 400 Vigil, J., 246 Vignovic, J.A., 92 Vinokur, A.D., 389, 403, 415 Visser, P.S., 146, 147, 150, 151 Vogel, T., 223, 224 Vohs, K.D., 120, 121, 168, 353 Voils, C.I., 179 Vonk, R., 98, 109, 233 Vorauer, J.D., 386 Vredenburg, D.S., 129 W Wack, K.L., 375 Wagner, U., 208 Wainapel, G., 108 Waits, B.L., 307 Walker, I., 385 Walker, S., 342 Wallach, L., 418 Wallach, M.A., 388 Walsh, A.L., 178 Walster, E., 160, 223, 242, 277 Walster, G.W., 277 Walton, G.M., 133 Wann, D.L., 117, 130, 147, 260 Warner, R.H., 179 Watson, D.G., 75 Watts, B.L., 231 Watts, D.J., 12 497 Wayne, S.J., 97, 98, 274 Webb, T.L., 156 Weber, E.U., 315 Webster, G.D., 122 Wegener, D.T., 61, 152, 153, 158 Wegner, D.M., 45, 85 Weick, M., 55 Weidner, G., 242 Weiner, B., 83, 84, 131, 227, 301 Weinstein, N., 315 Weisbuch, M., 125 Weiss, A., 420, 424 Weiss, D.J., 418 Weiss, K.E., 399 Weiss, W., 159 Weldon, E., 376 Welling, L.L.M., 9, 10 Westbay, L., 243 Westen, D., 244 Westenberg, M., 238 Wheeler, C., 140, 158 Wheeler, I., 96 Wheeler, S.C., 168 Whiffen, V.E., 237 Whitcher, S.J., 74 White, B.J., 199, 209, 384 Whitehouse, G.H., 246 Wieczorkowska, G., 96 Wieczorkowski, G., 363 Wiederman, M.W., 242 Wiegand, A.W., 172 Wildschut, T., 122 Wilkowski, B.M., 353 Williams, K.B., 277 Williams, K.D., 122, 126, 370, 376, 377 Williams, M.J., 141, 142 Willingham, B., 72 Willingham, D.T., 16 Willis, F.N., 95 Wilson, A.E., 14, 119, 211 Wilson, D.W., 306 Wilson, J.P., 299 Wilson, T.D., 105, 111, 113, 128 Winnick, T.A., 242 Winograd, E., 145 Wisman, A., 219 Witt, L.A., 98 Wlodarski, R., 130 Wohl, M.J.A., 209, 368 Woike, B.A., 73 498 Name Index Wolsic, B., 224 Wong, E.M., 57 Wood, C., 121 Wood, G.S., 247 Wood, J.V., 124, 127, 128 Wood, W., 158, 159, 166 Woody, E., 230 Worth, L.T., 61 Wortman, C.B., 57 Wostyn, P., 386 Wright, S.C., 180, 188, 189, 211 Wu, C.H., 225 Wu, S., 241 Wuensch, K.L., 418 Wyer Jr., R.S., 44 Y X Zaccaro, S.J., 391 Zadro, L., 370 Zajonc, R.B., 96, 222, 374, 375 Xu, J., 424 Yahya, K.A., 282 Ybarra, O., 198 Yeadon, C., 308 Yela, C., 243 Yoder, J.D., 117, 188 Youn, S., 164 Young, M.J., 60 Yukawa, S., 303 Yukl, G.A., 281, 391, 392 Yung, Y., 399 Yzerbyt, V.Y., 193, 195, 363 Z Zanna, M.P., 157 Zebrowitz, L.A., 75, 223, 224 Zhang, F., 72 Zhang, S., 183 Zhang, X., 164 Zhong, C.B., 311 Zhu, F., 164 Zierk, K.L., 247 Zillmann, D., 325, 330, 346 Zimbardo, P., 263, 264, 282, 377 Zimmer, C., 184 Zimmerman, C., 245 Zobmaister, C., 17 Zuckerman, M., 129 Zuwerink, J.R., 209 Zywica, J., 107 Subject Index A Above average effect, 129 Abu Ghraib Prison, 264, 283 Accuracy as core value, empathic, 291, 292f of impressions, 94–96, 95f in self-knowledge, 113 self-other, 104–7, 106t Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), 148, 172 Action identification (attribution), 85, 85f Actions overt, 13 personal, 84–85 reacting to others’, 8–9, 8f Actor-observer effect, 88–89 Additive tasks, 376 Adversity, causes of, 398–408 loneliness, 399–401 relationships, 401–8 Advertising beauty and, 226 classical conditioning and, 145 emotions and, 154–55 Affect definition of, 37, 59 neuroscience of, 13, 64–65 social cognition and, 59–65 Affective forecasts, 62 Affective states, 63–64 Affiliation, 217–19 attachment style and, 218 need for, 217, 218f situational influences on need to, 219 Aggression, 320–57 alcohol and, 345–46 anger and, 344–46 arousal and, 329–30 biological factors of, 323–24 bullying, 348–50 catharsis hypothesis, 353–55 causes of, 327–47 cultural factors in, 337–39 definition of, 322 direct, 343 drive theories, 324–25 excitation transfer theory, 330, 330f, 331 frustration and, 328 gender and, 340–44, 342–44 general aggression model, 325–26 hostile, 341 indirect, 343 instrumental, 341 Internet and, 321 mediating variables of, 26 overt, 338–39 personality and, 340–44 prevention and control of, 351–55 prosocial behavior versus, 316–17 provocation and, 328–29 research on, 24 self-esteem and, 355 self-regulation and, 352–53 situational factors of, 344–47 social exclusion and, 331–37 social learning perspective, 325–26 societal variations of, TASS model, 340–41 in women, 324 AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome), 148, 172 Alcohol aggression and, 345–46 college students and, 150–51 Al-Qaeda, 203 Altruism colleges and, 294f competitive, 293–94 Ambivalence, 153 American Idol, 322 Anchoring and adjustment heuristic, 41–42, 42f, 88 Anger, 344–46 Anxious attachment, 15 Apathy, in emergencies, 296–97 Appraisals, 326 Arab-Israeli conflict, 315 Aristotle, 228 Arousal, 326, 329–30 Aspirations, in bargaining, 383 Assumed similarity, 403 Asynchronous forms of communication, 379 Attachment anxiety, 218 Attachment style, 218, 236 anxious, 15 avoidant, 218 dismissing, 237 fearful-avoidant, 237 preoccupied, 237 secure, 237 Attention, 44 Attitudes, 138–75 advertising and, 154–55 behavior and, 149–54, 155–58 certainty, 152–54 classical conditioning of, 144–46 cognitive dissonance and, 144 definition of, 140 dissonance and change in, 170–71 explicit, 141 expressing, 147, 147f extreme, 151–52 figures of speech and, 46–47 formation, 144–49 illusion of truth effect, 146 implicit, 141 instrumental conditioning, 146–47 observational learning and, 148 personal experience and, 153–54 persuasion and, 158–63 racial, 204–5 reasoned thought and, 156–57 spontaneous behavioral reactions, 157–58 strength of, 151 Attitude similarity, 230 Attitude-to-behavior process model, 150, 151f, 157, 157f 499 500 Subject Index Attraction behavior and, 227–28 in classroom, 222f colors and, 226–27 of communicators, 159f emotions as basis for, 219–21 external sources of, 221–28 ideal interaction partners, 233–34 internal sources of, 216–19 interpersonal, 217–19 of opposites, 229, 229f physical attractiveness and, 223–28 proximity and, 221–23 reciprocal, 233 relationships and, 235–49 similarity and, 228–33 similarity-dissimilarity effect on, 232–33 social interaction and, 228–34 Attribution, 70 action identification in, 85, 85f biased, 210 causal, 82–84 definition of, 81 depression and, 90–91 error sources, 85–90 external, 131 fate versus personal actions in, 84–85 faulty, 382 for negative outcome, 131f theories of, 81–85 Attributional training, 211f Audiences attitudes toward, 147f as distractions, 375 impact on task performance, 16 persuasion and, 159–61 Authentic self, 365 Authority, 274 obedience to, 281–85, 284f Autobiographical memory, 119 Autokinetic phenomenon, 259–60 Automatic mimicry, 269 Automatic processing benefits of, 50–51, 50f controlled processing versus, 48 definition of, 48 social behavior and, 48–49, 49f Automobile accidents, SUV, 39–40 Autonomous motivation, 315 Availability heuristic, 39–41, 39f, 41f Avoidance, selective, 166 Avoidant attachment style, 218 B Balance theory, 232 Bandura, Albert, 333 Bargaining, 383–84 Barkley, Charles, 327, 327f Base rates, 38 BBC prison study, 264–65 Beauty, 223 Behavior See also Social behavior attitudes and, 155–58 attraction and, 227–28 cognition and, 13 health-related, 160 influence on attitudes, 149–54 mate-retention, 338 motives for, 8–12 prediction of, 104–7 prejudice and, 132–34 prosocial See Prosocial behavior social influence and, 252–87 social psychology and, 7–12 Bias correspondence (fundamental attribution error), 85–87 fundamental attribution, 210 hostile expectation, 335 in legal system, 419–20 optimistic, 53 self-serving, 89–90, 129–30 Biological factors See Genetic factors Birth order, 96–97 ”Bobo Doll” studies, 333, 333f Body language, 73–74 Body piercings, identity and, 119 Body types, cultural differences in, 19f Bona fide pipeline, 205 BP oil spill, 359 Brain, 15–17, 382f Brain chemistry, love and, 242 Brainstorming, 390–91 Breaking up, 245 Bridging, 383 Brown v Topeka Board of Education, 182 Bullying, 322, 348–50 characteristics of bullies and victims, 349 definition of, 348 reasons for, 348–49 reducing, 349–50 Bystander effect, 298–300 pluralistic ignorance and, 299 Bystanders, emergencies and, 296–300 C Caffeine, persuasion and, 163 Canada, English versus French, 207 Capital punishment, 351 Castro, Fidel, 86 Catharsis hypothesis, 353–55 Causal attributions, 82–84 Causation/causality correlation versus, 21–23 mediating variables in, 26 Celebrities, attitudes toward, 143 Central route to persuasion, 161 Central traits, 93–94 CEO (chief executive officer) positions, 184–85, 359 Chief executive officer (CEO) positions, 184–85, 359 Childlike features, 225 Children, media violence and, 333–34 Church of England, women in, 372 Civil Rights Act, 186 Classical conditioning, 144–46, 220 direct route, 145 indirect route, 145 Classroom, attraction in, 222f Close friendship, 238–39 Cognition affect and, 59–65 affect influence on, 59–61, 61f aggression and, 326 behavior and, 13 neuroscience of, 64–65 social See Social cognition Cognitive dissonance, 144, 169–72 attitude change and, 170–71 behavior change and, 172 definition of, 169 Cognitive load, 44 Subject Index Cognitive processes overview, underlying persuasion, 161–63 Cohesive group, 360 Cohesiveness, of groups, 260, 260f, 367–68, 389 Cold stare, 73 Collective guilt, 206, 209, 210f Collectivism, 367 Colleges, altruism and, 294f Colors, attractiveness and, 226–27 Commitment compliance and, 274, 275 relationships and, 403 Common-bond group, 362 Common-identity group, 362 Common ingroup identity model, 208 Communal approach, 407 Communication asynchronous forms of, 379 computer-mediated, 379–80 nonverbal See Nonverbal communication staring, 72–73 touching, 74 Community, 310 Companionate love, 243 Competition, prejudice and, 199–200 Competitive altruism, 293–94 Complementaries, 229 Complex causality, 84 Compliance, 273–77 commitment/consistency and, 275 definition of, 255 induced, 170–71 ingratiation and, 274 professionals, 273 reciprocity and, 276–77 scarcity and, 277 underlying principles of, 273–74 Computer-mediated communication, 379–80 Condescension, 329 Conditioned stimulus, 144 Conditions of uncertainty, 38 Conflict, 379 bargaining, 383–84 resolution, 382–84 superordinate goals and, 384 Conformity, 254, 255–72 Asch’s research on, 258–59 autokinetic phenomenon, 259–60 cohesiveness and, 260–61, 260f downside of, 263–65 facades of, 256 gender and, 270–71 group size and, 261 introspection illusion and, 257 minority influence and, 271–72 motives for, 267–68 power and, 266–67 public, 259 social foundations of, 261–63 status and, 365f variables affecting, 260–61 Consensual validation, 232 Consensus, 83, 152 in groups, 388–89 Consent, informed, 29 Consistency, 83 Consummate love, 243 Contact benefits of, 208 unplanned, 221–23 Contact hypothesis, 208 Controlled motivation, 315 Controlled processing, 48 Cooperation, 379, 380–82 social dilemmas and, 381–82 Coordination, in groups, 379–84 Coping, with adversity, 398–408 Core values, 6–7 Correlation, 21–23 Correlational method, 22 Correspondence bias, 85–87 e-mail and, 91–92 Correspondent inference, 81 Counterarguments, 166, 167 Counter-contagion, 270 Counterfactual thinking, 56–57 Critical trials, 258 Crowd, effects of, 377–78 Cultural context aggression, 322 of body types, 19f diversity of, 18 emotions and, 79–80 marriage and, 235 self-serving bias and, 89 501 social behavior and, 8–9, 10f Cultural factors, of aggression, 337–39 Cultures of honor, 337 Cyberbullying, 350 D Dating, 11f services, 97 Deadline technique, 277 Debriefing, 29 Deception, 28 nonverbal cues and, 77–79 social relations and, 79 Decision/commitment response, 243 Decision making, in groups, 362, 387–91 quality of, 388–89 Defensive helping, 295–96 Deindividuation, 310, 377 Dependent variable, 22 Depression, attribution and, 90–91 Descriptive norms, 261 Desensitization, 336–37 Destructive obedience, 283–85 reasons for, 283–84 resisting, 284–85 Diffusion of responsibility, 297, 297f Direct aggression, 343 Direct provocation, 328–29 Direct route, of classical conditioning, 145 Discrimination, 204–6 definition of, 179 gender, 126 hate groups and, 181 responses to, 189–90 token women and, 188–89 Dismissing attachment style, 237 Disobedient models, 285 Disposition, 217, 403 Dispositional causes, 81–82, 85–86 Dissonance, 171, 172 Distinctiveness, 83 Distraction-conflict theory, 375 Distributive justice, 385 Diversity, 18–19 Door-in-the-face technique, 276, 276f 502 Subject Index Downward social comparison, 127 Drive theories, 324–25, 375f E Ease-of-use heuristic, 40 Efficient thought See Automatic processing Ego depletion, 121, 168, 168f Ego-threat, 342 Elaboration-likelihood model (ELM), 161–62, 162f Electronic word-of-mouth marketing, 163–64 Elevation, feelings of, 306 ELM (elaboration-likelihood model), 161–62, 162f E-mail, correspondence bias and, 91–92 Emergency, response to, 296–300, 300f apathy, 296–97 bystander effect, 298–300 diffusion of responsibility and, 297 tendency to help, 301–12 Emergent group norms, 389 Emotional clarity, 219 Emotional contagion, 269–70 Emotional empathy, 291 Emotions advertising and, 154–55 anonymity, 310–11 attraction and, 216–19 as basis for liking, 219–21 cultural context and, 79–80 facial expressions and, 71–72, 71f, 72f facial feedback hypothesis, 76–77, 77f helping and, 306–7 incidental, 197 jealousy, 243–44 neuroscience of, 13, 64–65 nonverbal communication and, 70–71 toward prejudice, 195, 196f prejudice and, 131–32 self and, 117–18 Empathic accuracy, 291, 292f Empathic joy hypothesis, 293 Empathy, 291, 302f decline in, 292–93 development of, 309 emotional, 291 helping and, 307–9 Empathy/altruism, 16, 16f Empathy-altruism hypothesis, 291 Employment, impression management and, 98 Encoding, 44 Entitativity, 363 Entrepreneurship, social, 313 Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, 186 Error sources, 52–58, 85–90 Essences, 195 Ethics, 29 Ethnicity, social importance of, 18 Evaluation apprehension, 375 Evaluative reactions, 48 Event-related brain potential, 336 Event-related potential, 16 Evolutionary perspective, 323 Evolutionary psychology, Exaggerated facial expressions, 78 Excitation transfer theory, 330, 330f, 331 Experimental method, 22–25 random assignment of participants to experimental conditions, 25 Experimentation, 22 Explicit attitudes, 141 Exposure, selective, 166 External validity, 25 Eye contact, 72–73 deception and, 78 F Facebook, 21, 22–23, 103–4, 156 empathy and, 292 offline behavior and, 107–8 word-of-mouth and, 163 Facial expressions, 71–72, 71f, 72f, 75–76 exaggerated, 78 Facial features, 226 Facial feedback hypothesis, 76–77, 77f Failure, 122 Fairness, in groups, 384–86 judging, 385–86 Family relationships, 236–38 Fate attribution, 84–85 Faulty attribution, 382 Fear appeals, 160 persuasion and, 159–60 Fearful-avoidant attachment style, 237 Feeling rules, 366 Females, objectification of, 186 Fighting instinct, 323 Films, harmful effects of, 332–35 First impressions accuracy of, 94–96, 95f implicit personality theories and, 96–97 motives for forming, 93–94 rapid formation of, 94–96 schemas for, 96–97 Flattery, 274 Foot-in-the-door technique, 275 Forewarning, 166 Framing negative, 161 positive, 161 Freedom, personal, 165–66 Freud, Sigmund, 271, 323 Friendship, 238–40 close, 238–39 compliance and, 274 gender and, 239 ingratiation and, 274 long-term, 239 similarity and, 239–40 Frontal operculum, 16 Frustration, aggression and, 328 Frustration-aggression hypothesis, 325, 328 Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), 15, 16 Fundamental attribution bias, 210 Fundamental attribution error, 86, 87–88, 87f, 340 actor-observer effect and, 88–89 Fusion, identity, 201–3 G Galileo, 271 Galton, Francis, 228 Subject Index GAM (general aggression model), 325–26, 326f, 335 Gaze, 72–73 Gender aggression and, 340–44, 342–44 attitude formation and, 148f bullying and, 349 conformity and, 270–71 correspondence bias and, 87, 88f discrimination, 126 friendships and, 239 male gender role, 338–39 self-esteem and, 126–27 self perception and, 116f stereotypes, 267 stereotype threat and, 132–33 video game representations, 186–87 Gender stereotypes, 183 General aggression model (GAM), 325–26, 326f, 335 Genetic factors of aggression, 323–24 evolutionary mechanisms, 9, 10f of social behavior, 9–11, 10f Genovese, Kitty, 297, 298, 300 Gestalt psychologists, 94 Gestures, 73–74, 74f Glass ceiling, 184–85 Glass cliff effect, 185, 187, 393 Global positioning system (GPS), 37 Goals, superordinate, 384 Gratitude, 304–5, 305f Ground Zero, Islamic cultural center and, 35–36 Group polarization, 388, 388f Groups actions toward See Discrimination brainstorming, 390–91 cohesive, 360 cohesiveness of, 367–68, 389 common-bond, 362 common-identity, 362 components of, 363–68 conformity and, 255–72 confronting, 205–6 consensus in, 388–89 coordination in, 379–84 crowd and, 377–78 decision making in, 362, 387–91 definition of, 362 entitativity, 363 inequality, perceptions of, 179–82 joining, 369–73 leadership, 391–93 membership, costs of, 371–73 minimal, 196 norms, 366–67 perceived fairness in, 384–86 prejudice and, 195–202, 387 reducing prejudice, 211 rejection in, 386–87 roles, 364–66 safety in, 297–98 sharing information in, 390 social facilitation, 373–75 splintering of, 371–73 status, 363–64 willingness to kill for, 201–3 Groupthink, 389–90 Guilt collective, 206, 209, 210f prejudice and, 209 H Habit, 158 Happiness, personal, 420–26 Hate crimes, 204 Hate groups, 180f, 181 Health-related behaviors, 160 Helping, 302f emotions and, 306–7 empathy and, 307–9 factors affecting tendency to, 301–12 factors reducing, 310–12 gratitude and, 304–5, 305f Internet and, 312–13 positive reaction to, 314–16 responsibility and, 301–2 similarity and, 301–2 Heuristic processing, 161 Heuristics anchoring and adjustment, 41–42, 42f availability, 39–41, 39f, 41f definition of, 37 representativeness, 38–39 social cognition and, 37–43 status quo, 42–43, 51 503 Hippie identity, 119 HIV (human immunodeficiency virus), 161 Holocaust, 200, 209, 281, 309 Homosexuality contact hypothesis and, 208 prejudice and, 177, 178 social interactions and, 49 stereotype threat and, 133–34 Hooliganism, 377 Hostile aggression, 341 Hostile cognitive mindset, 331 Hostile expectation bias, 335 Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), 161 Hypocrisy, 172 Hypothesis, 22, 27 catharsis, 353–55 contact, 208 empathic joy, 293 empathy-altruism, 291 facial feedback, 76–77, 77f frustration-aggression, 325, 328 matching, 231, 232f similarity, 228 I IAT (Implicit Association Test), 122, 141–42, 244 Identity fusion, 201–3 non-mainstream, 119f nonprejudiced, 189 personal versus social, 114–21 See also Social identity politicized collective, 370 Ideology, 371 Illusion of truth effect, 146 Imbalance, 232 Immune system, 414 Implementation plan, 156 Implicit associations, 197 Implicit Associations Test (IAT), 122, 141–42, 244 Implicit attitudes, 141 Implicit (nonconscious) processes, 17–19 Implicit personality theories, 96–97 Implicit racial attitudes, 204–5 504 Subject Index Implicit self-esteem, 122 Impression formation, 70, 93–99 Impression management (selfpresentation), 70, 93–99 compliance and, 274 reasons for, 98–99 tactics of, 97 validity of, 98–99 Impriming, 45 Incidental feelings, 197 Incidental similarity, 274 Indebtedness, 314 Independent variable, 22 Indirect aggression, 343 Indirect route, of classical conditioning, 145 Individualism definition of, 367 research balance with, 28–30 in resisting persuasion, 167 of social psychology, 7–8 Inequality, group perceptions of, 179–82 Inferences, 81–82 Informational social influence, 262–63 Information overload, 38, 51–52 Informed consent, 29 Ingratiation, 97, 274 Ingroup, 295 Inheritance See Genetic factors Injunctive norms, 261 Injustice, 384 Input variables, 325 Instrumental aggression, 341 Instrumental conditioning, 146–47 Insufficient justification, 170 Integration tactic, 109 Integrative agreements, 383 Interchannel discrepancies, 78 Intergroup comparisons, 114 Internal mechanisms, 353 Internet aggression and, 321 cyberbullying, 350 door-in-the-face technique and, 276f e-mail, correspondence bias and, 91–92 experimental method and, 24, 24f hate groups on, 180f, 181 helping and, 312–13 research, 21 self-presentation and, 104 social influence and, 278–79 surveys, 20 weight loss and, 412–13 Interpersonal attraction, 217–19 Interpersonal trust, 236 Intimacy, 243 Intragroup comparison, 114 Introspection, 111–12 Introspection illusion, 257 J Jealousy, 243–44 self-esteem and, 244f sexual, 337, 338 Jews empathy for, 309 Nazi atrocities against, 200, 209, 281–83 Job satisfaction, 424 Joining, groups, 369–73 Judgments heuristics in, 39–40 representativeness and, 38–39 Justice distributive, 385 procedural, 385 transactional, 385 K Kandinsky, Vacily, 200 Kin selection theory, 295 Kiva (organization), 312–13 Klee, Paul, 200 Knowledge structures, 326, 336 L Laboratory, obedience in, 281–83 Law of similarity, 58 Leadership group, 391–93 women in, 184–85 Learning not to hate, 207 observational, 148–49 social, 144 Legal decisions, 42f Legal system, 416–20 lineups, 417 prejudice and stereotypes in, 418–20 social influence and, 416–17 Less-leads-to-more-effect, 170 Line judgment task (Asch), 258f Lineups, 417 sequential, 417 simultaneous, 417 Linguistic style, 78 Logan, Jessica, 328 London Stock Exchange, 392 Loneliness, 399–401 Long-term relationships, 402–3 Love, 14, 240–43 brain chemistry and, 242 companionate, 243 consummate, 243 decision/commitment response, 243 definition of, 241 at first site, 242 implicit processes and, 403–4 intimacy, 243 origin of, 242 passion, 243 passionate, 241–42 perceiving, 405 romantic partners, selection of, 246–49 triangular model of, 243 unrequited, 242 Lowball procedure, 275 M Magical thinking, 57–58, 58f Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 65 Male gender role, 338–39 Marijuana, attitudes toward, 141–42 Marketing, electronic word-ofmouth, 163–64 Marriage, 177 cultural differences and, 235 Subject Index protection as social institution, 192 stereotyping and, 191f Masculinity, threats to, 339f Master motive, 128 Matching hypothesis, 231, 232f Mate-retention behaviors, 338 Mate selection, 246–47, 247f Mating game, 248 McDonald’s, obesity and, 411 Media, 264 effects of violence, 335 neuroscience and, 336–37 prejudice and, 198 violence, 331–37 Mediating variables, 26 Medical decision-making, attitudes and, 143f Membership, costs of, 371–73 Memories autobiographical, 119 mood effects on, 60–61, 61f schemas impact on, 44–45 Mental frameworks See Schemas Mere exposure, 145 Mere knowledge, 200 Messages, 159–61 Metaphors, 46–47 Meta-stereotypes, 386 Microexpressions, 78 Minimal groups, 196 Minorities conformity and, 271–72 hate groups and, 181 ”token,” 182 Mirror neurons, 16 Modern racism, 204–6 Mood congruence effects, 60 effects on memory, 60–61, 61f implicit processes impact on, 17 social cognition and, 59–65 Mood dependent memory, 60 Moral disengagement, 206 Motivation, 55 autonomous, 315 controlled, 315 Movements (communication), 73–74 Multicultural perspective, 18 Music, aggression and, 354 Muslims, 140 N Narcissism, 342 Natural athletic ability, stereotyping and, 134 Naturalistic observation, 20 Needs, attraction and, 216–19 Negative framing, 161 Negative interdependence, 380 Negative-state relief model, 293 Negotiation, 383 Neurons, mirror, 16 Neuroscience, media violence and, 336–37 Neutral focus, 124 Neutral stimulus, 220 New Year’s resolutions, 120 Nonbalance, 232 Noncommon effects, 82 Nonconformity desire for, 268–69 sexual motives and, 267–68 Nonconscious (implicit) processes, 17–19 Nonprejudiced identity, 189 Nonverbal communication, 70–80 Nonverbal cues, 70 Normative focus theory, 261 Normative social influence, 262 Norms, 146, 366–67 descriptive, 261 emergence of, 259–60 emergent group, 389 injunctive, 261 social, 255 subjective, 156 O Obama, Barack, 132, 139–40, 182, 371, 392 Obedience, 254, 255, 263 to authority, 281–85, 284f destructive, 283–85 in laboratory, 281–83 Obesity, 409–11, 410f Objectification of females, 186 Objective scales, 190 Objectivity, as core value, Observation 505 naturalistic, 20 self-knowledge and, 112–13 systematic, 20–21 Observational learning, 148–49 Olympic medalists, facial expressions and, 72f, 79–80 Online retailers, 164 Open-mindedness, as core value, Opposites, attraction and, 229, 229f Optimism, 53–56 unrealistic, 129–30 Optimistic bias, 53 Other-enhancement, 97 Outgroup, 295 Overconfidence, 59 Overconfidence barrier, 53 Overestimators, 196 Overt aggression, 338–39 P Paralinguistic cues, 75 Parent-child relationships, 235f, 236–37 Parents, relationships with, 236 Participants, random assignment of, 25 Passion, 243 Passionate love, 241–42 Pasteur, Louis, 271 Perceived behavioral control, 156 Performance, stereotyping effects on, 132–34 Peripheral route to persuasion, 161 Peripheral traits, 93–94 Perseverance effect, 46 Personal experience, role of, 153–54 Personal factors, of attitude strength, 151 Personal freedom, 165–66 Personal happiness, 420–26 benefits of, 424 excessive, 426–27 factors influencing, 421–22 increasing, 424–26 levels of, 420–21 wants and, 423 wealth and, 422–23 Personal health, 409–15 obesity, 409–11, 410f stress, 413–15 506 Subject Index Personality aggression and, 322, 340–44 conformity and, 268–69 implicit theories, 96–97 type A, 341 type B, 341 Personal-versus-social identity continuum, 114, 115f Perspective taking, 308 Persuasion, 144, 158–63 attractiveness in, 159f audiences and, 159–61 caffeine effects on, 163 central route to, 161 cognitive processes underlying, 161–63 counterarguments and, 167 definition of, 158 differences in resistance to, 167 electronic word-of-mouth marketing, 163–64 messages and, 159–61 peripheral route to, 161 resisting, 165–69 selective avoidance in, 166 PET (positron emission tomography), 15 Pets, stress and, 415f Pharming, 253 Phishing, 253 Physical appearance, impression management and, 97 Physical attractiveness definition of, 221, 225–26 effects of, 223–28 facial features and, 226 matching hypothesis and, 231–32 romantic partners and, 246 Planned behavior, theory of, 156 Planning fallacy, 7, 54, 55f, 56f Playing hard to get, 277 Pluralistic ignorance, 150, 299 Politicized collective identity, 370 Politics, race and, 132 Pop psychology, 74 Positive framing, 161 Positive talk, 124, 125f Positive thinking, power of, 124 Positron emission tomography (PET), 15 Possible selves, 120 Postures, 73–74 Power conformity and, 266–67 planning fallacy and, 56f Prejudice, 195–202 behavior and, 132–34 competition for resources and, 199–200 contrasting, 197–201 countering, 207–11 definition of, 179 discrimination and, 204–6 emotions and, 131–32 groups and, 387 guilt and, 209 homosexuality and, 177, 178 in legal system, 418–20 self as target of, 131–34 self-image and, 205 social influence on reducing, 211 tokenism and, 189 us-versus-them effect, 200–201 Preoccupied attachment style, 237 Presidential leadership, 392–93 Pressure, social, 258–59 Prevention, of aggression, 351–55 Priming of schemas, 45, 205 Prisoner’s dilemma, 381 Prison study, conformity and, 263, 282 Private acceptance, 259 Procedural justice, 385 Product selection, attitudes and, 149 Proportion of similarity, 230 Prosocial behavior, 288–319 aggression versus, 316–17 bystander effect, 298–300 competitive altruism, 293–94 defensive helping, 295–96 definition of, 290 economic value on time and, 311–12 emergencies, response to, 296–300 emotions and, 306 empathic joy, 293 empathy-altruism, 291–93 gratitude and, 304–5 kin selection theory, 295 models, exposure to, 302–3 motives for, 291–96 negative-state relief, 293 origins of, 294f safety in groups, 297–98 video games and, 303–4, 334 Prototypes, 38 Provocation aggression and, 328–29 direct, 328–29 teasing as, 328–29 Proximity, 221–23 repeated exposure effect and, 222 Psychology See also Social psychology evolutionary, 9–11 evolutionary perspective in, 323 Gestalt, 94 pop, 74 social, 396–428 Public conformity, 259 Punishment, 351 R Race, stereotyping and, 132–33 Racism collective guilt and, 209 group perceptions of, 179–82 modern, 204–6 prejudice and, 206f zero-sum outcome of, 181, 199 Rationality, 52–58 Reactance, 165–66 Realistic conflict theory, 199 Reasoned action, theory of, 156 Recategorization, 208–9 Reciprocal altruism theory, 295 Reciprocal liking and disliking, 233 Reciprocity, 274 compliance and, 276–77 Red, attractiveness and, 226–27, 227f Reference groups, 148 Rejection, 331 group, 386–87 Relational schemas, 279 Relationships, 13–15, 235–49 adversity and, 401–8 behavior enhancing, 405–6 break ups, 245 building stronger, 405 emotional contagion and, 269–70 Subject Index exchanges in, 407–8 failure of, 404 with family members, 236–38 friendship, 238–40 imbalance versus nonbalance in, 232 jealousy and, 243–44 long-term, 402–3 parent-child, 235f, 236–37 with parents, 236 partners, problems between, 404–5 positive feelings and, 406–7 romantic, 240–43 secret romances, 248–49 successful, 402–3 Religion, 208 Religious orientation, 15 Repeated exposure effect, 222 Representativeness heuristic, 38–39 Research on autokinetic phenomenon, 259–60 birth order, 96–97 on conformity, 258–59 core values for, 6–7 correlation methods, 21–23 ethics of, 29 experimental methods, 23–25 on first impressions, 93–94 individual rights and, 28–30 Internet, 21f on love, 241 mediating variables and, 26 in neuroscience, 16 observations, 7, 20–21 surveys, 20 Resistance ego depletion and, 168 to persuasion, 165–69 Resolution, conflict, 382–84 Resources, competition for, 199–200 Responsibility diffusion of, 297, 297f helping and, 301–2 Retail therapy, 63 Retrieval, 44 Retrieval cue, 60 Risk averse, 180 Road rage, 73 Roles, in groups, 364 Romances, secret, 248–49 Romantic partners, selection of, 246–49 Romantic relationships, 240–43 S Safe sex, 172 Safety, 297–98 Safety judgment errors, 39–40 Salience, 114 self and, 117, 118f Same-sex relationships See Homosexuality Scales objective, 190 subjective, 190 Scarcity, 274 compliance and, 277 Schemas definition of, 44 metaphors and, 46–47 persistence of, 46 priming/impriming of, 45 relational, 279 social cognition and, 44–45 stereotypes as, 192 Schism, 372 Science, definition of, 5, 6f Secret romances, 248–49 Secure attachment style, 237 Selective avoidance, 166 Selective exposure, 166 Self, 102–37 See also Social Comparison authentic, 365 emotional consequences of choices and, 117–18 knowing, 110–13 managing in social contexts, 104–10 “observer” perspective of, 112–13 others’ treatment and, 118–19 past and future, 119–20 personal versus social identity, 114–21 positive talk and, 124, 125f possible, 120 salience of aspects, 117 social context and, 115–18 as target of prejudice, 131–34 507 Self-affirmation, 171, 355 Self-construal, 116 Self-control, 120–21 Self-deprecating, 109 Self-disclosure, 218 Self-enhancement, 97 Self-esteem, 104, 122–27, 123f aggression and, 355 benefits of high, 125 gender differences in, 126–27 implicit, 122 jealousy and, 244f measuring, 122–23 relationships and, 236 threats to, 198–99 tokenism and, 189 Self-esteem scale (Rosenberg), 122f Self-fulfilling manner, 46 Self-fulfilling schemas, 46 Self-help books, 111f Self-image, 129 prejudice and, 205 Self-judgments, 128 Self-knowledge, 110–13, 370 accuracy in, 113 Self-other accuracy, 104–7, 106t Self-presentation (impression management), 70, 104–10 tactics, 109–10 Self-promotion, 109, 274 Self-regulation, 168 aggression and, 352–53 Self-serving bias, 89–90, 129–30 Self-verification perspective, 109 September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, 198, 323 bystander effect and, 299 Sequential lineups, 417 SES (socioeconomic status), 18 Sexual jealousy, 337, 338 Sexual motives, nonconformity and, 267–68 Shakespeare, William, 104 Shifting standards, 190 Similarity, 302f assumed, 403 attraction and, 228–33 friendship and, 239–40 helping and, 301–2 hypothesis, 228 508 Subject Index incidental, 274 law of, 58 proportion of, 230 relationships and, 403 Similarity-dissimilarity effect, 230 attraction and, 232–33 Simultaneous lineups, 417 Singlesocial entity, 208 Singlism, 191 Situational factors, of aggression, 322, 344–47 Skepticism, as core value, Skin, 223 Slime effect, 98 Social adjustment, 292f Social behavior automatic, 48–49, 49f biological factors influence on, 9–11 cognitive processes and, cultural context and, 8–9 Facebook and, 107–8 social life, 3, 4f Social capital, 109 Social categorization, 200–201 Social clout, 370 Social cognition, 34–67 affect and, 59–65 automatic and controlled processing in, 48–49 definition of, 36 error sources in, 52–58 heuristics and, 37–43 schemas and, 44–45 thought processes in, 8–9 Social comparison, 127–30 affiliation and, 219 automatic and controlled processing in, 48 decision making and, 388 downward, 127 intragroup versus intergroup, 114 observational learning and, 148 theory, 127, 232 upward, 127 Social contagion, 269 Social context, 104–10, 115–18, 150–51, 153, 234 Social desirability, 82 Social dilemmas, 381 Social diversity, 18–19 Social embeddedness, 379 Social entrepreneurship, 313 Social exclusion, 310 aggression and, 331–37 Social facilitation, 373–75 Social factors, of aggression, 322 Social identity, 114–21 Social identity theory, 114, 201 Social influence, 252–87 conformity and, 255–72 definition of, 254 emotional contagion, 269–70 informational, 262–63 Internet and, 278–79 legal system and, 416–17 normative, 262 reducing prejudice with, 211 symbolic, 255 Social interaction attraction and, 228–34 ideal partners in, 233–34 Social learning, 144 Social learning perspective, 325–26 Social learning view, 207 Social life, relationships and, 235–49 Social loafing, 376–77 Social model, 302 Social networking, 11–12, 146, 245 Social neuroscience affect and, 13, 15, 64–65 description of, 15–17 of empathy, 16, 16f Social norms, 255 Social perception, 68–101 definition of, 69 gender and, 116f Social pressure, 258–59 Social psychology, 396–428 advances in, 12–19 adversity, 398–408 causes of social behavior and thought, 8–12 definition of, personal health, 409–15 scientific nature of, 5–7 summary review of, 3–5 theory, role in, 26–28, 27f Social skills, Facebook and, 108 Social support, 414 Social thought See Social cognition Social validation, 274 Socioeconomic status (SES), 18 Splinter groups, 371–73 Spontaneous behavioral reactions, 157–58 Sports intelligence, 134 Staring (communication), 72–73 Status, 363–64 conformity and, 365f Status quo heuristic, 42–43, 51 Stereotype negation condition, 210 Stereotype threat, 132 Stereotyping/stereotypes absence of, 190–91 beauty, 223 changing, 194 definition of, 179, 183 effects on performance, 132–34 forming and using, 192–94 gender, 267 See also Gender stereotypes gender traits, 183t glass ceiling and, 184–85 glass cliff and, 185, 187 in legal system, 418–20 meta-stereotypes, 386 operation of, 193–94 rejecting, 210 reliance on, 210 schemas as, 192 social groups and, 183–90 victims of, 191–92 Stimulus conditioned, 144 neutral, 220 unconditioned, 144 Stress, 413–15 definition of, 413 effects of, 414 pets and, 415f social support and, 414–15 sources of, 413–14 Subjective norms, 156 Subjective scales, 190 Subliminal conditioning, 145 Subtype, 195 Supernatural powers, 58 Superordinate goals, 200, 384 Survey method, 20 Subject Index SUV (sport utility vehicle), safety of, 39–40 Symbolic social influence, 255 Systematic observations, 20–21 Systematic processing, 161 T TASS model, 340–41 Teasing, 328–29, 329 Television, 236, 264, 289–90 as distraction, 375 harmful effects of, 332–35 Temperature, aggression and, 344–46 Terrorism, 201–3, 323 war on, 57–58 Terror management, 58 That’s-not-all technique, 276 Theoretical perspectives, on aggression, 322 Theories See Specific theories Theory, role in social psychology, 26–28, 27f Theory of planned behavior, 156 Theory of reasoned action, 156 Thin slices, 95 Thought/thought processes attitudes and, 156–57 automatic, 48–51 neuroscience of, 13 nonconscious, 17–19 Threat, 197 to masculinity, 339f to self-esteem, 198–99 Time, prosocial behavior and, 311–12 Title IX, 186 Tokenism, 189 Token minorities, 182 Token women, 182, 188–89 Touching, 74 inappropriate, 74 Tragedy, 62–63 Trait aggressiveness, 341 Traits, 217 central, 93–94 gender, 183t peripheral, 93–94 Transactional justice, 385 Triangular model of love, 243 Trivialization, 171 Trust cooperation and, 382f interpersonal, 236 TV See Television Twitter, 215 word-of-mouth and, 163 Type A behavior pattern, 341 Type B behavior pattern, 341 U Uncertainty, conditions of, 38 Unconditioned stimulus, 144 Underestimators, 196 Uniqueness, desire for, 267–69 Unplanned contacts, 221–23 Unpriming, 47 Unrealistic optimism, 129–30 Unrequited love, 242 Upward social comparison, 127 Us-versus-them effect, 200–201 V Validity, external, 25 Variables, 21 conformity and, 260–61 confounding of, 25, 26f 509 dependent, 22 independent, 22 input, 325 mediating, 26 Victims characteristics of, 349 of stereotyping, 191–92 Video games, 24, 24f harmful effects of, 332–35 male and female representations in, 186–87 prosocial, 303–4 Violence media, 331–37 roots of, 323–47 video games and, 24, 24f W Wants, happiness and, 423 Wealth, happiness and, 422–23 Weight loss, Internet and, 412–13 Weight Watchers, 412 “What is beautiful is good” effect, 223, 224 Women See also Gender aggression in, 324 attractiveness of, 225f in church, 372f conformity and, 267–68, 270–71 glass ceiling and, 184–85 objectification of, 186 romantic partner selection and, 246–49 token, 182, 188–89 Z Zero-sum outcome of racism, 181, 199 ... next edition Our warm regards and thanks! Nyla R Branscombe nyla@ ku.edu Robert A Baron robert. baron@okstate.edu Acknowledgments WORDS OF THANKS Now that the hard work of preparing a new edition... 201-236-3290 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Baron, Robert A Social psychology / Robert A Baron, Nyla R Branscombe 13th ed    p cm Includes bibliographical references and index... Test Bank To all of these truly outstanding people, and to many others too, our warmest personal regards and thanks Robert A Baron & Nyla R Branscombe xxvii About the Authors Robert A Baron is