Social psychology, 7th edition (PDF)

‘The new edition of this classic textbook offers a fantastic and unique combination of ground-breaking theories and important topics in current research Students will love the clear design and accessible writing style; it will get them excited about the world of social psychology! Dr Michèle Birtel, University of Manchester ‘This seventh edition provides consistently outstanding core coverage of the key topics in social psychology The book is suitable for all student levels and offers a deep understanding of both American and European influences in social psychology.’ Dr Irina Anderson, University of East London Updated to include over 250 new references, Hogg and Vaughan’s trusted, market-leading textbook remains as comprehensive as ever The seventh edition of this lively introduction places social psychology in a contemporary, real-world context and explores new, cutting-edge research as well as bringing classic theories to life Key features: • In-depth coverage of social psychological theory and research • Includes numerous features to aid independent study, such as psychology in action boxes, research highlights and real world applications New to the seventh edition: • More detailed coverage of social neuroscience, affect and emotion, group processes, leadership and decision-making, intergroup behaviour, research ethics and scientific best practice • Thoroughly revised chapters on culture, language and communication, including coverage of social media, discourse and intergroup communication • Significant updates throughout capture new developments in the field and provide up-to-date real world examples Use the power of MyPsychLab to accelerate your learning You need both an access card and a course ID to access MyPsychLab: Is your lecturer using MyPsychLab? 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Check the inside back cover of the book If you have a course ID but no access card, go to: http://www.mypsychlab.com/ to buy access to this interactive study programme Michael Hogg is Professor of Social Psychology at Claremont Graduate University Graham Vaughan is Professor of Psychology at the University of Auckland Cover image © Getty Images www.pearson-books.com MyLab and Mastering from Pearson improve results for students and educators Used by over ten million students, they effectively engage learners at every stage In a survey of over 700 students, more than 85% MyPsychLab delivers proven results in helping individual recommended MyPsychLab’s students succeed in their studies It provides engaging continued use experiences that personalise their learning and cement their understanding of topics covered in the lecture theatre And, it comes from a trusted partner with educational expertise and a deep commitment to providing the best content and learning tools that help students, 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University, Sweden) Greg Maio (University of Cardiff, Wales) José Marques (University of Porto, Portugal) Sabine Otten (University of Groningen, The Netherlands) Müjde Peker (Işık University, Turkey) Antonio Pierro (Sapienza University of Rome, Italy) Michelle Ryan (University of Exeter, England) Constantine Sedikides (University of Southampton, England) Paschal Sheeran (University of Sheffield, England) Nicole Tausch (University of St Andrews, Scotland) Kees van den Bos (University of Utrecht, The Netherlands) Daan van Knippenberg (Erasmus University Rotterdam, The Netherlands) Bas Verplanken (University of Bath, England) Vincent Yzerbyt (Université Catholique de Louvain, Belgium) Editorial Consultants for the seventh edition Mhairi Bowe (Nottingham Trent University, England) Kevin Buchanan (University of Northampton, England) Rob Lowe (Swansea University, England) Mei Mason-Li (Southampton Solent University, England) Laura McGrath (University of East London, England) Paul Muff (University of Bradford, England) Seventh Edition Social ­Psychology Michael A Hogg Claremont Graduate University Graham M Vaughan University of Auckland PEARSON EDUCATION LIMITED Edinburgh Gate Harlow CM20 2JE United Kingdom Tel: +44 (0)1279 623623 Web: www.pearson.com/uk First published 1995 (print) Second edition published 1998 (print) Third edition published 2002 (print) Fourth edition published 2005 (print) Fifth edition published 2008 (print) Sixth edition published 2011 (print) Seventh edition published 2014 (print and electronic) © Pearson Education Limited 2014 (print and electronic) The rights of Graham M Vaughan and Michael A Hogg to be identified as authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 The print publication is protected by copyright Prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, distribution or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, recording or otherwise, permission should be obtained from the publisher or, where applicable, a licence permitting restricted copying in the United Kingdom should be obtained from the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, Saffron House, 6-10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS The ePublication is protected by copyright and must not be copied, reproduced, transferred, distributed, leased, licensed or publicly performed or used in any way except as specifically permitted in writing by the publishers, as allowed under the terms and conditions under which it was purchased, or as strictly permitted by applicable copyright law Any unauthorised distribution or use of this text may be a direct infringement of the author’s and the publishers’ rights and those responsible may be liable in law accordingly All trademarks used herein are the property of their respective owners The use of any trademark in this text does not vest in the author or publisher any trademark ownership rights in such trademarks, nor does the use of such trademarks imply any affiliation with or endorsement of this book by such owners Pearson Education is not responsible for the content of third-party internet sites ISBN: 978-0-273-76459-5 (print) 978-0-273-76460-1 (PDF) 978-1-292-00364-1 (eText) British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for the print edition is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for the print edition is available from the Library of Congress 10 17 16 15 14 13 Print edition typeset in 10/12 Minion by 75 Print edition printed and bound by L.E.G.O S.p.A., Italy NOTE THAT ANY PAGE CROSS REFERENCES REFER TO THE PRINT EDITION BRiEF coNTENTS Advisory editorial board ii Preface xvii About the authors xxi Publisher’s acknowledgements xxii Guided tour xxv Introducing social psychology Social cognition and social thinking Attribution and social explanation Self and identity Attitudes Persuasion and attitude change Social influence People in groups Leadership and decision making 80 112 148 270 11 Intergroup behaviour 12 Aggression 190 234 10 Prejudice and discrimination 312 356 400 454 13 Prosocial behaviour 500 14 Attraction and close relationships 15 Language and communication 16 Culture 40 618 Glossary 656 References 667 Author index 732 Subject index 738 576 536 coNTENTS Advisory editorial board ii Preface xvii About the authors xxi Publisher’s acknowledgements Guided tour xxv xxii Introducing social psychology What is social psychology? Social psychology and its close neighbours Topics of social psychology Methodological issues Scientific method Experiments Non-experimental methods 12 Data and analysis 14 Research ethics 17 Physical welfare of participants 18 Respect for privacy 18 Use of deception 18 Informed consent 19 Debriefing 19 Theoretical issues 20 Theories in social psychology 21 Social psychology in crisis 23 Reductionism and levels of explanation 23 Positivism 24 Historical context 26 Social psychology in the nineteenth century 26 The rise of experimentation 27 Later influences 28 The journals 32 Social psychology in Europe 32 About this book 34 Summary 36 Literature, film and TV 37 Learn more 38 Social cognition and social thinking Social psychology and cognition 42 A short history of cognition in social psychology 42 Forming impressions of other people 44 What information is important? 44 Biases in forming impressions 45 Cognitive algebra 47 40 736 AUTHOR Index Pearson, M.A.  472 Peng, K.  626 Pepitone, A.  432–3 Perry, D.G.  513 Personnaz, B.  261–2 Peterson, M.  321 Petrullo, L.  33 Pettigrew, T.F.  94, 100, 370, 372, 392, 404, 441 Petty, R.E.  68, 206–8, 230, 237, 260 Pfau, M.  230 Piaget, J.  295–6 Pilger, J.  387 Piliavin, J.  506–7, 508 Pinard, M.  650 Pinker, S.  457 Pittman, T.S.  141, 210 Pon, G.  589 Popp, D.  591 Poppe, E.  54 Post, D.L.  96 Postman, L.J.  104 Powell, M.C.  168 Pratkanis, A.R.  151, 154 Pratto, F.  393 Prentice, D.A.  273, 441 Prentice-Dunn, S.  164, 434–5 Prislin, R.  156, 203, 206 Przybyla, D.P.J.  525 Pyszcynski, T.  139, 523 Quinn, J.M.  228 Raaijmakers, Q.  241 Rafiq, U.  178 Raïffa, H.  411 Rapley, M.  612 Raven, B.H.  237 Ray, M.L.  198 Raymond, P.  342 Regan, D.  520 Regan, J.  210 Regoeczi, W.  477 Reicher, S.  30, 141–2, 300, 332, 420, 436–7, 438 Reid, S.A.  296 Reis, H.  544 Renzetti, C.  490 Rhodes, G.  540, 541 Rhodes, N.  204 Richman, L.  378 Rinde, E.  33 Ringelmann, M.  282 Riopelle, A.  459 Rittle, R.H.  276 Robertson, J.  556–7 Rodin, J.  516 Rogers, R.  164, 434–5 Rohmann, E.  508–9 Rokeach, M.  175–6, 392, 393–4, 633 Room, R.  171 Rosch, M.  217 Rosenbaum, D.P.  527 Rosenberg, S.  46 Rosenfield, D.  377, 392 Rosenkoetter, L.  512 Rosenthal, R.  383, 384, 594, 609 Rosip, J.  594 Ross, D.  467 Ross, E.A.  26 Ross, L.  31, 60, 93, 95, 96, 100 Ross, M.  97 Ross, S.A.  467 Rothbart, M.  60, 427 Rothman, A.J.  202 Rotter, J.  90–91 Rotton, J.  477 Rubin, Z.  384, 560 Rudman, L.  365 Ruggiero, K.  382 Runciman, G.  404, 479 Rusbult, C.E.  553, 568, 569 Rushton, J.P.  511 Russell, J.  598 Rutland, A.  205, 388 Ryan, M.  335–6 Sachdev, I.  590 Saks, M.J.  211, 351 Salovey, P.  202 Sanders, G.S.  278–9 Sanford, R.M.  115, 494 Sapir, E.  579–80 Sassenberg, K.  273 Savage, J.  483 Schachter, S.  30, 87–8, 288–9, 306, 555, 556, 562 Schaller, M.  620, 651 Scheier, M.  119 Scherer, K.R.  83, 581 Schiller, F.  47 Schimel, J.  523 Schmidt, C.F.  107 Schmitt, B.H.  277 Schmitt, M.T.  393 Schneider, B.  481 Schoebi, D.  568–9 Schoemann, A.  592 Schoenman, T.J.  117 Schriesheim, C.A.  322 Schubert, T.W.  601–2 Schuller, R.A.  205 Schwartz, J.L.K.  184 Schwartz, S.  176, 475–6, 633–4 Schwarz, N.  156 Searle, J.  579 Sears, D.  370 Sears, R.  388 Sedikides, C.  118, 132–3 Sedlak, A.  46 Seeley, E.  126, 273 Sekerak, G.J.  276 Seligman, M.  502 Semin, G.  103, 280, 579 Semmler, T.  170 Seto, M.  486 Seyranian, V.  332 Shackelford, T.  489 Shah, J.W.  122 Shamir, B.  328 Shaver, P.  558 Sheehan, P.  482 Sheeran, P.  160 Shepard, M.  465 Sherif, C.W.  30, 34, 299 Sherif, M.  30, 116, 246–7, 254, 295, 297–9, 306, 318, 336, 408–410, 415, 441, 445, 494, 514 Sherman, J.W.  106 Sherman, S.J.  106 Short, J.  387 Shotland, L.  515 Shrauger, J.S.  117 Shweder, R.  637 Sibley, C.G.  570 Sidanius, J.  393 Siebler, F.  166–7 Siegel, A.E.  297 Siegel, S.  297 Sigall, H.  539 Simmel, M.  83 Simmonds, D.B.  304 Simon, B.  407, 427 Simonton, D.  318 Simpson, J.A.  564, 569, 570 Singell, L.  314 Singer, J.E.  87–8, 562 Singh, R.  323 Sinha, D.  648 Sistrunk, F.  204, 250 Skinner, B.F.  21, 465 Smart, J.  138 Smith, C.  73 Smith, E.  165, 429 Smith, L.M.  291 Smith, P.  251, 321, 622, 624, 626, 627, 635 Sniderman, P.M.  107 Snyder, C.R.  143 Snyder, M.  143, 383, 532 Solomon, S.  139 Sorrentino, R.M.  321 Spencer, C.  410 Spencer, S.J.  381 Spencer-Rogers, J.  626 Spitz, R.  556–7 Sprecher, S.  545, 547 Srivasta, R.  405 Stacey, G.G.  156 Stack, A.  228, 471, 472 Stadler, S.  477 Stapel, D.  579 Stathi, S.  444 Staub, E.  503 Steele, C.  132, 381 Steffen, V.  363 Stein, H.  241 Steiner, I.  281–2 Steinthal 26 Stephan, C.W.  440 Stephan, W.G.  392, 426–7, 440 Stephenson, G.M.  342, 343 Sternberg, R.J.  563–4, 565 Stevens, J.R.  504–5 Stogdill, R.M.  317 Stone, J.  225 Stoner, J.  347 Stopeck, M.H.  47 Stott, C.  438 Stouffer, S.  404 Straus, M.  468 Strodtbeck, F.L.  301 Stroebe, W.  33, 200, 217, 340 Strube, M.J.  322 Struch, N.  475–6 Sullivan, K.  567 Sumner, W.G.  295, 408 Surowiecki, J.  287 Sussenbach, P.  486 Tafani, E.  178 Tajfel, H.  30, 33, 34, 54–6, 102, 128, 387, 395, 416, 418, 421, 494–5, 587, 622 Tarde, G.  26, 465 Taylor, D.  100, 382, 584 Taylor, M.  404 Taylor, S.  42, 43, 133, 427, 529 Teger, A.  531 AUTHOR Index Tepper, B.J.  322 Terry, D.J.  161, 169, 206 Tesser, A.  124 Test, M.  512 Tetlock, P.E.  107, 176 Tetrault, L.A.  322 Thakerar, J.N.  587 Thayer, S.  604 Thibaut, J.  31, 552 Thomas, W.I.  29, 150 Thomson, R.  614 Thoreau, H.  257–8 Thurstone, L.L.  151, 178–9, 201 Tice, D.M.  117, 142–3 Tiedens, L.  604 Tindale, R.S.  315 Tinkham, S.F.  203 Titus, L.  281 Toch, H.  438 Tolstoy, L.  318 Tomada, G.  481 Tönnies, F.  273 Tormala, Z.L.  198, 230 Towles-Schwen, T.  166 Trafimow, D.  163 Triandis, H.C.  170, 196, 621, 624, 635 Tripathi, R.  405 Triplett, N.  27–8, 274–5 Tropp, L.R.  441, 444 Trost, M.R.  212, 295 Tucker, J.S.  572 Tuckman, B.  291 Turner, C.  416–17 Turner, D.  505 Turner, J.C.  55, 128, 236, 237, 240, 255, 264, 291, 348, 418 Turner, R.H.  436–7 Turtle, A.M.  647 Tversky, A.  71 Tyerman, A.  410 Tyler, T.R.  205, 333, 406 van Avermaet, E.  261–2 Van Bavel, J.J.  417, 419, 420 van der Pligt, J.  156 van der Vliert, E.  533 van Dijk, T.  372 van Gyn, C.  123 van Knippenberg, D.  326 van Lange, P.A.M.  521 Van Overwalle, E.  166–7 Van Schie, E.  483 Van Vugt, M.  291 Vandello, J.  480 Vanneman, R.  404 Vaughan, G.M.  169, 424, 642 Veitch, R.  550, 551 Verplanken, B.  170 Vignoles, V.L.  144, 632 Visser, P.S.  205 Vittengl, J.  548 Voigt, H.  518 Volk, A.  481 Volpato, C.  263 Von Neumann, J.  411 von Schiller, J.  471 Vygotsky, L.S.  579 Wack, D.L.  276 Walker, I.  405, 513 Walker, L.  224 Wallach, M.A.  347 Walster, G.W.  561, 562 Walter, M.I.  525 Walther, E.  172 Wann, D.L.  472 Ward, C.  100 Warren, P.  513 Watson, J.B.  27, 150, 555 Watts, J.C.  199–200 Waytz, A.  386 Wegener, D.M.  208, 342 Weiner, B.  89–90 West, C.  591 Wetherell, M.  75 Wheeler, L.  549 Whitcher, S.  604 White, R.  318–19, 322 Whorf, B.  579–80 Whyte, W.F.  301 Wicker, A.W.  157 Wicklund, R.A.  118, 434 Widmeyer, W.N.  290 Wiegman, O.  483 Wieselquist, J.  568 Wilder, D.  252, 443 Wilkes, A.L.  55 Wilkinson, S.  597 Willer, R.  522 Williams, J.D.  72 Williams, K.D.  285, 287, 308, 613 Willingham, B.  596 Wilson, B.J.  487 Wilson, D.  175 Wilson, M.S.  393 Wispé, L.  502 Witte, K.  200 Wittgenstein, L.  51 Wolf, S.  266 Wong, C.  128 Wood, G.S.  105 Wood, W.  204, 228, 266 Worchel, S.  287, 445 Word, C.  383 Wright, A.  590 Wright, S.C.  444 Wundt, W.  27, 42, 116, 620 Yancey, G.  547 Yang, K.S.  648 Yarbrough, A.E.  604 Young, H.  183 Young, J.L.  364 Younger, J.G.  224 Yuki, M.  126 Yzerbyt, V.Y.  47, 56 Zaccaro, S.  286–7 Zahn-Waxler, C.  510 Zajonc, R.B.  275, 544 Zebrowitz, L.A.  46 Zembrodt, I.M.  569 Zhang, S.  626 Zillmann, D.  463–4 Zimbardo, P.G.  30, 222–3, 300, 410, 432–3 Zimmerman, D.H.  591 Znaniecki, F.  29, 150 Zuckerman, M.  609 737 SUBJECT INDEX above-average effect 133 abuse syndrome 490 accentuation effect 426 principles 55 acceptance, private and internalisation 237 accessibility 59, 63, 420 acculturation 644–6 achievement attributions 89–90 acquiescent response set 178, 391 action research 214–16, 648 actor-observer effect 95–6, 127 adjourning (group socialisation) 291 adjustment (heuristics) 72 advertising 207, 208–9, 488 comparative 198 factual and evaluative 201 issue/advocacy 229–30 affect 201 -based attitudes 201 -driven reasoning process 107 -infusion model 74 transfer of 201 see also affect and emotion; reinforcement-affect model affect and emotion 72–5, 89, 151, 153, 154–5, 604 affiliated disciplines 5–7 affiliation 47, 538, 555, 556, 557 affirmative action 367–8, 380 age factors 195, 205, 592–3, 608 ageism 373–4, 592 agentic state 241, 494 agentic traits 365 aggression 138, 409, 456–97, 539 authoritarian 393 biological explanations 459–62 ethology 460–1 evolutionary social psychology 461–2 limitations 462 psychodynamic theory 460 collective 474, 495 definition 457–8, 459 domestic violence 488–90 and families 628–30 general aggression model (GAM) 478–9, 513 individual differences 469–76 alcohol consumption 471–4 catharsis 470–1 disinhibition, deindividuation and dehumanisation 474–6 gender and socialisation 470 personality 469 sex hormones 469–70 institutionalised 490–5 levels of explanation 494–5 person, role of 493–4 society, role of 490–1 state, role of 493 war 492–3 intergroup 388–9 international and intranational 389 interpersonal 388 learnt patterns of 490 mass media 482–8 cognitive analysis 484–5 erotica 486–8 rape myths 486 violent films and video games 483, 484 measurement 458 physical environment 477–8 reduction 495–6 situational variables 477–8 social and biosocial explanations 462–8 excitation transfer 463–4 frustration and aggression 462–3 hate crimes 464, 465 learnt aggression 464–8 social explanation 459 societal influences 479–82 criminality and women 479–80 cultural variation 480–1 disadvantaged groups 479 subculture of violence 481–2 see also frustration-aggression hypothesis; violence alcohol consumption and aggression 471–4, 477, 490 alcohol myopia 474 allocentrism 635 altruism 502–5, 508–510, 531–2, 533, 539 altruistic gene 506 amae (passive love) 624, 643–4 ambiguity, attributional 382–3 Ambivalent Sexism Inventory 56, 368 American Psychological Association 18 American Sign Language (ASL) 599 analogue device or measure 458 analysis of variance (ANOVA) 85 anchoring (heuristics) 72 anonymity 18, 432–4, 475, 548 anxiety 58, 140, 440–1, 555–6 apologising 521 appearance 64–5 appeasement gestures 460–1, 522 appraisals 73, 74, 89 apprenticeship rites 293 approach strategic means 121 arbitration 449 archival research 13, 545, 572 arguments 192 arousal 275, 506 accidental 563 attraction and close relationships 562–3 heightened 464 labelling 506–7 physiological 87, 506–7 prosocial behaviour 528 sexual 486, 525–6 undifferentiated 87 unexplained 88 arranged marriage 568 assimilation 387, 445, 590, 645–6, 650 associative meaning 70–1, 428 associative network (propositional) model of memory 53, 63–4 assortative mating 545–7 attachment 555–60 affiliation 555 anxiety 555–6 anxious 558 avoidant 558 behaviour 557 longitudinal research 559–60 and non-verbal communication 594 psychological 568 secure 558–9 social deprivation 556–7 social isolation 555–6 styles 522–3, 557–9 attainments 404 attempt-suppressing signals 610 attention direction-of-attention hypothesis 260 focal 61, 94 attentional consequences of social presence 280 attentional narrowing 280 attitudes 150–86 accessibility 165–7 affect-based 201 -behaviour relationship 168, 210, 359, 425 broad 174 change see persuasion and attitudes change cognition and evaluation 153–5 cognitive consistency 152–3 cognitive-based 201 decision-making 155–6 environmental 159 formation 171–5 behavioural approaches 171–4 cognitive development 174 learning sources 174–5 functions 152 general 159 historical background 150–1 and ideology 176–7 and intention 216 measurement 178–86 attitudes scales 178, 179, 180 covert behaviour 183–5 Subject Index overt behaviour 182–3 physiological 180–1 moderator variables 169–71 one-component attitudes model 151 priming 183–4 scaling 28–9 similarity and liking 544–5 and social representations 177–8 specific 159, 174 strength, and direct experience 166, 167–8 structure 151–2 three-component model 151–2 two-component model 151 and values 175–6 weak 169 see also beliefs, intentions and behaviour attraction 47, 538–60 attractive people 538–9 cultural stereotypes 548–9 and evolution 539–41 facial attractiveness 540–1 genetics 539–40 ideals, search for 541 law of 544–5 liking, loving and affiliating 538 personal 290 personal characteristics 547–8 and rewards 549–55 comparison levels 552 costs and benefits 550–2 norms 554–5 reinforcement approach 549–50 social exchange, equity and justice 550, 552–4 social 280, 291, 425 see also attachment; close relationships; liking attractiveness 195, 196 attribution 31, 43 ambiguity 382–3 bias 97 causal 87, 90, 91, 92 conflict 91–2 and culture 625–6 dispositional 83, 85, 93, 95, 96, 99–100, 102, 108–9, 123 external 86–7, 95, 96, 98 fundamental attribution error 93–5, 625 intergroup 99–102 internal 86–7, 95, 96, 101 performance 100 prejudice and discrimination 366–7 and prosocial behaviour 513 responsibility 92, 98 situational 83, 94, 95, 96, 99–100, 102, 169–70 and social impact 265–6 theories 21, 31, 82, 258 ultimate attribution error 94, 100, 625 see also attribution and social explanation attribution and social explanation 82–109 achievement 89–90 behaviour, seeking causes of 82–3 biases, attributional 92–9 actor-observer effect 95–6 correspondence bias and fundamental attribution error 93–5 false consensus effect 96–7 self-serving biases 97–9 causality, attribution of 83–7 emotions, explanation of 87–9 external (situational) 83 individual differences and attributional styles 90–1 intergroup attribution 99–102 internal dispositional 83, 93 interpersonal relationships 91–2 own behaviour, attributions for 89 task performance attributions 89–90 see also social knowledge and societal attributions attributional complexity 59 scale (ACS) 91 attributional style 91 questionnaire (ASQ) 91 audience 197 effects see mere presence and audience effects inhibition 517, 518 authoritarian personality/authoritarianism 30, 351, 382–3, 390–92, 419, 494 authority 391 ranking (AR) 635, 637, 639 autocratic decision-making 324 autokinesis 246, 247, 298 automatic activation 167, 550 automaticity 371–2 autonomy 258, 303, 637 averageness effect 540–1 averaging (cognitive algebra) 48 avoidance strategic means 121 baby boomers 373 ‘baby talk’ 592 back-channel communication 610 background (and neutral) stimulus 550, 551 balance theory 50, 153, 218 bandwagon effect 348 bargaining 31, 447–8 base-rate information 70 behaviour 4, 64, 152 counter-attitudinal 215, 221, 222, 225–6, 228 exit 570 negative 225 overt 42, 182–3 planned (volition) 160–5 post-message 230 seeking causes of 82–3 theory of planned behaviour (TPB) 160–63, 165, 170, 216 see also collective behaviour and the crowd; intergroup behaviour; prosocial behaviour behavioural approaches and attitude formation 171–4 behavioural control, perceived 161, 163, 164 behavioural decision theory 68 behavioural ecology of marriage 568 behavioural style and genetic model 258–60 behaviourism 21, 28, 42, 550 belief 201 congruence 393–5 in a just world (just world hypothesis) 99, 490, 513 beliefs, intentions and behaviour 157–65 general attitude 159 planned behaviour: volition 160–5 preventive behaviour against major diseases 164 reasoned action 159–60, 162 specific attitude 158–9 beliefs, prior and persuasive communication 206 739 bias 11, 13, 24, 43, 68, 99–100 attributional 97 cognitive 171, 206 conformity 257 correspondence 108, 300, 332, 625 disconfirmation 206 ethnic 387–8 experimenter 14 group-enhancing/group-protective 100 impression formation 45–7 in language use 183 linguistic intergroup bias effect 372, 609 outcome 84, 94, 98, 101 social desirability 155–6 spatial agency 580 subject 14 see also under attribution and social explanation bicultural identity 644 Big Five personality dimensions 317, 329, 548–9 bilingualism and second-language acquisition 587–90 biochemistry 22 biology and prosocial behaviour 504–6 biopsychosocial model 74, 200 BIRGing (basking in reflected glory) 125 blind obedience to authority 493 ‘blue-green’ studies 259, 261–3 body posture see kinesics body temperature and aggression 477 bogus pipeline technique 182–3, 609 bookkeeping 60, 442–3 boomerang effect 228 brain electrical activity 181 brain imaging see also fMRI ‘brain worry’ theory 28 brainstorming 339–41 electronic 340 brainwashing 228, 231 bullying 481, 495–6 bystander effect 360–1, 513–19, 524 apathy 515, 516–17, 518 bystander-calculus model 506–7 ‘he’s having a fit’ 516 intervention 514, 515 ‘lady in distress’ 516 limits to 517–19 three-in-one experiment 517, 518–19 ‘where there’s smoke there’s fire’ 514–16 California F-scale 391 careers 47 case studies 13 categorisation intergroup behaviour 426–7 prejudice and discrimination 371–2 social 60, 417, 418, 419–20, 648 category -consistent manner 63 -incongruent manner 63 representation 53 see also social schemas and categories cathartic hypothesis 470–1, 472, 483 causal unit 94 causality 31, 83–7 dual theory 107–8 ceiling effect 10 central route processing 68, 207 charisma 317, 327–9, 332, 415 choice dilemma 347 740 Subject Index circumscribed accuracy  57 classical conditioning  172, 173, 208, 388, 510, 550 clinical judgement  69 close relationships  560–6 marriage and love  564 marriages, arranged  565–6 same-sex romantic relationships  566 see also love closed-mindedness 392 cognition  87, 152 -based attitude  201 and culture  625–6 data-driven 58 -driven reasoning process  107 and evaluation  153–5 and language  579–80 necessity for  59 see also social cognition cognitive algebra  47–9, 50, 68, 155 cognitive alternatives  423 cognitive analysis and aggression  484–5 cognitive appraisals  73, 89 cognitive approaches  31 cognitive biases  171, 206 cognitive closure  59 cognitive complexity  59 cognitive consistency  43, 152–3 theories  21, 174, 217 cognitive development  174 theory 295–6 cognitive dissonance  30, 192, 215, 294, 295 culture 626 prejudice and discrimination  378 theory 153 see also cognitive dissonance and attitude change cognitive dissonance and attitude change  216–27 effort justification  218–20 free choice  222–5 induced compliance  220–2 revised cognitive dissonance model  226–7 self, role of  225 self-perception theory  226 vicarious dissonance  225–6 cognitive factors  97 cognitive heuristics  31 cognitive miser  43, 93, 152 cognitive neuroscience see social neuroscience cognitive process  101–2 cognitive psychology  21–2, 43 cognitive schema  49 cognitive theories  21 cohesiveness in groups  288–91 collective action  407–8 collective behaviour and the crowd  256, 390, 430–38 deindividuation and self-awareness  432–6 early theories  431–2 norm theory, emergent  436–7 social identity theory  437–8 collective mind  26 collectivist cultures/collectivism  620, 625–6, 630, 633–8, 643, 647, 650 attraction and close relationships  548, 549 groups  274, 287 prosocial behaviour  531–2 self and identity  143–4 collectivist theories  23 commitment  564, 565 constraint 568 in groups  292 lack of  553 moral 568 prior 526–7 in relationships  568–9 common bond and common identity  441 common ingroup identity model  444 communal behaviour  567 see also collective behaviour communal sharing (CS)  637, 639 communal traits  365 communication  55, 578 accommodation theory  587 back-channel 610 computer-mediated  304, 612–14 intercultural 641–2 intergroup relations  447–50 networks in groups  302–4 theory 194 see also language; non-verbal communication; conversation; discourse analysis communicative gene  506 community 637 companions and friends  568 comparison level 553 process 260 compassion/ compassionate love  509 compensation effect  56 competence  45, 49, 56, 64, 141, 210 language and communication  582 prejudice and discrimination  362–3 and prosocial behaviour  523–4 social 512 competition 635–7 intergroup behaviour  415, 416, 417 social 423 see also under realistic conflict compliance 236–7 coercive 237 -conformity distinction  210 induced  220–2, 224 leadership 315 see also under persuasion and attitude change comprehension 61 conciliation (intergroup relations)  449–50 conditioned reflexes  21 conditioning classical  172, 173, 208, 388, 510, 550 evaluative 172 instrumental  173, 388, 510 operant  21, 388 confidentiality 18 configural model  44, 50, 68 confirmatory bias  391 conflict  306, 408, 410 distraction-conflict theory  278–9 intergroup  56, 439 post-decisional 222 see also realistic conflict conformity  7, 30, 34, 236–7, 240, 245–56, 258, 259 arbitrary norm creation  247 bias 257 cultural norms  251–2 and culture  626–7 as function of presence or absence of support 253 group decision-making  349 group size  252–3 group unanimity  253 individual and group characteristics  250–2 informational and normative influence  254–5 jury verdicts  351 leadership 316 majority group pressure, yielding to  246–50 as a necessity  628 norm formation and influence  245–6 processes 253–6 referent informational influence  255–6 situational factors  252–3 confounding 10 variables 11 connectionism 165–7 consensus information  85–7, 96 consideration individualised 327 and leadership behaviour  320–1, 324 consistency  86–7, 153, 258–9 information 85–6 perceived 259 principle 215 synchronic 259 theories in attraction and close relationships 549 conspiracy theories  105–6 constructs 114 contact hypothesis  441–2, 641 contagions (collective behaviour)  430 contemplation ladder  216 content-of-thinking hypothesis  260 context  22, 48, 169 -comparison model of minority influence 264 and emotions  88 contextual cues  419 contextual factors in attraction and close relationships  540, 541 contextual variation in language and communication 582 contingency theories  321–4 contrast effect  213 control, illusion of  99 controllability (task performance attributions) 89–90 conventionalism 393 convergent-divergent theory  263 conversation 609–11 analysis (CA)  611 conversion  60, 443 effect 260 theory  260–3, 266 cooperation  413, 635–7 cultural variations in aggression  481 intergroup behaviour  409–10 prosocial behaviour  504–5 see also under realistic conflict coordination loss  282–3 coping 512 appraisal  164, 200 correlation  12–13, 15–16, 87 distinctiveness-based 70–1 illusory  70–1, 428–9 studies 92 correspondence bias  108, 300, 332, 625 cortisol levels  180 cost-benefit analysis  562, 567 Subject Index cost-reward ratio  550 counter-attitudinal behaviour  215, 221, 222, 225–6, 228 covariation  70–1, 87 model 85 criminality and women  479–80 crisis-leadership role  364 cross-level research  24 crosscutting categories and groups  304–5 crowd behaviour see collective behaviour cultural diversity  649 cultural factors and aggression  480–1, 489 attitude  162, 174 attraction and close relationships  540, 547, 548, 562, 564, 565–6 correspondence bias  94–5 depressed self-esteem and ethnic minority status 137 gaze and eye contact  600–1 intergroup relations  445 language and communication  578–80, 582–4, 590, 595–9, 602, 608 non-verbal communication  598 prejudice and discrimination  376 prosocial behaviour  533 self and identity  143–4 social knowledge and societal attributions 107–9 touch 606 cultural norms  251–2, 480, 530, 627 cultural orientation  636 cultural pluralism  650 cultural relativism  648, 649 cultural stereotypes and attraction  548–9 culture  30, 620–52 acculturation 644–6 -blind 621 -bound 621 cognition and attribution  625–6 communication, language and speech style 641–2 conformity and obedience  626–7 cooperation, competition and social identity 635–7 cross-cultural challenge  647 cross-cultural psychology  624–5 cultural diversity  650–1 definition 622 history and social psychology  622–5 of honour  480–1, 629 independent self  630–2 indigenous social psychologies  647–8 interdependent self  630–2 language and understanding  642–4 multicultural challenge  649–51 norms and identity  640 origins in cultural anthropology  623–4 prosocial behaviour  637 relationships, characterising cultures by 637–40 and socialisation  627–30 universals 648–9 values, characterising cultures by  632–5 see also collectivist cultures/collectivism; cultural factors; individualistic societies/individualism cyber-bullying 495 cyber-dehumanisation 475 cyber-ostracism  308, 613 cyber-relationships (internet-mediated)  543 Darwinian theory  22 data  4, 14–17, 42 -driven cognition  58 dating sites  548 death, fear of  139–40 death instinct (thanatos) 460 debriefing 19 decategorisation 444 deception  18–19, 245, 608–9 decision rules  505 decision schemes  351 decision-making  155–6, 324, 633 see also group decision-making deconstruction (subjective analysis)  25 definition of social psychology  4–7 degradation 487 dehumanisation  358, 385–7, 420, 474–6, 487 deindividuation  30, 119, 425, 432–6, 474–6, 613 delinquency 420 demand characteristics  11, 13, 14 demographic variables in language and communication 585 dependent measure  12 dependent variables  10 depersonalisation  130, 419–20 depression 91 desensitisation  482–3, 486–7 developmental factors and correspondence bias 94–5 deviants and marginal members (groups)  305–6 differential-influence hypothesis  260–1 diffuse status characteristics  301–2, 330 diffusion of responsibility  516, 517, 518 direct access (information processing)  74 direction-of-attention hypothesis  260 disadvantaged groups  479 disconfirmation bias  206 discounting 85–6 discourse analysis  13, 16–17, 611–12 discrimination see prejudice and discrimination discursive psychology  25 disinhibition  474–6, 482 hypothesis 472 displacement 388–9 display rules  596–7, 642 dispositions, internal  85–6 dissolution (relationships)  91 dissonance  153, 225 vicarious 225–6 see also cognitive dissonance distinctiveness 86–7 information 85–6 optimal 429 paired  70, 428 positive 420–1 distraction  58, 195 -conflict theory  278–9 distributive justice  333–4, 406, 415, 554 divergence (group socialisation)  294 diversity cultural 649 intergroup relations  446–7 divinity 637 dogma/dogmatism  8–9, 392 domestic partners  568 domestic violence  488–90 door-in-the-face tactic  211, 213 double-blind experiment  12 drive theory  21, 275–6 dual theory of causality  107–8 dual-leadership 320 741 dual-process models  68, 199, 206–9, 237, 255, 260 dyadic influence  384–5 dyadic phase (break-ups)  572 dynamogenic theory  28 effort justification  218–20 egalitarianism  351, 634 egotism  531–2, 533 automatic 133 model 138 elaboration-likelihood model  68, 207, 208, 237 ‘elderspeak’ 592 embarrassment 522 emblems 602 emergency situation  514 emotional lability  87–8 emotional states  509 emotion(s)  73, 597–8 attraction and close relationships  539 basic 595–6 displayed through paralinguistic cues  581 distinct 509 explanation of  87–9 expression of  594–6 -in-relationships model  560 intergroup 429–30 negative 135 prosocial behaviour  510 -related bias  122–3 vicarious 509 see also affect and emotion empathy  440, 506–7, 508–10 Enlightenment  115, 623 entitativity  288, 419, 421, 626 environmental factors  22, 83, 85–6, 88 equality 553 matching (EM)  637, 638 equity 552–4 theory  553–5, 567 erotica and aggression  486–8 errors  43, 68, 343 essentialism  94, 580 ethical issues  12, 17–19, 241, 245, 528, 637 see also moral entries ethnic biases  387–8 ethnic death  387 ethnicity language and communication  583–4, 585 self-esteem and social identity  136–7 see also culture ethnocentrism  100–102, 391, 408, 410, 414, 416–17, 418 embryonic  409–410, 415–16 latent 409 ethnographic research  623 ethnolinguistic group  583 ethnolinguistic identity theory  583 ethnolinguistic vitality  584–5 ethnomethodology  296, 611 ethology and aggression  460–1 etic-emic distinction  624 European Association of Social Psychology (EASP)  33, 34 European social psychology  32–4 evaluation apprehension  11, 13, 14, 276–8, 279, 286, 340 evaluation, enhanced  295 evaluation in groups  292 evaluative conditioning  172 evaluative response  173 742 Subject Index event-related brain potentials (ERPs)  181 evolution and attraction  539–41, 562 and prosocial behaviour  504–6 evolutionary psychology  22 evolutionary social psychology  22, 24, 461–2, 504, 539 exam cheating  527–9 excitation transfer  463–4, 486 exemplars 53 exemplification  141, 210 exit behaviour  570 expectancies  101–2, 159–60 expectancy-value theory  164, 178, 407 expectation states theory  301, 330 expectations 404 experience, direct and attitude formation  171 experiences 404 experimenter bias  14 experimenter effects  12 experiments  9–12, 27–8, 30 field 12 laboratory 11–12 manipulation 9 expertise 195 expressiveness 363 extended contact effect  444 extremism 495 eye contact see gaze and eye contact eyewitness testimony  65 face and expression of emotions  594–6 face-ism 365 Facial Action Coding System (FACS)  595 facial affect programme  597 facial attractiveness  540–1 facial display rules  595, 596–9, 642 facial expression  181 facial symmetry  541 factor analysis  180 failure and disadvantage (prejudice and discrimination) 382 false consensus effect  96–7 familiarity  543–4, 547 families and aggression  628–30 family resemblance  51–2 favouritism  396, 418, 440 fear 195 -arousing messages  199–201 of social blunders  517 feelings 72 fertility 540 field studies  14 field theory  21 fighting instinct  460 first shift (decision-making)  338 fitness altruism  505 ‘flip-flopping’ 260 floor effect  10 fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging)  11, 22, 24, 43, 75 focal attention  61 folk psychology  26, 622–3 followership 333 foot-in-the-door tactic  211–13, 241 football hooliganism  476 forewarning 228 forgetting, differential  94 forgiveness  521, 569 formation (relationships)  91 forming (group socialisation)  291 frame of reference  246, 297–8 free choice  222–5 free-rider effect  285, 340, 414 frustration-aggression hypothesis  388–90, 402–3, 419, 439, 462–3, 464 full cycle research  29 full-range leadership model  328 fundamental attribution error  93–5, 625 fuzzy sets  52 game theory  411 see also prisoner’s dilemma gaze and eye contact  587, 599–601, 642 Gemeinschaft  273, 441 gender factors aggression  470, 479–80 attraction and close relationships  548, 555, 561, 562 domestic violence  489–90 gaze and eye contact  600, 601 groups 273 language and communication  591–2, 595, 597, 599, 601–2, 604, 608, 614 non-verbal communication  594, 604–5 persuasive communication  204 prejudice and discrimination  363, 384 prosocial behaviour  509, 510, 524–6 social cognition  75 social influence  250–1 touch 605–6 gender gaps and leadership  334–6 gender-specific texting  613 General Aggression Model (GAM)  513 General Learning Model (GLM)  513 general psychology  26, 27 generalisation  389–90, 442–4 generation X  373 generative psychology  648 genetic model  258–60 genetics and attraction  539–40 genocide  358, 368, 385–7, 493, 496 Gesellschaft  273, 441 Gestalt psychology  21, 43, 44, 50, 153 gestures  578, 642 appeasement  460–1, 522 glass ceilings  334–5, 364 glass cliff  335–6, 364 global village  641 goals 531–2 and effects on person memory  67–8 instrumental 531 mutually exclusive  439 superordinate  409–10, 439, 445–6 ultimate 531 good genes hypothesis  540 Good Samaritan syndrome  521, 522 graduated and reciprocated initiatives in tension reduction (GRIT)  449–50 ‘grand theory’  20, 21 grave-dressing phase (break-ups)  570 great person theory  316–17 group decision-making  324, 337–49 brainstorming 339–41 groupthink 345–6 memory 341–5 culture 345 remembering 341–2 transactive memory  342–4 persuasive arguments  348 polarisation 347–9 rules governing group decisions  338–9 social comparison/cultural values  348 social identity theory  348–9 group-centrism 495 group-enhancing bias  100 group-protective bias  100 group(s)  125, 236, 240, 272–309 acceptance 248 affiliation and group formation, motivations for  307 and aggregates  273–4 behaviour  75, 125 categories 272–3 cohesiveness  288–91, 345–6 common-bond and common-identity  273 definition 272–4 deviants and marginal members  305–6 dynamics 29 effectivity, illusion of  340 effects on individual performance  274–87 classification of group tasks  281–2 social loafing and social impact  282–7 see also mere presence and audience effects: social facilitation entitativity 272–3 environment questionnaire  290 ethnolinguistic 583 full member  292 heterogeneous 340 identification  125, 415, 421 and intergroup behaviour and social identity 128 maintenance 321 membership  55, 66, 237 mind  23, 26, 342 minimal group categorisation  127, 427, 440 minimal group paradigm  307, 395, 421 nominal 340–41 non-members 292 non-prototypical member  331 norms  246, 295–9, 648 performance 323 polarisation  256, 350 pressure  30, 244, 250 processes  24, 34, 116, 402 prototypicality 331 quasi-member 292 reasons for joining  306 reference group  237 shared group membership  336 size  252–3, 286 socialisation 291–5 solidarity 290–1 status 130 structure 299–306 communication networks  302–4 roles 299–300 status 301–2 study of  29 subgroups and crosscutting categories  304–5 unanimity and conformity  253 value model  333 see also group decision-making; ingroup; intergroup; outgroup; subgroups groupthink  13, 350 guilt arousal 210–11 collective  425, 430 Guttman scale  178, 179 habits  163, 170 handicap, physical or mental  374–6 Subject Index harmony 410 hate crimes  464, 465 health support networks  529 heart rate  180, 181 hedonic relevance  85 hedonism 520 helpfulness 513 helping behaviour  502–3 see also prosocial behaviour heuristic processing  74 heuristic-systematic model  68, 207–9, 237, 260 heuristics  71–2, 93 hidden profiles  339 hierarchical cultures  634 historical context  26–32 Anglo-European influences  26 attitude scaling  28–9 early texts  26 experimentation  27–8, 30 groups, study of  29 journals 32 programmes 30–1 textbooks 29–30 homogeneity, relative  181, 426–7 homosexuality  374, 375, 465, 489, 566 honesty 548 hospitalism 557 hostility 409 human nature  46, 386 human uniqueness  386 hypodescent 106 hypotheses 8–9 id 115 ideal standards model  569 ideals, search for  541 identities, dual  644 identity 125–6 bicultural 644 common  441, 444 -confirming function  420 and culture  640 entrepreneurship 332–3 ethnolinguistic identity theory  583 group structure  300 ingroup 56 positive 420 relational 337 superordinate 446 validation 142 see also self and identity; social identity ideo-motor responses  28 ideological dilemmas  177 ideological orthodoxy  177 ideologies of antagonism  640 ideology  393, 636 and attitude  176–7 comparative 635–6 monistic 177 non-comparative 635–6 pluralistic 177 political 176 religious 177 ideomotor response  484 idiocentrism 635 idiosyncrasy credit  325–6 illocution 578 image-reparation hypothesis  520 imagined contact  444 imitation 465 immigration  441, 447 impartiality 448 implicit association test (IAT)  184–5, 372 impression formation  44–9, 60, 68 attraction and close relationships  543 biases 45–7 cognitive algebra  47–9 important information  44–5 impression management  141–3, 185, 608–9 inclusivity 53 independence jury verdicts  351 prejudice and discrimination  363 independent variables  9–10 individual differences  59 and attributional styles  90–1 and leadership  316–17 moderator variables  169–71 persuasive communication  204–5 see also under aggression individualism  620, 635, 636 individualistic societies/individualism  625, 630, 633–6, 638, 643, 647, 650 attraction and close relationships  548, 549 groups 273–4 self and identity  143–4 individualistic theories  23 industrial psychology  29 industrialisation  114, 623 inference causal 91 correspondent  82, 84–5 stereotypic 580 influence  239–40, 315 information diluted 69–70 encoding 50 integration theory  155, 174 processing 155 informational differences  96 informational influence  260, 266 informed consent  19 infra-humanisation 386 ingratiation  141, 210–11 ingroup 402 favouritism 418 identity 56 projection 337 trust 336 initiating structure (leadership behaviour)  320–1 initiation 294–5 injunctive norms  297 innovation 258 credit 326 inoculation (resistance to persuasion)  228–30 insecure attachment style  569 instinct  459, 460, 555 institutional support variable and language and communication 585 instrumental conditioning  173, 388, 510 integrated threat model  440 integration (culture and migration)  590, 645–6 intellective tasks  338 intellectual stimulation  327 intelligence 317 intention and behaviour  170 to persist  568 intentionality 85 interaction 550 743 interdependent cultures see collectivist cultures/ collectivism intergroup aggression 388–9 attribution 99–102 conflicts 56 discrimination 30 language and communication  590–3 leadership 336–7 power relations  239 relational identity  337 relations  55, 122–3 see also intergroup behaviour; intergroup relations improvement intergroup behaviour  54, 400–50 competition 416–17 definition 402 differentiation 418 emotions 429–30 hostility and conflict  439 intergroup emotions theory (IET)  429–30 intergroup phenomenon  437 relative deprivation  402–6 social cognition  425–9 categorisation and relative homogeneity 426–7 distinctive stimuli and illusory correlation 428–9 memory 427–8 optimal distinctiveness  429 social identity  415–25 group membership  418–19 and intergroup relations  421–4 minimal groups  415–18 positive distinctiveness and selfenhancement 420–1 psychological salience  420 social categorisation, prototypes and depersonalisation 419–20 uncertainty reduction  421 social protest and collective action  407–8 see also collective behaviour and the crowd; intergroup relations improvement; realistic conflict intergroup relations improvement  439–50 communication and negotiation  447–50 contact policy in multicultural contexts  445 generalisation 442–4 pluralism and diversity  446–7 propaganda and education  439–40 similarity 442 superordinate goals  445–6 international contact (culture)  642 Internet and aggression  488 computer-mediated communication  304, 612–14 see also cyber entries interpersonal aggression  388 interpersonal bargaining  31 interpersonal contact  443 interpersonal dependency  255 interpersonal distance  182, 606 interpersonal interdependence model  289 interpersonal liking  288 interpersonal relations  31, 91–2, 99–100 intervention (experiments)  intimacy  563–4, 565 -equilibrium theory  607–8 intimidation  141, 210 intrapsychic phase (break-ups)  572 744 Subject Index introspection 42 investigation (group socialisation)  294 investment  258, 553 iterative reprocessing model  419, 420 J-curve 404–5 joint actions  550 judgements dimensions of  55 implicit and automatic  155–6 memory-based 67 prior 60 of responsibility  90 social  47, 74, 226 stereotypic 183–4 jury verdicts  350–1 justice and attraction  552–4 distributive  333–4, 406, 415, 554 and fairness  333–4 procedural  333–4, 406, 415, 554, 555 social  553, 554 kin selection  505 kinesics  601, 642 language  25, 55, 578–93 acquisition device  579 affect and emotion  75 age groups and generations  592–3 bilingualism and second-language acquisition 587–90 conversation 609–11 culture and migration  590 discourse 611–12 ethnicity and speech style  583–4 gender factors  591–2 intercultural 641–2 intergroup 590–3 paralanguage 581 prosodic features  581 thought and cognition  579–80 and understanding  642–4 use, bias in  183 vitality 584–6 see also linguistic entries; speech large numbers, law of  69 leader behaviour description questionnaire (LBDQ)  320–1, 324 categorisation theory  331 -member exchange (LMX) theory  321 -member relations  323 schemas 335 see also leadership leadership  29, 236, 237, 239–40, 256, 314–37 attraction and close relationships  553 authoritarian 321 autocratic 319–20 bad or dangerous  315, 316 charismatic/inspiring  327–9, 415 contingency theories  321–4 definition 315–16 democratic 319–20 dictatorial 315 dual-leadership 320 effective/ineffective  316, 317, 318, 331 expectation states and status characteristics 330 full-range leadership model  328 gender gaps  334–6 glass ceilings  334–5 glass cliff  335–6 good 316 great 316 group structure  304 idiosyncrasy credit  325–6 innovative 332 intergroup  336–7, 414–15 justice and fairness  333–4 laissez-faire  319–20, 328 leader categorisation theory  329–30 leader perceptions and leadership schemas 329–30 leader-member exchange theory  326–7 Machiavellian and narcissistic  315 multifactor leadership questionnaire  328 non-interfering 328 normative decision theory  324 notorious 316 organisational 315 path-goal theory  324 perceptions 329–30 personality traits and individual differences 316–17 political/public 315 and prosocial behaviour  524–5 prototypical  326, 331–2 relationship-oriented  321–2, 323 schemas see prototypes situational perspectives  318 social dilemmas  334 social identity  330–3 task-oriented  321–2, 323 team 315 transactional  325–7, 328 transformational  317, 327–8, 329, 332 and trust  333–4 types 318–21 visionary 329 learning by direct experience  465 by vicarious experience  465–6, 512 observational  173–4, 510 organisational 341 theories 174 see also self-knowledge; social learning learnt helplessness  91 least-preferred co-worker scale  321–2, 323–4 legitimation, codes of  640 leniency contract  264–5 level of analysis (or explanation)  23–4, 25, 101, 136, 632 life instinct (eros) 460 life stages hypothesis  205 lifelong openness hypothesis  205 Likert scale  178, 179, 180 liking  538, 542–9, 560, 607 assortative mating  545–7 attitude similarity  544–5 familiarity 543–4 interpersonal 288 name matching and marriage  545–6 proximity 542–3 social matching  545 linguistic factors and correspondence bias 95 linguistic intergroup bias effect  372, 609 linguistic power  195 linguistic relativity  579 locus of control  91 locus (task performance attributions)  89–90 locution 578 love  47, 538, 560, 563–4 amae (passive love)  624, 643–4 companionate  561, 562, 567–8 consummate 564 definition 560 fatuous 564 and illusions  563 as a label  562–3 marriage 568 passionate or romantic  561, 562, 564 triangle of  565 types of  560–1 lovers 568 low-ball tactic  211, 213–14 loyalty  291, 569 elicitation 293 Machiavellianism 176 machismo  481, 630 maintenance group socialisation  294 relationships 91 majority group pressure, yielding to  246–50 majority influence  260, 261, 265–6 majority wins (decision-making)  338 Manicheism 177 manipulation, perceived  195 marginalisation (culture and migration)  590, 645–6 marital distress  611 marital satisfaction  92, 568, 611 market pricing (MP)  638–9 marriage 564–6 arranged 568 masculinity-femininity 633–4 mass media and attitude formation  175 prejudice and discrimination  364–5 prosocial behaviour  512–13 see also under aggression matched-guise technique  582, 611 matching to standard  286 meaning (language)  578–9 mechanical turk (MTurk)  14 mediation in intergroup relations  448–9 memory 63–8 contents of  64–6 intergroup behaviour  427–8 long-term  64, 71 organisation of  66 short-term (working)  64 social 74 using 66–8 see also under group decision-making mental readiness  151 mere exposure effect  171, 387, 544 mere observation  467 mere presence and audience effects: social facilitation  274–81 distraction-conflict theory  278–9 drive theory  275–6 evaluation apprehension  276–8 social facilitation  279–81 message 197 type 209 meta-analysis  159–60, 163, 281, 384, 538, 626 metacontrast principle  128, 255, 419 metastatements 343 metatheory  21, 402, 647 Subject Index methodological issues  8–17 data and analysis  14–17 experiments 9–12 non-experimental methods  12–14 scientific method  8–9 millenials 373 mindlessness 214 minimal group categorisation  127, 427, 440 minimal group paradigm  307, 395, 421 minimax strategy  552 minority 34 minority influence jury verdicts  351 theory 648 see also minority influence and social change minority influence and social change  256–66 attribution and social impact  265–6 behavioural style and genetic model  258–60 convergent-divergent theory  263 conversion theory  260–3 social identity and self-categorisation  263–4 vested interest and leniency contract  264–5 misattribution paradigm  87, 88–9 modelling  173, 511–12 effect  466, 512 moderator variable  169–71, 205 mood  170–1, 208–9 states and prosocial behaviour  519–21 moral commitment  568 moral issues and aggression  491 moral norms  158 moral principles  637 moral reasoning  512 moral values  163 motivated processing  74 motivated tactician  43, 93, 152 motivation/motivational  43, 56, 275, 407 factors 97 loss  282–3, 285 see also social loafing orientation 138–9 motives normative 407 in prosocial behaviour  531–2 multiculturalism 445 hypothesis 590 multifactor leadership questionnaire  328 multiple requests and compliance  211–14 multiple-act criterion  159 mundane realism  11 mutual differentiation model  443 mutual mistrust  412–13 mutual obligation norm  554 mutual support  567 mutualism 505 mutually exclusive goals  439 naïve psychologist (scientist)  43, 82, 83–4, 87, 96 name matching and marriage  545–6 narcissism  138, 441 nature-nurture controversy aggression  459, 481 language and communication  597–8 prosocial behaviour  504 negativity (impression formation)  46 neglect 569 negotiating styles  260 negotiation in intergroup relations  447–50 neo-associationist analysis  484–5 neo-behaviourism 21 neo-Freudians 460 neuroscience 22 neurosexism 75 non-common effects  84–5 non-experimental methods  12–14 archival research  13 case studies  13 field studies  14 qualitative research and discourse analysis 13 survey research  13–14 non-verbal communication  182, 183, 587, 593–609, 642 face and expression of emotions  594–6 facial display rules  596–9 functions 593 gaze and eye contact  599–601 gender factors  594 impression management and deception 608–9 postures and gestures  601–4 proxemics (interpersonal distance)  606–8 relationships and attachment  594 touch 604–6 variations 593–4 see also gestures; kinesics non-zero-sum game  447 normalisation 258 normality, departures from  68–71 normative decision theory  324 normative fit  130, 420 normative influence  260, 266 normative models  68 normative motive  407 norming (group socialisation)  291 norms  169, 170, 236 and attraction  554–5 cultural  251–2, 480, 530, 627, 640 descriptive 296–7 extreme or polarised  52 formation and influence  30, 245–6, 247 group  246, 295–9, 349, 648 for helping  530–1 injunctive 297 leadership 316 moral 158 mutual obligation  554 prejudice and discrimination  364 reciprocity 611 salient 636 social  237, 247, 514 social responsibility  531 stereotype 297 subjective 159 talk  332, 333 theory, emergent  436–7 obedience 236–7 and culture  626–7 destructive 30 to authority  240–5, 493 objective accommodation in language and communication 587 observation 512 observational learning  173–4, 510 obstacles, insurmountable  407 one-component view  153 one-factor design  10 ontogeny 596 openness to change versus conservatism  634 operant conditioning  21, 388 operant reinforcement principles  465 745 operational definition  25, 458 organisational learning  341 organisational psychology  24 orientation, long-term  568 ostracism  140, 308, 470, 556, 613 outcome bias  84, 94, 98, 101 outgroup 402 behaviour 100–101 output equity  286 overjustification effect  123–4 overt behaviour  42, 182–3 P-O-X unit  153 pair-bonding system  564 paired distinctiveness  70, 428 paired words  70 paradigm shifts  316 paralanguage and speech style  581 parental modelling  388 parental prejudices  388 parents and attitude formation  174 participation-equalisation effect  613 partner regulation  570 partnerships, ideal  569 passion  563, 564, 565 path-goal theory  324, 550 Pavlovian conditioning see classical conditioning pay-off matrix  411–12 peace studies  496 Pearson’s r 16–17 perceptual focus  96 performance pressure  58 performing (group socialisation)  291 peripheral and central processing distinction 260 peripheral cues  207 peripheral route processing  68, 207 person perception  44 personal characteristics  547–8 see also under prosocial behaviour personal constructs  46 personal dedication  568 personal factors and causality  83 personalisation 444 personalism 85 personality  22–3, 30, 115 and aggression  469 and attraction  547 authoritarian  30, 351, 382–3, 390–2, 419, 494 culture 623 exam cheating  527 intergroup behaviour  402 lay theories of  46 scale 169–70 theories  46, 439 traits and leadership  316–17 types A and B  469 perspective taking  444 persuasion and attitude change  192–231 attitude, arguments and behaviour  192 compliance 209–16 action research  214–16 ingratiation 210–11 multiple requests  211–14 systematic processing  209 dual process models  206–9 persuasive communication  192–206 age factors  205 audience  195, 204–6 cognitive biases  206 communicator 196–8 746 Subject Index persuasion and attitude change (continued) facts versus feelings  201 fear-arousing messages  199–201 framing a message  202 gender factors  204 individual differences  204–5 medium and message  201–2 message  195, 198–203 prior beliefs  206 repetition, effects of  198–9 self-esteem 204 sleeper effect  202–3 source credibility  196–8 source factors  195 Yale approach  194 resistance to persuasion  227–31 attitude accessibility and strength  230–1 forewarning 228 inoculation 228–30 reactance 228 see also cognitive dissonance persuasive arguments  347–8 persuasive influence  237 phenomenological approach  30 phone language  602 phonetics and phonemics distinction  624 phylogeny 596 physical appearance  46–7 physical environment and aggression  477–8 physical welfare of participants  18 physiological arousal  87 planned behaviour: volition  160–5 pluralism  445, 446–7 cultural 650 methodological 9 pluralistic ignorance  348 polarisation 347–9 political ideologies  176 political issues and aggression  491 polygraph 180 popularity 195 pornography 486 positive psychology  502 positive reinforcement  132, 173 positivism  23, 24–5 positivity (impression formation)  46 postmodern paradox  649 postures and gestures  601–4 power  236, 238, 315–16 and aggression  490 differentials 56 distance  624, 633–5 distribution (decision-making)  338 group structure  303 imbalance 610 and influence  237–40 intergroup behaviour  239, 448 legitimate 256 position 323 prejudice and discrimination  391 and speech style  591 pre-attentive analysis  61 prejudice and discrimination  13, 54, 56, 59, 358–97 ageism 373–4 aggression 464 culture 635 effects of  378–87 attributional ambiguity  382–3 dehumanisation, violence and genocide 385–7 failure and disadvantage  382 self-fulfilling prophecies  383–5 self-worth, self-esteem and psychological well-being 379–81 social stigma  378–9 stereotype threat  381–2 envious prejudice  56 explanations 387–96 authoritarian personality  390–2 belief congruence  393–5 dogmatism and closed-mindedness  392 frustration-aggression 388–90 right-wing authoritarianism  382–3 social dominance theory  393 stereotypes 395 handicap, physical or mental  374–6 homosexuality  374, 375 innate component of prejudice  387 intergroup behaviour  30, 402, 409, 417, 419, 439, 440, 442 language and communication  609, 612 learnt prejudices  387 nature and dimensions of  358–9 parental prejudice  388 paternalistic prejudice  56 persuasion and attitude change  205 prejudiced attitude and discriminatory behaviour 359–61 racism 368–73 reluctance to help  376 reverse discrimination  377–8, 380 sexism 361–8 tokenism 377 prestige 130 prevention focus  430 prevention system  121–2 primacy effect  45–6, 49, 57 priming  63, 484–5 primus inter pares effect see optimal distinctiveness principlism 531–2 prisoner’s dilemma  411–12, 413, 635 privacy  18, 548 procedural justice  333–4, 406, 415, 554, 555 process loss  282, 342 production blocking/matching  340 profile of non-verbal sensitivity (PONS)  594 profit (in relationships)  552 promotion focus  430 promotion system  121–2 propaganda 192–3 propositions 63 prosocial behaviour  31, 173, 502–33 applied contexts  526–9 exam cheating  527–9 health support networks  529 helping to prevent crime  526–7 shoplifting 527 attribution, impact of  513 biology and evolution  504–6 bystander-calculus model  507–8 calculating whether to help  506–8 culture 637 empathy and altruism  508–10 empathy and arousal  506 empathy and emotional states  509 game playing and the media  512–13 Genovese, K.  503–4, 507, 508 helping behaviour and altruism  502–3 learning to be helpful  510–13 motives and goals  531–2 norms for helping  530–1 personal characteristics  519–26 competence 523–4 gender factors  524–6 guilty helper  520 individual differences  422–3 leaders and followers  524–5 mood states  519–21 ‘Scrooge effect’  523 town size  521–2 perspective taking  509, 510 receiving help  530 volunteers 532–3 see also bystander effect protection motivation theory  163, 164, 200, 216 prototypes  51–3, 102, 128, 330, 336 group  331, 419–20 leadership  326, 331–2 proxemics (interpersonal distance)  606–8 proximity  306, 547 and liking  542–3 psychic energy  388 psychoanalysis 115 psychodynamic theory and aggression  460 psycholinguistic distinctiveness  586 psychological salience and intergroup behaviour 420 psychological well-being  379–81 public goods dilemma  414 punishment  173, 237–8, 511 Pygmalion effect  384 qualitative data/analysis  13, 16–17, 49 quantitative data/analysis  15–16, 49 racism  186, 368–73 aversive  370, 376 detection 370–3 new 369–70 rape myths  486 rationalism 8–9 reactance 228 realism, experimental  11 realistic conflict  408–15 cooperation, competition and social dilemmas 411–15 prisoner’s dilemma  411–12 social dilemmas, resolution of  414–15 ‘tragedy of the commons’  413–14 trucking game  412–13 theory  409–11, 415, 439 reasoned action  159–60, 162 theory of (TRA)  158, 159, 160–63, 164, 165, 170, 407 reasoning elaborative 61 process, affect- and cognition-driven  107 recall 64 recategorisation 444 received pronunciation  582 recency  45–6, 351 reciprocity norm  611 reciprocity principle  210, 530–1 reductionism  23–4, 25, 75, 419 reference group  237 referent informational influence theory 425 reflexive thought  114 regression 69–70 to the mean  625 regulatory focus theory  121–3, 430 Subject Index reinforcement 237–8 -affect model  21, 520, 550 approach 549–50 schedules 21 relational identity  337 relational models  333, 640 relational theory  637–8 relationship distress  567 relationships breakdown  553, 569–72 characterising cultures by  637–40 dissolution model  570 maintaining  566–8, 570 and non-verbal communication  594 as social exchange  550 relative deprivation  390, 402–6 aggression  457, 479, 496 egoistic 404–6 fraternalistic 404–7 intergroup behaviour  439 relativism, cultural  648, 649 releasers 460 relief state model, negative  520 religions/religiosity  82, 636–7 remembrance  294, 343 repetition, effects of  198–9 representation, distinct forms of  66 representativeness heuristic  225 reproductive fitness  481, 539 resocialisation 294 response set  14 responsible bystanders  526–7 reward  30, 173, 511 intrinsic and extrinsic  164 motive 407 performance-contingent 123 task-contingent 123 see also under attraction Right-Wing Authoritarianism (RWA)  393 Ringelmann effect  282–3 riots  402–3, 438 risky shift  346, 347 road rage  463 role(s) 30 assignment 363 congruity theory  335 groups 299–300 identity theory  300 making 327 routinisation 327 taking 327 transition  29, 292 see also social roles romance  561–2, 563, 564 of leadership  329 rumour 104–5 Russian cultural-historical school  623 salience (social encoding)  61–2 salient norms  636 same-sex relationships  374, 375, 465, 489, 566 sanctions 530 scapegoat 388–90 schemas  53, 57, 152 accessible 57 aggression 486 causal  87, 102 culture 637 gender 59 -inconsistent information  58 leader 329–30 mood-congruent 57 multiple necessary cause  87 political 59 racial 57 self-schemas 119–21 social decision  338 social inference  68, 70, 71 see also social schemas schism 305 science 4 scientific method  8–9 scripts  50–1, 466, 485 causal 102 secularisation  114, 623, 636 seeing red  540 selective exposure hypothesis  217 self activities 144 actual  121, 122 collective  75, 115, 116, 126 concept of  300 ideal  121, 122 independent  143–4, 631 individual  115, 126 interactionist 116–18 interdependent  126, 143–4, 631 looking-glass 117 ‘ought’  121, 122 private  117, 119 psychodynamic 115 public  117, 119 role of  225 see also self and identity self and identity  114–45 collective identities  126 contextual sensitivity  126–7 cultural differences  143–4 group-based social identities  126 historical context  114–18 personal identity  126, 128 self-esteem see self-esteem self-knowledge see self-knowledge social identity  126, 128–30 types of  125–6 self-affirmation  132, 225 self-assessment  131, 132–3 self-awareness  118–19, 280, 432–6 self-blame 99 self-categorisation  75, 255, 263–4, 438 theory  55, 125, 290, 348–9, 418, 419, 425 self-coherence 127 self-complexity 125 self-concept  51, 114, 118, 129, 135, 138, 287, 632 self-conceptual positivity bias  133, 135 self-concern 520 self-confidence 588–9 self-consistency  212, 225 self-definition 144 self-disclosure  547–8, 611 self-discrepancy theory  121–2, 280 self-distinctiveness 144 self-efficacy 164 self-enhancement  131–3, 134, 135, 420–21, 634 bias 134 self-enhancing triad  118, 133 self-esteem  100, 130, 133–41, 194–5, 204, 225, 379–81 affiliation and group formation  307 aggression  469, 496 attraction and close relationships  546, 556 747 death, fear of  139–40 depressed, and ethnic minority status  137 high  139–40, 141 individual differences  138–9 intergroup behaviour  421 language and communication  589 positive or neutral self-esteem feedback  140 prejudice and discrimination  382 process 102 and social identity  136–7 as sociometer  140–1 self-evaluation maintenance model  124 self-fulfilling prophecies  383–5 self-guides 122 self-handicapping  97–8, 135 self-identity 171 self-image 135 self-interest 520 self-knowledge 119–25 behaviour, inferences from  123–4 ideal self  120 overjustification effect  124 regulatory focus theory  121–3 self-discrepancy theory  122 self-schemas 119–21 and social comparison  124 self-monitoring 141 self-motives 130–3 self-observation 42 self-other effect see actor-observer effect self-perception 74 theory  89, 123, 174, 212, 226, 378 self-presentation  141–3, 210, 280 self-promotion  141, 210 self-protecting bias  97 self-regulation  121, 570 self-report measures  74 self-schema  59, 119–21, 127 self-serving biases  97–9 self-standards 225 self-structure 144 self-transcendence 634 self-uncertainty 307 self-verification  131, 132–3 self-worth  307, 379–81 semantics  74, 75, 178–9 separation (culture and migration)  590, 645–6 sex hormones and aggression  469–70 sex role  363 sex-stereotype 555 sexism 361–8 behaviour and roles  363–7 benevolent 56 changes in  367–8 sex stereotypes  361–3, 364–7 sexual desire  564 sexual mating system  564 sexual orientation  602 see also homosexuality sexual selection theory  470 shoplifting 527 similarity  196, 442 situational attribution  94, 95, 96, 99–100, 102, 169–70 situational control  322–3 situational factors  85, 250, 252–3, 528 situational perspectives  318 situational rules in language and communication 596–7 situational variables  169, 477–8 skin resistance  180 748 Subject Index sleeper effect  202–3 snowball effect (primitive sympathy)  432 sociability 362–3 social action  422 social approval and acceptance  254 social attraction  280, 291 hypothesis 425 social categorisation  60, 417, 418, 419–20, 648 social change  424–5 belief system  423 see also minority influence and social change social cognition  21–2, 31, 34, 42–4, 72, 74, 75 see also under intergroup behaviour social cognitive neuroscience  24 social cohesion  289 social comparison /cultural values  347–8 and self-knowledge  124 theory  136, 301, 556 social compensation  286–7 social competition  423 social creativity  423 social decision schemas  338 social deprivation  556–7 social desirability  11, 64 bias 155–6 social dilemmas  334 see also under realistic conflict social distance  182, 370 social dominance theory  393 social encoding  61–3 social exchange  21, 31, 552–4 social exclusion see ostracism social expectancy theory  540 social explanation see attribution and social explanation social facilitation  27, 403 see also mere presence and audience effects: social facilitation social factors in attraction and close relationships  540, 541 social identity  20, 125, 126, 256, 263–4 affiliation and group formation  307 analysis  240, 613 and culture  635–7 dynamics 266 groups  287, 291 intergroup behaviour  34, 407, 429, 439 language and communication  587 leadership 330–3 model of deindividuation phenomenon (SIDE model)  438 and self-esteem  136–7 see also under intergroup behaviour; social identity theory social identity theory  23–4, 55, 102, 255, 330, 332, 335–6, 347–8 aggression 495 attitude 169 collective behaviour and the crowd  437–8 culture 648 group decision-making  348–9 intergroup behaviour  425, 427 language and communication  583 leadership  326, 327, 328, 329 and memory  66 prejudice and discrimination  393 social impact  266 and groups  282–7 and minority influence  265–6 social inference  68–72 heuristics 71–2 improvement 72 normality, departures from  68–71 social influence  236–67, 517, 518 compliance, obedience and conformity  236–7 intergroup behaviour  402 modalities 258 obedience to authority  240–5 power and influence  237–40 types 236–40 see also conformity; minority influence and social change social information, gathering and sampling  68–9 social inhibition  275 social interaction  114 social isolation  555–6 see also ostracism social judgement  47, 74, 226 social justice  553, 554 social knowledge and societal attributions  102–9 causal attribution  103 conspiracy theories  105–6 cultural factors  107–9 rumour 104–5 social representations  103–4 societal attributions  106–7 social learning theory  464–5, 467 aggression  482, 483 prosocial behaviour  512 social loafing  282–7, 340 social markers in speech  582–3 social matching  545 social mobility belief system  423 social modelling  21 social networking  548, 568 social neuroscience  43–4, 75, 181 social norms  237, 247, 514 social order  491 social orientation in language and communication 586 social ostracism  140, 308 social penetration model  547 social perception  31, 56 social phase (break-ups)  572 social presence  276, 280 social protest  407–8 social representations  34, 102–4, 115, 116, 612 and attitude  177–8 culture  623–4, 648 social responsibility norm  531 social roles  56 theory  470, 525 social schemas  57–61 acquisition of  59–60 changing 60–1 use of  57–9 see also social schemas and categories social schemas and categories  49–56 categories and prototypes  51–3 categorisation and stereotyping  54–6 content-free schemas  51 person schemas  50 role schemas  50 scripts 50–1 self-schemas 51 social stigma  378–9 social support network  529, 548, 568, 645 social transition scheme  339 social validation  141–2, 143 social-identity-related processes  331 socialisation  294, 509 and aggression  470 and culture  627–30 groups 291–5 theory 540 societal influences see under aggression societal uncertainty  495 Society of Experimental Social Psychology  10 socio-psychological dimensions  589, 590 sociocognitive model  154–5 sociocultural values  638 socioemotional attributes  320–1 socioemotional specialist  320 sociometer 546 solidarity 409 variables 582–3 source credibility  196–8, 203, 209 spanking 468 spatial agency bias  580 speech 593 accommodation  586–7, 592 convergence and divergence  586–7 rate 195 social markers  582–3 stereotyped 587 style  581, 591 intercultural 641–2 spreading attitude effect  172 stability (task performance attributions)  89–90 standing out  62 statistics 15–16 status affiliation and group formation  307 characteristics  301–2, 330 differences 304 gaze and eye contact  600, 601 language and communication  591, 606, 607 postures and gestures  602–4 diffuse status characteristics  301–2, 330 and groups  301–2 language and communication  582, 585, 586, 600 relationship 136 -resources  541, 569, 570 step-by-step decision approach  507 stereotype  50, 59, 100, 102, 152, 256 affect and emotion  74 ambivalent outgroup  56 attribution  94, 102 and categorisation  54–6 content model  56 cultural 548–9 dominant 54 efficient 54 emotional 54 empathic 54 impression formation  47 intergroup behaviour  418, 419, 426, 428–9 language and communication  591, 592, 604 lift 382 negative  70–1, 72, 441 norms 297 prejudice and discrimination  358, 371–4, 376, 384, 386, 389, 395 rebound effect  626 social  50, 57 Subject Index social cognition  75 social inference  68, 70–1 threat  335, 381–2, 385 stereotyped speech  587 stereotypic inferences  580 stereotypic jugdements  183–4 stigma  378–9, 381, 382 stimuli ambiguous 63 distinctive 428–9 storming (group socialisation)  291 stress and aggression  490 and message processing  263 strictness (decision-making)  338 Stroop task  280 structural fit  130, 420 structuring (leadership)  324 subgroups and crosscutting categories  304–5 distinctiveness 446 subject bias  14 subject effects  11 subject pool  12 subjective acceptance and conversion  237 subjective accommodation in language and communication 587 subjective group dynamics  305, 425 subjective norm  159 subjective vitality  584–6 submission, authoritarian  393 subordinates 326–7 substantive processing  74 subtyping  57, 60, 443 sufficiency threshold  208 summation (cognitive algebra)  47–8 sunk costs  214 superego 115 superordinate culture  646 superordinate goals  409–10, 439, 445–6 superordinate identity  446 supplication  141, 210 supportive defence  229 survey research  13–14 symbolic interactionism  symbolic rites  293 sympathiser 407 system justification theory  379, 393, 423 systematic experimentation  12 systematic processing  209 t test  15 talkativeness 317 task importance 209 judgemental 338 motivation 287 -oriented attributes  320–1 performance 321 specialist 320 structure 323 taxonomy 281 temperature, ambient and aggression  477–8 terror management theory  139–40, 177, 201, 307, 523 terrorism 491 test of non-verbal cue knowledge (TONCK) 594 theoretical issues  20–5 behaviourism 21 cognitive psychology  21–2 collectivist theories  23 crisis of confidence  23 evolutionary social psychology  22 neuroscience and biochemistry  22 personality 22–3 positivism 24–5 reductionism and levels of explanation  23–4, 25 theories  4, 11, 12, 29, 42 theory of planned behaviour (TPB)  160–3, 165, 170, 216 theory of reasoned action (TRA)  160–3, 165, 170 third-person effect  195, 206 thought  42, 151–2 and language  579–80 processes 625 reform 228 see also cognition and cognitive entries threat  132, 440–41 appraisal  164, 200 direct 132 displays 461 integrated threat model  440 three-component attitude model  359–60 three-factor theory of love  562 Thurstone scale  179 tit-for-tat strategy  450 tokenism  377, 380 topics of social psychology  touch 604–6 traditionalists 373 ‘tragedy of the commons’ (commons dilemma)  413–14, 531 traits 64 central  44, 45, 49, 132 peripheral  44, 45, 132 transactional leadership theory  324, 550 trilingualism  587, 588 trucking game  412–13 trust  548, 568 ingroup 336 and leadership  333–4 in relationships  569 trustworthiness  541, 547, 548, 569, 570 truth wins wins (decision-making)  338 two-factor design  10–11 two-feet-in-the-door technique  212 two-thirds majority (decision-making)  338 ultimate attribution error  94, 100, 625 unanimity (decision-making)  338 749 uncertainty 250 avoidance 633–4 existential 307 -identity theory  307 orientation 59 reduction 421 societal 495 unidimensionality  178, 179, 180 universals 648–9 use values  640 utterance 578–9 validation process 260 social  141–2, 143 validity  11, 12, 458 values  160, 458, 480 and attitude  175–6 characterising cultures by  632–5 instrumental 175 moral 163 sociocultural 638 terminal  175, 176 verbal reinforcers  173 vertical dyad linkage model  321 vested interest and leniency contract  264–5 vicarious dissonance  225–6 victim blaming  490 violence 138 cycle of  496 domestic 488–90 in films and videos  457, 467, 475, 482, 483, 484 prejudice and discrimination  385–7 subculture of  629 visual dominance  600 vitality -attractiveness  541, 569, 570 language 584–6 objective 585 subjective 584–6 vividness (social encoding)  62–3 voice behaviour  570 volition 160–5 volkerpsychologie (folk psychology)  26, 622–3 volunteers 532–3 vulnerability 200 waist-to-hip ratio (hourglass figure)  540 war  492–3, 494, 496 warmth (sociability)  45, 49, 56, 141, 210, 362–3, 541, 569, 570 weapons 461 effect  439, 484–5, 496 weighted averaging (cognitive algebra)  48–9 Yale attitude change programme  30 yielding 302 zero-sum game  412, 446–7 ... effect Self-categorisation theory Social categorisation Social change belief system Social competition Social creativity 451 Social identity Social identity theory Social mobility belief system Stereotype... Second edition published 1998 (print) Third edition published 2002 (print) Fourth edition published 2005 (print) Fifth edition published 2008 (print) Sixth edition published 2011 (print) Seventh edition. .. acknowledgements Guided tour xxv xxii Introducing social psychology What is social psychology? Social psychology and its close neighbours Topics of social psychology Methodological issues Scientific