‘The new edition of this classic textbook offers a fantastic and unique combination of ground-breaking theories and important topics in current research Students will love the clear design and accessible writing style; it will get them excited about the world of social psychology! 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Check the inside back cover of the book If you have a course ID but no access card, go to: http://www.mypsychlab.com/ to buy access to this interactive study programme Michael Hogg is Professor of Social Psychology at Claremont Graduate University Graham Vaughan is Professor of Psychology at the University of Auckland Cover image © Getty Images www.pearson-books.com MyLab and Mastering from Pearson improve results for students and educators Used by over ten million students, they effectively engage learners at every stage In a survey of over 700 students, more than 85% MyPsychLab delivers proven results in helping individual recommended MyPsychLab’s students succeed in their studies It provides engaging continued use experiences that personalise their learning and cement their understanding of topics covered in the lecture theatre And, it comes from a trusted partner with educational expertise and a deep commitment to providing the best content and learning tools that help students, 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University, Sweden) Greg Maio (University of Cardiff, Wales) José Marques (University of Porto, Portugal) Sabine Otten (University of Groningen, The Netherlands) Müjde Peker (Işık University, Turkey) Antonio Pierro (Sapienza University of Rome, Italy) Michelle Ryan (University of Exeter, England) Constantine Sedikides (University of Southampton, England) Paschal Sheeran (University of Sheffield, England) Nicole Tausch (University of St Andrews, Scotland) Kees van den Bos (University of Utrecht, The Netherlands) Daan van Knippenberg (Erasmus University Rotterdam, The Netherlands) Bas Verplanken (University of Bath, England) Vincent Yzerbyt (Université Catholique de Louvain, Belgium) Editorial Consultants for the seventh edition Mhairi Bowe (Nottingham Trent University, England) Kevin Buchanan (University of Northampton, England) Rob Lowe (Swansea University, England) Mei Mason-Li (Southampton Solent University, England) Laura McGrath (University of East London, England) Paul Muff (University of Bradford, England) Seventh Edition Social Psychology Michael A Hogg Claremont Graduate University Graham M Vaughan University of Auckland PEARSON EDUCATION LIMITED Edinburgh Gate Harlow CM20 2JE United Kingdom Tel: +44 (0)1279 623623 Web: www.pearson.com/uk First published 1995 (print) Second edition published 1998 (print) Third edition published 2002 (print) Fourth edition published 2005 (print) Fifth edition published 2008 (print) Sixth edition published 2011 (print) Seventh edition published 2014 (print and electronic) © Pearson Education Limited 2014 (print and electronic) The rights of Graham M Vaughan and Michael A Hogg to be identified as authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 The print publication is protected by copyright Prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, distribution or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, recording or otherwise, permission should be obtained from the publisher or, where applicable, a licence permitting restricted copying in the United Kingdom should be obtained from the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, Saffron House, 6-10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS The ePublication is protected by copyright and must not be copied, reproduced, transferred, distributed, leased, licensed or publicly performed or used in any way except as specifically permitted in writing by the publishers, as allowed under the terms and conditions under which it was purchased, or as strictly permitted by applicable copyright law Any unauthorised distribution or use of this text may be a direct infringement of the author’s and the publishers’ rights and those responsible may be liable in law accordingly All trademarks used herein are the property of their respective owners The use of any trademark in this text does not vest in the author or publisher any trademark ownership rights in such trademarks, nor does the use of such trademarks imply any affiliation with or endorsement of this book by such owners Pearson Education is not responsible for the content of third-party internet sites ISBN: 978-0-273-76459-5 (print) 978-0-273-76460-1 (PDF) 978-1-292-00364-1 (eText) British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for the print edition is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for the print edition is available from the Library of Congress 10 17 16 15 14 13 Print edition typeset in 10/12 Minion by 75 Print edition printed and bound by L.E.G.O S.p.A., Italy NOTE THAT ANY PAGE CROSS REFERENCES REFER TO THE PRINT EDITION BRiEF coNTENTS Advisory editorial board ii Preface xvii About the authors xxi Publisher’s acknowledgements xxii Guided tour xxv Introducing social psychology Social cognition and social thinking Attribution and social explanation Self and identity Attitudes Persuasion and attitude change Social influence People in groups Leadership and decision making 80 112 148 270 11 Intergroup behaviour 12 Aggression 190 234 10 Prejudice and discrimination 312 356 400 454 13 Prosocial behaviour 500 14 Attraction and close relationships 15 Language and communication 16 Culture 40 618 Glossary 656 References 667 Author index 732 Subject index 738 576 536 coNTENTS Advisory editorial board ii Preface xvii About the authors xxi Publisher’s acknowledgements Guided tour xxv xxii Introducing social psychology What is social psychology? Social psychology and its close neighbours Topics of social psychology Methodological issues Scientific method Experiments Non-experimental methods 12 Data and analysis 14 Research ethics 17 Physical welfare of participants 18 Respect for privacy 18 Use of deception 18 Informed consent 19 Debriefing 19 Theoretical issues 20 Theories in social psychology 21 Social psychology in crisis 23 Reductionism and levels of explanation 23 Positivism 24 Historical context 26 Social psychology in the nineteenth century 26 The rise of experimentation 27 Later influences 28 The journals 32 Social psychology in Europe 32 About this book 34 Summary 36 Literature, film and TV 37 Learn more 38 Social cognition and social thinking Social psychology and cognition 42 A short history of cognition in social psychology 42 Forming impressions of other people 44 What information is important? 44 Biases in forming impressions 45 Cognitive algebra 47 40 736 AUTHOR Index Pearson, M.A. 472 Peng, K. 626 Pepitone, A. 432–3 Perry, D.G. 513 Personnaz, B. 261–2 Peterson, M. 321 Petrullo, L. 33 Pettigrew, T.F. 94, 100, 370, 372, 392, 404, 441 Petty, R.E. 68, 206–8, 230, 237, 260 Pfau, M. 230 Piaget, J. 295–6 Pilger, J. 387 Piliavin, J. 506–7, 508 Pinard, M. 650 Pinker, S. 457 Pittman, T.S. 141, 210 Pon, G. 589 Popp, D. 591 Poppe, E. 54 Post, D.L. 96 Postman, L.J. 104 Powell, M.C. 168 Pratkanis, A.R. 151, 154 Pratto, F. 393 Prentice, D.A. 273, 441 Prentice-Dunn, S. 164, 434–5 Prislin, R. 156, 203, 206 Przybyla, D.P.J. 525 Pyszcynski, T. 139, 523 Quinn, J.M. 228 Raaijmakers, Q. 241 Rafiq, U. 178 Raïffa, H. 411 Rapley, M. 612 Raven, B.H. 237 Ray, M.L. 198 Raymond, P. 342 Regan, D. 520 Regan, J. 210 Regoeczi, W. 477 Reicher, S. 30, 141–2, 300, 332, 420, 436–7, 438 Reid, S.A. 296 Reis, H. 544 Renzetti, C. 490 Rhodes, G. 540, 541 Rhodes, N. 204 Richman, L. 378 Rinde, E. 33 Ringelmann, M. 282 Riopelle, A. 459 Rittle, R.H. 276 Robertson, J. 556–7 Rodin, J. 516 Rogers, R. 164, 434–5 Rohmann, E. 508–9 Rokeach, M. 175–6, 392, 393–4, 633 Room, R. 171 Rosch, M. 217 Rosenbaum, D.P. 527 Rosenberg, S. 46 Rosenfield, D. 377, 392 Rosenkoetter, L. 512 Rosenthal, R. 383, 384, 594, 609 Rosip, J. 594 Ross, D. 467 Ross, E.A. 26 Ross, L. 31, 60, 93, 95, 96, 100 Ross, M. 97 Ross, S.A. 467 Rothbart, M. 60, 427 Rothman, A.J. 202 Rotter, J. 90–91 Rotton, J. 477 Rubin, Z. 384, 560 Rudman, L. 365 Ruggiero, K. 382 Runciman, G. 404, 479 Rusbult, C.E. 553, 568, 569 Rushton, J.P. 511 Russell, J. 598 Rutland, A. 205, 388 Ryan, M. 335–6 Sachdev, I. 590 Saks, M.J. 211, 351 Salovey, P. 202 Sanders, G.S. 278–9 Sanford, R.M. 115, 494 Sapir, E. 579–80 Sassenberg, K. 273 Savage, J. 483 Schachter, S. 30, 87–8, 288–9, 306, 555, 556, 562 Schaller, M. 620, 651 Scheier, M. 119 Scherer, K.R. 83, 581 Schiller, F. 47 Schimel, J. 523 Schmidt, C.F. 107 Schmitt, B.H. 277 Schmitt, M.T. 393 Schneider, B. 481 Schoebi, D. 568–9 Schoemann, A. 592 Schoenman, T.J. 117 Schriesheim, C.A. 322 Schubert, T.W. 601–2 Schuller, R.A. 205 Schwartz, J.L.K. 184 Schwartz, S. 176, 475–6, 633–4 Schwarz, N. 156 Searle, J. 579 Sears, D. 370 Sears, R. 388 Sedikides, C. 118, 132–3 Sedlak, A. 46 Seeley, E. 126, 273 Sekerak, G.J. 276 Seligman, M. 502 Semin, G. 103, 280, 579 Semmler, T. 170 Seto, M. 486 Seyranian, V. 332 Shackelford, T. 489 Shah, J.W. 122 Shamir, B. 328 Shaver, P. 558 Sheehan, P. 482 Sheeran, P. 160 Shepard, M. 465 Sherif, C.W. 30, 34, 299 Sherif, M. 30, 116, 246–7, 254, 295, 297–9, 306, 318, 336, 408–410, 415, 441, 445, 494, 514 Sherman, J.W. 106 Sherman, S.J. 106 Short, J. 387 Shotland, L. 515 Shrauger, J.S. 117 Shweder, R. 637 Sibley, C.G. 570 Sidanius, J. 393 Siebler, F. 166–7 Siegel, A.E. 297 Siegel, S. 297 Sigall, H. 539 Simmel, M. 83 Simmonds, D.B. 304 Simon, B. 407, 427 Simonton, D. 318 Simpson, J.A. 564, 569, 570 Singell, L. 314 Singer, J.E. 87–8, 562 Singh, R. 323 Sinha, D. 648 Sistrunk, F. 204, 250 Skinner, B.F. 21, 465 Smart, J. 138 Smith, C. 73 Smith, E. 165, 429 Smith, L.M. 291 Smith, P. 251, 321, 622, 624, 626, 627, 635 Sniderman, P.M. 107 Snyder, C.R. 143 Snyder, M. 143, 383, 532 Solomon, S. 139 Sorrentino, R.M. 321 Spencer, C. 410 Spencer, S.J. 381 Spencer-Rogers, J. 626 Spitz, R. 556–7 Sprecher, S. 545, 547 Srivasta, R. 405 Stacey, G.G. 156 Stack, A. 228, 471, 472 Stadler, S. 477 Stapel, D. 579 Stathi, S. 444 Staub, E. 503 Steele, C. 132, 381 Steffen, V. 363 Stein, H. 241 Steiner, I. 281–2 Steinthal 26 Stephan, C.W. 440 Stephan, W.G. 392, 426–7, 440 Stephenson, G.M. 342, 343 Sternberg, R.J. 563–4, 565 Stevens, J.R. 504–5 Stogdill, R.M. 317 Stone, J. 225 Stoner, J. 347 Stopeck, M.H. 47 Stott, C. 438 Stouffer, S. 404 Straus, M. 468 Strodtbeck, F.L. 301 Stroebe, W. 33, 200, 217, 340 Strube, M.J. 322 Struch, N. 475–6 Sullivan, K. 567 Sumner, W.G. 295, 408 Surowiecki, J. 287 Sussenbach, P. 486 Tafani, E. 178 Tajfel, H. 30, 33, 34, 54–6, 102, 128, 387, 395, 416, 418, 421, 494–5, 587, 622 Tarde, G. 26, 465 Taylor, D. 100, 382, 584 Taylor, M. 404 Taylor, S. 42, 43, 133, 427, 529 Teger, A. 531 AUTHOR Index Tepper, B.J. 322 Terry, D.J. 161, 169, 206 Tesser, A. 124 Test, M. 512 Tetlock, P.E. 107, 176 Tetrault, L.A. 322 Thakerar, J.N. 587 Thayer, S. 604 Thibaut, J. 31, 552 Thomas, W.I. 29, 150 Thomson, R. 614 Thoreau, H. 257–8 Thurstone, L.L. 151, 178–9, 201 Tice, D.M. 117, 142–3 Tiedens, L. 604 Tindale, R.S. 315 Tinkham, S.F. 203 Titus, L. 281 Toch, H. 438 Tolstoy, L. 318 Tomada, G. 481 Tönnies, F. 273 Tormala, Z.L. 198, 230 Towles-Schwen, T. 166 Trafimow, D. 163 Triandis, H.C. 170, 196, 621, 624, 635 Tripathi, R. 405 Triplett, N. 27–8, 274–5 Tropp, L.R. 441, 444 Trost, M.R. 212, 295 Tucker, J.S. 572 Tuckman, B. 291 Turner, C. 416–17 Turner, D. 505 Turner, J.C. 55, 128, 236, 237, 240, 255, 264, 291, 348, 418 Turner, R.H. 436–7 Turtle, A.M. 647 Tversky, A. 71 Tyerman, A. 410 Tyler, T.R. 205, 333, 406 van Avermaet, E. 261–2 Van Bavel, J.J. 417, 419, 420 van der Pligt, J. 156 van der Vliert, E. 533 van Dijk, T. 372 van Gyn, C. 123 van Knippenberg, D. 326 van Lange, P.A.M. 521 Van Overwalle, E. 166–7 Van Schie, E. 483 Van Vugt, M. 291 Vandello, J. 480 Vanneman, R. 404 Vaughan, G.M. 169, 424, 642 Veitch, R. 550, 551 Verplanken, B. 170 Vignoles, V.L. 144, 632 Visser, P.S. 205 Vittengl, J. 548 Voigt, H. 518 Volk, A. 481 Volpato, C. 263 Von Neumann, J. 411 von Schiller, J. 471 Vygotsky, L.S. 579 Wack, D.L. 276 Walker, I. 405, 513 Walker, L. 224 Wallach, M.A. 347 Walster, G.W. 561, 562 Walter, M.I. 525 Walther, E. 172 Wann, D.L. 472 Ward, C. 100 Warren, P. 513 Watson, J.B. 27, 150, 555 Watts, J.C. 199–200 Waytz, A. 386 Wegener, D.M. 208, 342 Weiner, B. 89–90 West, C. 591 Wetherell, M. 75 Wheeler, L. 549 Whitcher, S. 604 White, R. 318–19, 322 Whorf, B. 579–80 Whyte, W.F. 301 Wicker, A.W. 157 Wicklund, R.A. 118, 434 Widmeyer, W.N. 290 Wiegman, O. 483 Wieselquist, J. 568 Wilder, D. 252, 443 Wilkes, A.L. 55 Wilkinson, S. 597 Willer, R. 522 Williams, J.D. 72 Williams, K.D. 285, 287, 308, 613 Willingham, B. 596 Wilson, B.J. 487 Wilson, D. 175 Wilson, M.S. 393 Wispé, L. 502 Witte, K. 200 Wittgenstein, L. 51 Wolf, S. 266 Wong, C. 128 Wood, G.S. 105 Wood, W. 204, 228, 266 Worchel, S. 287, 445 Word, C. 383 Wright, A. 590 Wright, S.C. 444 Wundt, W. 27, 42, 116, 620 Yancey, G. 547 Yang, K.S. 648 Yarbrough, A.E. 604 Young, H. 183 Young, J.L. 364 Younger, J.G. 224 Yuki, M. 126 Yzerbyt, V.Y. 47, 56 Zaccaro, S. 286–7 Zahn-Waxler, C. 510 Zajonc, R.B. 275, 544 Zebrowitz, L.A. 46 Zembrodt, I.M. 569 Zhang, S. 626 Zillmann, D. 463–4 Zimbardo, P.G. 30, 222–3, 300, 410, 432–3 Zimmerman, D.H. 591 Znaniecki, F. 29, 150 Zuckerman, M. 609 737 SUBJECT INDEX above-average effect 133 abuse syndrome 490 accentuation effect 426 principles 55 acceptance, private and internalisation 237 accessibility 59, 63, 420 acculturation 644–6 achievement attributions 89–90 acquiescent response set 178, 391 action research 214–16, 648 actor-observer effect 95–6, 127 adjourning (group socialisation) 291 adjustment (heuristics) 72 advertising 207, 208–9, 488 comparative 198 factual and evaluative 201 issue/advocacy 229–30 affect 201 -based attitudes 201 -driven reasoning process 107 -infusion model 74 transfer of 201 see also affect and emotion; reinforcement-affect model affect and emotion 72–5, 89, 151, 153, 154–5, 604 affiliated disciplines 5–7 affiliation 47, 538, 555, 556, 557 affirmative action 367–8, 380 age factors 195, 205, 592–3, 608 ageism 373–4, 592 agentic state 241, 494 agentic traits 365 aggression 138, 409, 456–97, 539 authoritarian 393 biological explanations 459–62 ethology 460–1 evolutionary social psychology 461–2 limitations 462 psychodynamic theory 460 collective 474, 495 definition 457–8, 459 domestic violence 488–90 and families 628–30 general aggression model (GAM) 478–9, 513 individual differences 469–76 alcohol consumption 471–4 catharsis 470–1 disinhibition, deindividuation and dehumanisation 474–6 gender and socialisation 470 personality 469 sex hormones 469–70 institutionalised 490–5 levels of explanation 494–5 person, role of 493–4 society, role of 490–1 state, role of 493 war 492–3 intergroup 388–9 international and intranational 389 interpersonal 388 learnt patterns of 490 mass media 482–8 cognitive analysis 484–5 erotica 486–8 rape myths 486 violent films and video games 483, 484 measurement 458 physical environment 477–8 reduction 495–6 situational variables 477–8 social and biosocial explanations 462–8 excitation transfer 463–4 frustration and aggression 462–3 hate crimes 464, 465 learnt aggression 464–8 social explanation 459 societal influences 479–82 criminality and women 479–80 cultural variation 480–1 disadvantaged groups 479 subculture of violence 481–2 see also frustration-aggression hypothesis; violence alcohol consumption and aggression 471–4, 477, 490 alcohol myopia 474 allocentrism 635 altruism 502–5, 508–510, 531–2, 533, 539 altruistic gene 506 amae (passive love) 624, 643–4 ambiguity, attributional 382–3 Ambivalent Sexism Inventory 56, 368 American Psychological Association 18 American Sign Language (ASL) 599 analogue device or measure 458 analysis of variance (ANOVA) 85 anchoring (heuristics) 72 anonymity 18, 432–4, 475, 548 anxiety 58, 140, 440–1, 555–6 apologising 521 appearance 64–5 appeasement gestures 460–1, 522 appraisals 73, 74, 89 apprenticeship rites 293 approach strategic means 121 arbitration 449 archival research 13, 545, 572 arguments 192 arousal 275, 506 accidental 563 attraction and close relationships 562–3 heightened 464 labelling 506–7 physiological 87, 506–7 prosocial behaviour 528 sexual 486, 525–6 undifferentiated 87 unexplained 88 arranged marriage 568 assimilation 387, 445, 590, 645–6, 650 associative meaning 70–1, 428 associative network (propositional) model of memory 53, 63–4 assortative mating 545–7 attachment 555–60 affiliation 555 anxiety 555–6 anxious 558 avoidant 558 behaviour 557 longitudinal research 559–60 and non-verbal communication 594 psychological 568 secure 558–9 social deprivation 556–7 social isolation 555–6 styles 522–3, 557–9 attainments 404 attempt-suppressing signals 610 attention direction-of-attention hypothesis 260 focal 61, 94 attentional consequences of social presence 280 attentional narrowing 280 attitudes 150–86 accessibility 165–7 affect-based 201 -behaviour relationship 168, 210, 359, 425 broad 174 change see persuasion and attitudes change cognition and evaluation 153–5 cognitive consistency 152–3 cognitive-based 201 decision-making 155–6 environmental 159 formation 171–5 behavioural approaches 171–4 cognitive development 174 learning sources 174–5 functions 152 general 159 historical background 150–1 and ideology 176–7 and intention 216 measurement 178–86 attitudes scales 178, 179, 180 covert behaviour 183–5 Subject Index overt behaviour 182–3 physiological 180–1 moderator variables 169–71 one-component attitudes model 151 priming 183–4 scaling 28–9 similarity and liking 544–5 and social representations 177–8 specific 159, 174 strength, and direct experience 166, 167–8 structure 151–2 three-component model 151–2 two-component model 151 and values 175–6 weak 169 see also beliefs, intentions and behaviour attraction 47, 538–60 attractive people 538–9 cultural stereotypes 548–9 and evolution 539–41 facial attractiveness 540–1 genetics 539–40 ideals, search for 541 law of 544–5 liking, loving and affiliating 538 personal 290 personal characteristics 547–8 and rewards 549–55 comparison levels 552 costs and benefits 550–2 norms 554–5 reinforcement approach 549–50 social exchange, equity and justice 550, 552–4 social 280, 291, 425 see also attachment; close relationships; liking attractiveness 195, 196 attribution 31, 43 ambiguity 382–3 bias 97 causal 87, 90, 91, 92 conflict 91–2 and culture 625–6 dispositional 83, 85, 93, 95, 96, 99–100, 102, 108–9, 123 external 86–7, 95, 96, 98 fundamental attribution error 93–5, 625 intergroup 99–102 internal 86–7, 95, 96, 101 performance 100 prejudice and discrimination 366–7 and prosocial behaviour 513 responsibility 92, 98 situational 83, 94, 95, 96, 99–100, 102, 169–70 and social impact 265–6 theories 21, 31, 82, 258 ultimate attribution error 94, 100, 625 see also attribution and social explanation attribution and social explanation 82–109 achievement 89–90 behaviour, seeking causes of 82–3 biases, attributional 92–9 actor-observer effect 95–6 correspondence bias and fundamental attribution error 93–5 false consensus effect 96–7 self-serving biases 97–9 causality, attribution of 83–7 emotions, explanation of 87–9 external (situational) 83 individual differences and attributional styles 90–1 intergroup attribution 99–102 internal dispositional 83, 93 interpersonal relationships 91–2 own behaviour, attributions for 89 task performance attributions 89–90 see also social knowledge and societal attributions attributional complexity 59 scale (ACS) 91 attributional style 91 questionnaire (ASQ) 91 audience 197 effects see mere presence and audience effects inhibition 517, 518 authoritarian personality/authoritarianism 30, 351, 382–3, 390–92, 419, 494 authority 391 ranking (AR) 635, 637, 639 autocratic decision-making 324 autokinesis 246, 247, 298 automatic activation 167, 550 automaticity 371–2 autonomy 258, 303, 637 averageness effect 540–1 averaging (cognitive algebra) 48 avoidance strategic means 121 baby boomers 373 ‘baby talk’ 592 back-channel communication 610 background (and neutral) stimulus 550, 551 balance theory 50, 153, 218 bandwagon effect 348 bargaining 31, 447–8 base-rate information 70 behaviour 4, 64, 152 counter-attitudinal 215, 221, 222, 225–6, 228 exit 570 negative 225 overt 42, 182–3 planned (volition) 160–5 post-message 230 seeking causes of 82–3 theory of planned behaviour (TPB) 160–63, 165, 170, 216 see also collective behaviour and the crowd; intergroup behaviour; prosocial behaviour behavioural approaches and attitude formation 171–4 behavioural control, perceived 161, 163, 164 behavioural decision theory 68 behavioural ecology of marriage 568 behavioural style and genetic model 258–60 behaviourism 21, 28, 42, 550 belief 201 congruence 393–5 in a just world (just world hypothesis) 99, 490, 513 beliefs, intentions and behaviour 157–65 general attitude 159 planned behaviour: volition 160–5 preventive behaviour against major diseases 164 reasoned action 159–60, 162 specific attitude 158–9 beliefs, prior and persuasive communication 206 739 bias 11, 13, 24, 43, 68, 99–100 attributional 97 cognitive 171, 206 conformity 257 correspondence 108, 300, 332, 625 disconfirmation 206 ethnic 387–8 experimenter 14 group-enhancing/group-protective 100 impression formation 45–7 in language use 183 linguistic intergroup bias effect 372, 609 outcome 84, 94, 98, 101 social desirability 155–6 spatial agency 580 subject 14 see also under attribution and social explanation bicultural identity 644 Big Five personality dimensions 317, 329, 548–9 bilingualism and second-language acquisition 587–90 biochemistry 22 biology and prosocial behaviour 504–6 biopsychosocial model 74, 200 BIRGing (basking in reflected glory) 125 blind obedience to authority 493 ‘blue-green’ studies 259, 261–3 body posture see kinesics body temperature and aggression 477 bogus pipeline technique 182–3, 609 bookkeeping 60, 442–3 boomerang effect 228 brain electrical activity 181 brain imaging see also fMRI ‘brain worry’ theory 28 brainstorming 339–41 electronic 340 brainwashing 228, 231 bullying 481, 495–6 bystander effect 360–1, 513–19, 524 apathy 515, 516–17, 518 bystander-calculus model 506–7 ‘he’s having a fit’ 516 intervention 514, 515 ‘lady in distress’ 516 limits to 517–19 three-in-one experiment 517, 518–19 ‘where there’s smoke there’s fire’ 514–16 California F-scale 391 careers 47 case studies 13 categorisation intergroup behaviour 426–7 prejudice and discrimination 371–2 social 60, 417, 418, 419–20, 648 category -consistent manner 63 -incongruent manner 63 representation 53 see also social schemas and categories cathartic hypothesis 470–1, 472, 483 causal unit 94 causality 31, 83–7 dual theory 107–8 ceiling effect 10 central route processing 68, 207 charisma 317, 327–9, 332, 415 choice dilemma 347 740 Subject Index circumscribed accuracy 57 classical conditioning 172, 173, 208, 388, 510, 550 clinical judgement 69 close relationships 560–6 marriage and love 564 marriages, arranged 565–6 same-sex romantic relationships 566 see also love closed-mindedness 392 cognition 87, 152 -based attitude 201 and culture 625–6 data-driven 58 -driven reasoning process 107 and evaluation 153–5 and language 579–80 necessity for 59 see also social cognition cognitive algebra 47–9, 50, 68, 155 cognitive alternatives 423 cognitive analysis and aggression 484–5 cognitive appraisals 73, 89 cognitive approaches 31 cognitive biases 171, 206 cognitive closure 59 cognitive complexity 59 cognitive consistency 43, 152–3 theories 21, 174, 217 cognitive development 174 theory 295–6 cognitive dissonance 30, 192, 215, 294, 295 culture 626 prejudice and discrimination 378 theory 153 see also cognitive dissonance and attitude change cognitive dissonance and attitude change 216–27 effort justification 218–20 free choice 222–5 induced compliance 220–2 revised cognitive dissonance model 226–7 self, role of 225 self-perception theory 226 vicarious dissonance 225–6 cognitive factors 97 cognitive heuristics 31 cognitive miser 43, 93, 152 cognitive neuroscience see social neuroscience cognitive process 101–2 cognitive psychology 21–2, 43 cognitive schema 49 cognitive theories 21 cohesiveness in groups 288–91 collective action 407–8 collective behaviour and the crowd 256, 390, 430–38 deindividuation and self-awareness 432–6 early theories 431–2 norm theory, emergent 436–7 social identity theory 437–8 collective mind 26 collectivist cultures/collectivism 620, 625–6, 630, 633–8, 643, 647, 650 attraction and close relationships 548, 549 groups 274, 287 prosocial behaviour 531–2 self and identity 143–4 collectivist theories 23 commitment 564, 565 constraint 568 in groups 292 lack of 553 moral 568 prior 526–7 in relationships 568–9 common bond and common identity 441 common ingroup identity model 444 communal behaviour 567 see also collective behaviour communal sharing (CS) 637, 639 communal traits 365 communication 55, 578 accommodation theory 587 back-channel 610 computer-mediated 304, 612–14 intercultural 641–2 intergroup relations 447–50 networks in groups 302–4 theory 194 see also language; non-verbal communication; conversation; discourse analysis communicative gene 506 community 637 companions and friends 568 comparison level 553 process 260 compassion/ compassionate love 509 compensation effect 56 competence 45, 49, 56, 64, 141, 210 language and communication 582 prejudice and discrimination 362–3 and prosocial behaviour 523–4 social 512 competition 635–7 intergroup behaviour 415, 416, 417 social 423 see also under realistic conflict compliance 236–7 coercive 237 -conformity distinction 210 induced 220–2, 224 leadership 315 see also under persuasion and attitude change comprehension 61 conciliation (intergroup relations) 449–50 conditioned reflexes 21 conditioning classical 172, 173, 208, 388, 510, 550 evaluative 172 instrumental 173, 388, 510 operant 21, 388 confidentiality 18 configural model 44, 50, 68 confirmatory bias 391 conflict 306, 408, 410 distraction-conflict theory 278–9 intergroup 56, 439 post-decisional 222 see also realistic conflict conformity 7, 30, 34, 236–7, 240, 245–56, 258, 259 arbitrary norm creation 247 bias 257 cultural norms 251–2 and culture 626–7 as function of presence or absence of support 253 group decision-making 349 group size 252–3 group unanimity 253 individual and group characteristics 250–2 informational and normative influence 254–5 jury verdicts 351 leadership 316 majority group pressure, yielding to 246–50 as a necessity 628 norm formation and influence 245–6 processes 253–6 referent informational influence 255–6 situational factors 252–3 confounding 10 variables 11 connectionism 165–7 consensus information 85–7, 96 consideration individualised 327 and leadership behaviour 320–1, 324 consistency 86–7, 153, 258–9 information 85–6 perceived 259 principle 215 synchronic 259 theories in attraction and close relationships 549 conspiracy theories 105–6 constructs 114 contact hypothesis 441–2, 641 contagions (collective behaviour) 430 contemplation ladder 216 content-of-thinking hypothesis 260 context 22, 48, 169 -comparison model of minority influence 264 and emotions 88 contextual cues 419 contextual factors in attraction and close relationships 540, 541 contextual variation in language and communication 582 contingency theories 321–4 contrast effect 213 control, illusion of 99 controllability (task performance attributions) 89–90 conventionalism 393 convergent-divergent theory 263 conversation 609–11 analysis (CA) 611 conversion 60, 443 effect 260 theory 260–3, 266 cooperation 413, 635–7 cultural variations in aggression 481 intergroup behaviour 409–10 prosocial behaviour 504–5 see also under realistic conflict coordination loss 282–3 coping 512 appraisal 164, 200 correlation 12–13, 15–16, 87 distinctiveness-based 70–1 illusory 70–1, 428–9 studies 92 correspondence bias 108, 300, 332, 625 cortisol levels 180 cost-benefit analysis 562, 567 Subject Index cost-reward ratio 550 counter-attitudinal behaviour 215, 221, 222, 225–6, 228 covariation 70–1, 87 model 85 criminality and women 479–80 crisis-leadership role 364 cross-level research 24 crosscutting categories and groups 304–5 crowd behaviour see collective behaviour cultural diversity 649 cultural factors and aggression 480–1, 489 attitude 162, 174 attraction and close relationships 540, 547, 548, 562, 564, 565–6 correspondence bias 94–5 depressed self-esteem and ethnic minority status 137 gaze and eye contact 600–1 intergroup relations 445 language and communication 578–80, 582–4, 590, 595–9, 602, 608 non-verbal communication 598 prejudice and discrimination 376 prosocial behaviour 533 self and identity 143–4 social knowledge and societal attributions 107–9 touch 606 cultural norms 251–2, 480, 530, 627 cultural orientation 636 cultural pluralism 650 cultural relativism 648, 649 cultural stereotypes and attraction 548–9 culture 30, 620–52 acculturation 644–6 -blind 621 -bound 621 cognition and attribution 625–6 communication, language and speech style 641–2 conformity and obedience 626–7 cooperation, competition and social identity 635–7 cross-cultural challenge 647 cross-cultural psychology 624–5 cultural diversity 650–1 definition 622 history and social psychology 622–5 of honour 480–1, 629 independent self 630–2 indigenous social psychologies 647–8 interdependent self 630–2 language and understanding 642–4 multicultural challenge 649–51 norms and identity 640 origins in cultural anthropology 623–4 prosocial behaviour 637 relationships, characterising cultures by 637–40 and socialisation 627–30 universals 648–9 values, characterising cultures by 632–5 see also collectivist cultures/collectivism; cultural factors; individualistic societies/individualism cyber-bullying 495 cyber-dehumanisation 475 cyber-ostracism 308, 613 cyber-relationships (internet-mediated) 543 Darwinian theory 22 data 4, 14–17, 42 -driven cognition 58 dating sites 548 death, fear of 139–40 death instinct (thanatos) 460 debriefing 19 decategorisation 444 deception 18–19, 245, 608–9 decision rules 505 decision schemes 351 decision-making 155–6, 324, 633 see also group decision-making deconstruction (subjective analysis) 25 definition of social psychology 4–7 degradation 487 dehumanisation 358, 385–7, 420, 474–6, 487 deindividuation 30, 119, 425, 432–6, 474–6, 613 delinquency 420 demand characteristics 11, 13, 14 demographic variables in language and communication 585 dependent measure 12 dependent variables 10 depersonalisation 130, 419–20 depression 91 desensitisation 482–3, 486–7 developmental factors and correspondence bias 94–5 deviants and marginal members (groups) 305–6 differential-influence hypothesis 260–1 diffuse status characteristics 301–2, 330 diffusion of responsibility 516, 517, 518 direct access (information processing) 74 direction-of-attention hypothesis 260 disadvantaged groups 479 disconfirmation bias 206 discounting 85–6 discourse analysis 13, 16–17, 611–12 discrimination see prejudice and discrimination discursive psychology 25 disinhibition 474–6, 482 hypothesis 472 displacement 388–9 display rules 596–7, 642 dispositions, internal 85–6 dissolution (relationships) 91 dissonance 153, 225 vicarious 225–6 see also cognitive dissonance distinctiveness 86–7 information 85–6 optimal 429 paired 70, 428 positive 420–1 distraction 58, 195 -conflict theory 278–9 distributive justice 333–4, 406, 415, 554 divergence (group socialisation) 294 diversity cultural 649 intergroup relations 446–7 divinity 637 dogma/dogmatism 8–9, 392 domestic partners 568 domestic violence 488–90 door-in-the-face tactic 211, 213 double-blind experiment 12 drive theory 21, 275–6 dual theory of causality 107–8 dual-leadership 320 741 dual-process models 68, 199, 206–9, 237, 255, 260 dyadic influence 384–5 dyadic phase (break-ups) 572 dynamogenic theory 28 effort justification 218–20 egalitarianism 351, 634 egotism 531–2, 533 automatic 133 model 138 elaboration-likelihood model 68, 207, 208, 237 ‘elderspeak’ 592 embarrassment 522 emblems 602 emergency situation 514 emotional lability 87–8 emotional states 509 emotion(s) 73, 597–8 attraction and close relationships 539 basic 595–6 displayed through paralinguistic cues 581 distinct 509 explanation of 87–9 expression of 594–6 -in-relationships model 560 intergroup 429–30 negative 135 prosocial behaviour 510 -related bias 122–3 vicarious 509 see also affect and emotion empathy 440, 506–7, 508–10 Enlightenment 115, 623 entitativity 288, 419, 421, 626 environmental factors 22, 83, 85–6, 88 equality 553 matching (EM) 637, 638 equity 552–4 theory 553–5, 567 erotica and aggression 486–8 errors 43, 68, 343 essentialism 94, 580 ethical issues 12, 17–19, 241, 245, 528, 637 see also moral entries ethnic biases 387–8 ethnic death 387 ethnicity language and communication 583–4, 585 self-esteem and social identity 136–7 see also culture ethnocentrism 100–102, 391, 408, 410, 414, 416–17, 418 embryonic 409–410, 415–16 latent 409 ethnographic research 623 ethnolinguistic group 583 ethnolinguistic identity theory 583 ethnolinguistic vitality 584–5 ethnomethodology 296, 611 ethology and aggression 460–1 etic-emic distinction 624 European Association of Social Psychology (EASP) 33, 34 European social psychology 32–4 evaluation apprehension 11, 13, 14, 276–8, 279, 286, 340 evaluation, enhanced 295 evaluation in groups 292 evaluative conditioning 172 evaluative response 173 742 Subject Index event-related brain potentials (ERPs) 181 evolution and attraction 539–41, 562 and prosocial behaviour 504–6 evolutionary psychology 22 evolutionary social psychology 22, 24, 461–2, 504, 539 exam cheating 527–9 excitation transfer 463–4, 486 exemplars 53 exemplification 141, 210 exit behaviour 570 expectancies 101–2, 159–60 expectancy-value theory 164, 178, 407 expectation states theory 301, 330 expectations 404 experience, direct and attitude formation 171 experiences 404 experimenter bias 14 experimenter effects 12 experiments 9–12, 27–8, 30 field 12 laboratory 11–12 manipulation 9 expertise 195 expressiveness 363 extended contact effect 444 extremism 495 eye contact see gaze and eye contact eyewitness testimony 65 face and expression of emotions 594–6 face-ism 365 Facial Action Coding System (FACS) 595 facial affect programme 597 facial attractiveness 540–1 facial display rules 595, 596–9, 642 facial expression 181 facial symmetry 541 factor analysis 180 failure and disadvantage (prejudice and discrimination) 382 false consensus effect 96–7 familiarity 543–4, 547 families and aggression 628–30 family resemblance 51–2 favouritism 396, 418, 440 fear 195 -arousing messages 199–201 of social blunders 517 feelings 72 fertility 540 field studies 14 field theory 21 fighting instinct 460 first shift (decision-making) 338 fitness altruism 505 ‘flip-flopping’ 260 floor effect 10 fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) 11, 22, 24, 43, 75 focal attention 61 folk psychology 26, 622–3 followership 333 foot-in-the-door tactic 211–13, 241 football hooliganism 476 forewarning 228 forgetting, differential 94 forgiveness 521, 569 formation (relationships) 91 forming (group socialisation) 291 frame of reference 246, 297–8 free choice 222–5 free-rider effect 285, 340, 414 frustration-aggression hypothesis 388–90, 402–3, 419, 439, 462–3, 464 full cycle research 29 full-range leadership model 328 fundamental attribution error 93–5, 625 fuzzy sets 52 game theory 411 see also prisoner’s dilemma gaze and eye contact 587, 599–601, 642 Gemeinschaft 273, 441 gender factors aggression 470, 479–80 attraction and close relationships 548, 555, 561, 562 domestic violence 489–90 gaze and eye contact 600, 601 groups 273 language and communication 591–2, 595, 597, 599, 601–2, 604, 608, 614 non-verbal communication 594, 604–5 persuasive communication 204 prejudice and discrimination 363, 384 prosocial behaviour 509, 510, 524–6 social cognition 75 social influence 250–1 touch 605–6 gender gaps and leadership 334–6 gender-specific texting 613 General Aggression Model (GAM) 513 General Learning Model (GLM) 513 general psychology 26, 27 generalisation 389–90, 442–4 generation X 373 generative psychology 648 genetic model 258–60 genetics and attraction 539–40 genocide 358, 368, 385–7, 493, 496 Gesellschaft 273, 441 Gestalt psychology 21, 43, 44, 50, 153 gestures 578, 642 appeasement 460–1, 522 glass ceilings 334–5, 364 glass cliff 335–6, 364 global village 641 goals 531–2 and effects on person memory 67–8 instrumental 531 mutually exclusive 439 superordinate 409–10, 439, 445–6 ultimate 531 good genes hypothesis 540 Good Samaritan syndrome 521, 522 graduated and reciprocated initiatives in tension reduction (GRIT) 449–50 ‘grand theory’ 20, 21 grave-dressing phase (break-ups) 570 great person theory 316–17 group decision-making 324, 337–49 brainstorming 339–41 groupthink 345–6 memory 341–5 culture 345 remembering 341–2 transactive memory 342–4 persuasive arguments 348 polarisation 347–9 rules governing group decisions 338–9 social comparison/cultural values 348 social identity theory 348–9 group-centrism 495 group-enhancing bias 100 group-protective bias 100 group(s) 125, 236, 240, 272–309 acceptance 248 affiliation and group formation, motivations for 307 and aggregates 273–4 behaviour 75, 125 categories 272–3 cohesiveness 288–91, 345–6 common-bond and common-identity 273 definition 272–4 deviants and marginal members 305–6 dynamics 29 effectivity, illusion of 340 effects on individual performance 274–87 classification of group tasks 281–2 social loafing and social impact 282–7 see also mere presence and audience effects: social facilitation entitativity 272–3 environment questionnaire 290 ethnolinguistic 583 full member 292 heterogeneous 340 identification 125, 415, 421 and intergroup behaviour and social identity 128 maintenance 321 membership 55, 66, 237 mind 23, 26, 342 minimal group categorisation 127, 427, 440 minimal group paradigm 307, 395, 421 nominal 340–41 non-members 292 non-prototypical member 331 norms 246, 295–9, 648 performance 323 polarisation 256, 350 pressure 30, 244, 250 processes 24, 34, 116, 402 prototypicality 331 quasi-member 292 reasons for joining 306 reference group 237 shared group membership 336 size 252–3, 286 socialisation 291–5 solidarity 290–1 status 130 structure 299–306 communication networks 302–4 roles 299–300 status 301–2 study of 29 subgroups and crosscutting categories 304–5 unanimity and conformity 253 value model 333 see also group decision-making; ingroup; intergroup; outgroup; subgroups groupthink 13, 350 guilt arousal 210–11 collective 425, 430 Guttman scale 178, 179 habits 163, 170 handicap, physical or mental 374–6 Subject Index harmony 410 hate crimes 464, 465 health support networks 529 heart rate 180, 181 hedonic relevance 85 hedonism 520 helpfulness 513 helping behaviour 502–3 see also prosocial behaviour heuristic processing 74 heuristic-systematic model 68, 207–9, 237, 260 heuristics 71–2, 93 hidden profiles 339 hierarchical cultures 634 historical context 26–32 Anglo-European influences 26 attitude scaling 28–9 early texts 26 experimentation 27–8, 30 groups, study of 29 journals 32 programmes 30–1 textbooks 29–30 homogeneity, relative 181, 426–7 homosexuality 374, 375, 465, 489, 566 honesty 548 hospitalism 557 hostility 409 human nature 46, 386 human uniqueness 386 hypodescent 106 hypotheses 8–9 id 115 ideal standards model 569 ideals, search for 541 identities, dual 644 identity 125–6 bicultural 644 common 441, 444 -confirming function 420 and culture 640 entrepreneurship 332–3 ethnolinguistic identity theory 583 group structure 300 ingroup 56 positive 420 relational 337 superordinate 446 validation 142 see also self and identity; social identity ideo-motor responses 28 ideological dilemmas 177 ideological orthodoxy 177 ideologies of antagonism 640 ideology 393, 636 and attitude 176–7 comparative 635–6 monistic 177 non-comparative 635–6 pluralistic 177 political 176 religious 177 ideomotor response 484 idiocentrism 635 idiosyncrasy credit 325–6 illocution 578 image-reparation hypothesis 520 imagined contact 444 imitation 465 immigration 441, 447 impartiality 448 implicit association test (IAT) 184–5, 372 impression formation 44–9, 60, 68 attraction and close relationships 543 biases 45–7 cognitive algebra 47–9 important information 44–5 impression management 141–3, 185, 608–9 inclusivity 53 independence jury verdicts 351 prejudice and discrimination 363 independent variables 9–10 individual differences 59 and attributional styles 90–1 and leadership 316–17 moderator variables 169–71 persuasive communication 204–5 see also under aggression individualism 620, 635, 636 individualistic societies/individualism 625, 630, 633–6, 638, 643, 647, 650 attraction and close relationships 548, 549 groups 273–4 self and identity 143–4 individualistic theories 23 industrial psychology 29 industrialisation 114, 623 inference causal 91 correspondent 82, 84–5 stereotypic 580 influence 239–40, 315 information diluted 69–70 encoding 50 integration theory 155, 174 processing 155 informational differences 96 informational influence 260, 266 informed consent 19 infra-humanisation 386 ingratiation 141, 210–11 ingroup 402 favouritism 418 identity 56 projection 337 trust 336 initiating structure (leadership behaviour) 320–1 initiation 294–5 injunctive norms 297 innovation 258 credit 326 inoculation (resistance to persuasion) 228–30 insecure attachment style 569 instinct 459, 460, 555 institutional support variable and language and communication 585 instrumental conditioning 173, 388, 510 integrated threat model 440 integration (culture and migration) 590, 645–6 intellective tasks 338 intellectual stimulation 327 intelligence 317 intention and behaviour 170 to persist 568 intentionality 85 interaction 550 743 interdependent cultures see collectivist cultures/ collectivism intergroup aggression 388–9 attribution 99–102 conflicts 56 discrimination 30 language and communication 590–3 leadership 336–7 power relations 239 relational identity 337 relations 55, 122–3 see also intergroup behaviour; intergroup relations improvement intergroup behaviour 54, 400–50 competition 416–17 definition 402 differentiation 418 emotions 429–30 hostility and conflict 439 intergroup emotions theory (IET) 429–30 intergroup phenomenon 437 relative deprivation 402–6 social cognition 425–9 categorisation and relative homogeneity 426–7 distinctive stimuli and illusory correlation 428–9 memory 427–8 optimal distinctiveness 429 social identity 415–25 group membership 418–19 and intergroup relations 421–4 minimal groups 415–18 positive distinctiveness and selfenhancement 420–1 psychological salience 420 social categorisation, prototypes and depersonalisation 419–20 uncertainty reduction 421 social protest and collective action 407–8 see also collective behaviour and the crowd; intergroup relations improvement; realistic conflict intergroup relations improvement 439–50 communication and negotiation 447–50 contact policy in multicultural contexts 445 generalisation 442–4 pluralism and diversity 446–7 propaganda and education 439–40 similarity 442 superordinate goals 445–6 international contact (culture) 642 Internet and aggression 488 computer-mediated communication 304, 612–14 see also cyber entries interpersonal aggression 388 interpersonal bargaining 31 interpersonal contact 443 interpersonal dependency 255 interpersonal distance 182, 606 interpersonal interdependence model 289 interpersonal liking 288 interpersonal relations 31, 91–2, 99–100 intervention (experiments) intimacy 563–4, 565 -equilibrium theory 607–8 intimidation 141, 210 intrapsychic phase (break-ups) 572 744 Subject Index introspection 42 investigation (group socialisation) 294 investment 258, 553 iterative reprocessing model 419, 420 J-curve 404–5 joint actions 550 judgements dimensions of 55 implicit and automatic 155–6 memory-based 67 prior 60 of responsibility 90 social 47, 74, 226 stereotypic 183–4 jury verdicts 350–1 justice and attraction 552–4 distributive 333–4, 406, 415, 554 and fairness 333–4 procedural 333–4, 406, 415, 554, 555 social 553, 554 kin selection 505 kinesics 601, 642 language 25, 55, 578–93 acquisition device 579 affect and emotion 75 age groups and generations 592–3 bilingualism and second-language acquisition 587–90 conversation 609–11 culture and migration 590 discourse 611–12 ethnicity and speech style 583–4 gender factors 591–2 intercultural 641–2 intergroup 590–3 paralanguage 581 prosodic features 581 thought and cognition 579–80 and understanding 642–4 use, bias in 183 vitality 584–6 see also linguistic entries; speech large numbers, law of 69 leader behaviour description questionnaire (LBDQ) 320–1, 324 categorisation theory 331 -member exchange (LMX) theory 321 -member relations 323 schemas 335 see also leadership leadership 29, 236, 237, 239–40, 256, 314–37 attraction and close relationships 553 authoritarian 321 autocratic 319–20 bad or dangerous 315, 316 charismatic/inspiring 327–9, 415 contingency theories 321–4 definition 315–16 democratic 319–20 dictatorial 315 dual-leadership 320 effective/ineffective 316, 317, 318, 331 expectation states and status characteristics 330 full-range leadership model 328 gender gaps 334–6 glass ceilings 334–5 glass cliff 335–6 good 316 great 316 group structure 304 idiosyncrasy credit 325–6 innovative 332 intergroup 336–7, 414–15 justice and fairness 333–4 laissez-faire 319–20, 328 leader categorisation theory 329–30 leader perceptions and leadership schemas 329–30 leader-member exchange theory 326–7 Machiavellian and narcissistic 315 multifactor leadership questionnaire 328 non-interfering 328 normative decision theory 324 notorious 316 organisational 315 path-goal theory 324 perceptions 329–30 personality traits and individual differences 316–17 political/public 315 and prosocial behaviour 524–5 prototypical 326, 331–2 relationship-oriented 321–2, 323 schemas see prototypes situational perspectives 318 social dilemmas 334 social identity 330–3 task-oriented 321–2, 323 team 315 transactional 325–7, 328 transformational 317, 327–8, 329, 332 and trust 333–4 types 318–21 visionary 329 learning by direct experience 465 by vicarious experience 465–6, 512 observational 173–4, 510 organisational 341 theories 174 see also self-knowledge; social learning learnt helplessness 91 least-preferred co-worker scale 321–2, 323–4 legitimation, codes of 640 leniency contract 264–5 level of analysis (or explanation) 23–4, 25, 101, 136, 632 life instinct (eros) 460 life stages hypothesis 205 lifelong openness hypothesis 205 Likert scale 178, 179, 180 liking 538, 542–9, 560, 607 assortative mating 545–7 attitude similarity 544–5 familiarity 543–4 interpersonal 288 name matching and marriage 545–6 proximity 542–3 social matching 545 linguistic factors and correspondence bias 95 linguistic intergroup bias effect 372, 609 linguistic power 195 linguistic relativity 579 locus of control 91 locus (task performance attributions) 89–90 locution 578 love 47, 538, 560, 563–4 amae (passive love) 624, 643–4 companionate 561, 562, 567–8 consummate 564 definition 560 fatuous 564 and illusions 563 as a label 562–3 marriage 568 passionate or romantic 561, 562, 564 triangle of 565 types of 560–1 lovers 568 low-ball tactic 211, 213–14 loyalty 291, 569 elicitation 293 Machiavellianism 176 machismo 481, 630 maintenance group socialisation 294 relationships 91 majority group pressure, yielding to 246–50 majority influence 260, 261, 265–6 majority wins (decision-making) 338 Manicheism 177 manipulation, perceived 195 marginalisation (culture and migration) 590, 645–6 marital distress 611 marital satisfaction 92, 568, 611 market pricing (MP) 638–9 marriage 564–6 arranged 568 masculinity-femininity 633–4 mass media and attitude formation 175 prejudice and discrimination 364–5 prosocial behaviour 512–13 see also under aggression matched-guise technique 582, 611 matching to standard 286 meaning (language) 578–9 mechanical turk (MTurk) 14 mediation in intergroup relations 448–9 memory 63–8 contents of 64–6 intergroup behaviour 427–8 long-term 64, 71 organisation of 66 short-term (working) 64 social 74 using 66–8 see also under group decision-making mental readiness 151 mere exposure effect 171, 387, 544 mere observation 467 mere presence and audience effects: social facilitation 274–81 distraction-conflict theory 278–9 drive theory 275–6 evaluation apprehension 276–8 social facilitation 279–81 message 197 type 209 meta-analysis 159–60, 163, 281, 384, 538, 626 metacontrast principle 128, 255, 419 metastatements 343 metatheory 21, 402, 647 Subject Index methodological issues 8–17 data and analysis 14–17 experiments 9–12 non-experimental methods 12–14 scientific method 8–9 millenials 373 mindlessness 214 minimal group categorisation 127, 427, 440 minimal group paradigm 307, 395, 421 minimax strategy 552 minority 34 minority influence jury verdicts 351 theory 648 see also minority influence and social change minority influence and social change 256–66 attribution and social impact 265–6 behavioural style and genetic model 258–60 convergent-divergent theory 263 conversion theory 260–3 social identity and self-categorisation 263–4 vested interest and leniency contract 264–5 misattribution paradigm 87, 88–9 modelling 173, 511–12 effect 466, 512 moderator variable 169–71, 205 mood 170–1, 208–9 states and prosocial behaviour 519–21 moral commitment 568 moral issues and aggression 491 moral norms 158 moral principles 637 moral reasoning 512 moral values 163 motivated processing 74 motivated tactician 43, 93, 152 motivation/motivational 43, 56, 275, 407 factors 97 loss 282–3, 285 see also social loafing orientation 138–9 motives normative 407 in prosocial behaviour 531–2 multiculturalism 445 hypothesis 590 multifactor leadership questionnaire 328 multiple requests and compliance 211–14 multiple-act criterion 159 mundane realism 11 mutual differentiation model 443 mutual mistrust 412–13 mutual obligation norm 554 mutual support 567 mutualism 505 mutually exclusive goals 439 naïve psychologist (scientist) 43, 82, 83–4, 87, 96 name matching and marriage 545–6 narcissism 138, 441 nature-nurture controversy aggression 459, 481 language and communication 597–8 prosocial behaviour 504 negativity (impression formation) 46 neglect 569 negotiating styles 260 negotiation in intergroup relations 447–50 neo-associationist analysis 484–5 neo-behaviourism 21 neo-Freudians 460 neuroscience 22 neurosexism 75 non-common effects 84–5 non-experimental methods 12–14 archival research 13 case studies 13 field studies 14 qualitative research and discourse analysis 13 survey research 13–14 non-verbal communication 182, 183, 587, 593–609, 642 face and expression of emotions 594–6 facial display rules 596–9 functions 593 gaze and eye contact 599–601 gender factors 594 impression management and deception 608–9 postures and gestures 601–4 proxemics (interpersonal distance) 606–8 relationships and attachment 594 touch 604–6 variations 593–4 see also gestures; kinesics non-zero-sum game 447 normalisation 258 normality, departures from 68–71 normative decision theory 324 normative fit 130, 420 normative influence 260, 266 normative models 68 normative motive 407 norming (group socialisation) 291 norms 169, 170, 236 and attraction 554–5 cultural 251–2, 480, 530, 627, 640 descriptive 296–7 extreme or polarised 52 formation and influence 30, 245–6, 247 group 246, 295–9, 349, 648 for helping 530–1 injunctive 297 leadership 316 moral 158 mutual obligation 554 prejudice and discrimination 364 reciprocity 611 salient 636 social 237, 247, 514 social responsibility 531 stereotype 297 subjective 159 talk 332, 333 theory, emergent 436–7 obedience 236–7 and culture 626–7 destructive 30 to authority 240–5, 493 objective accommodation in language and communication 587 observation 512 observational learning 173–4, 510 obstacles, insurmountable 407 one-component view 153 one-factor design 10 ontogeny 596 openness to change versus conservatism 634 operant conditioning 21, 388 operant reinforcement principles 465 745 operational definition 25, 458 organisational learning 341 organisational psychology 24 orientation, long-term 568 ostracism 140, 308, 470, 556, 613 outcome bias 84, 94, 98, 101 outgroup 402 behaviour 100–101 output equity 286 overjustification effect 123–4 overt behaviour 42, 182–3 P-O-X unit 153 pair-bonding system 564 paired distinctiveness 70, 428 paired words 70 paradigm shifts 316 paralanguage and speech style 581 parental modelling 388 parental prejudices 388 parents and attitude formation 174 participation-equalisation effect 613 partner regulation 570 partnerships, ideal 569 passion 563, 564, 565 path-goal theory 324, 550 Pavlovian conditioning see classical conditioning pay-off matrix 411–12 peace studies 496 Pearson’s r 16–17 perceptual focus 96 performance pressure 58 performing (group socialisation) 291 peripheral and central processing distinction 260 peripheral cues 207 peripheral route processing 68, 207 person perception 44 personal characteristics 547–8 see also under prosocial behaviour personal constructs 46 personal dedication 568 personal factors and causality 83 personalisation 444 personalism 85 personality 22–3, 30, 115 and aggression 469 and attraction 547 authoritarian 30, 351, 382–3, 390–2, 419, 494 culture 623 exam cheating 527 intergroup behaviour 402 lay theories of 46 scale 169–70 theories 46, 439 traits and leadership 316–17 types A and B 469 perspective taking 444 persuasion and attitude change 192–231 attitude, arguments and behaviour 192 compliance 209–16 action research 214–16 ingratiation 210–11 multiple requests 211–14 systematic processing 209 dual process models 206–9 persuasive communication 192–206 age factors 205 audience 195, 204–6 cognitive biases 206 communicator 196–8 746 Subject Index persuasion and attitude change (continued) facts versus feelings 201 fear-arousing messages 199–201 framing a message 202 gender factors 204 individual differences 204–5 medium and message 201–2 message 195, 198–203 prior beliefs 206 repetition, effects of 198–9 self-esteem 204 sleeper effect 202–3 source credibility 196–8 source factors 195 Yale approach 194 resistance to persuasion 227–31 attitude accessibility and strength 230–1 forewarning 228 inoculation 228–30 reactance 228 see also cognitive dissonance persuasive arguments 347–8 persuasive influence 237 phenomenological approach 30 phone language 602 phonetics and phonemics distinction 624 phylogeny 596 physical appearance 46–7 physical environment and aggression 477–8 physical welfare of participants 18 physiological arousal 87 planned behaviour: volition 160–5 pluralism 445, 446–7 cultural 650 methodological 9 pluralistic ignorance 348 polarisation 347–9 political ideologies 176 political issues and aggression 491 polygraph 180 popularity 195 pornography 486 positive psychology 502 positive reinforcement 132, 173 positivism 23, 24–5 positivity (impression formation) 46 postmodern paradox 649 postures and gestures 601–4 power 236, 238, 315–16 and aggression 490 differentials 56 distance 624, 633–5 distribution (decision-making) 338 group structure 303 imbalance 610 and influence 237–40 intergroup behaviour 239, 448 legitimate 256 position 323 prejudice and discrimination 391 and speech style 591 pre-attentive analysis 61 prejudice and discrimination 13, 54, 56, 59, 358–97 ageism 373–4 aggression 464 culture 635 effects of 378–87 attributional ambiguity 382–3 dehumanisation, violence and genocide 385–7 failure and disadvantage 382 self-fulfilling prophecies 383–5 self-worth, self-esteem and psychological well-being 379–81 social stigma 378–9 stereotype threat 381–2 envious prejudice 56 explanations 387–96 authoritarian personality 390–2 belief congruence 393–5 dogmatism and closed-mindedness 392 frustration-aggression 388–90 right-wing authoritarianism 382–3 social dominance theory 393 stereotypes 395 handicap, physical or mental 374–6 homosexuality 374, 375 innate component of prejudice 387 intergroup behaviour 30, 402, 409, 417, 419, 439, 440, 442 language and communication 609, 612 learnt prejudices 387 nature and dimensions of 358–9 parental prejudice 388 paternalistic prejudice 56 persuasion and attitude change 205 prejudiced attitude and discriminatory behaviour 359–61 racism 368–73 reluctance to help 376 reverse discrimination 377–8, 380 sexism 361–8 tokenism 377 prestige 130 prevention focus 430 prevention system 121–2 primacy effect 45–6, 49, 57 priming 63, 484–5 primus inter pares effect see optimal distinctiveness principlism 531–2 prisoner’s dilemma 411–12, 413, 635 privacy 18, 548 procedural justice 333–4, 406, 415, 554, 555 process loss 282, 342 production blocking/matching 340 profile of non-verbal sensitivity (PONS) 594 profit (in relationships) 552 promotion focus 430 promotion system 121–2 propaganda 192–3 propositions 63 prosocial behaviour 31, 173, 502–33 applied contexts 526–9 exam cheating 527–9 health support networks 529 helping to prevent crime 526–7 shoplifting 527 attribution, impact of 513 biology and evolution 504–6 bystander-calculus model 507–8 calculating whether to help 506–8 culture 637 empathy and altruism 508–10 empathy and arousal 506 empathy and emotional states 509 game playing and the media 512–13 Genovese, K. 503–4, 507, 508 helping behaviour and altruism 502–3 learning to be helpful 510–13 motives and goals 531–2 norms for helping 530–1 personal characteristics 519–26 competence 523–4 gender factors 524–6 guilty helper 520 individual differences 422–3 leaders and followers 524–5 mood states 519–21 ‘Scrooge effect’ 523 town size 521–2 perspective taking 509, 510 receiving help 530 volunteers 532–3 see also bystander effect protection motivation theory 163, 164, 200, 216 prototypes 51–3, 102, 128, 330, 336 group 331, 419–20 leadership 326, 331–2 proxemics (interpersonal distance) 606–8 proximity 306, 547 and liking 542–3 psychic energy 388 psychoanalysis 115 psychodynamic theory and aggression 460 psycholinguistic distinctiveness 586 psychological salience and intergroup behaviour 420 psychological well-being 379–81 public goods dilemma 414 punishment 173, 237–8, 511 Pygmalion effect 384 qualitative data/analysis 13, 16–17, 49 quantitative data/analysis 15–16, 49 racism 186, 368–73 aversive 370, 376 detection 370–3 new 369–70 rape myths 486 rationalism 8–9 reactance 228 realism, experimental 11 realistic conflict 408–15 cooperation, competition and social dilemmas 411–15 prisoner’s dilemma 411–12 social dilemmas, resolution of 414–15 ‘tragedy of the commons’ 413–14 trucking game 412–13 theory 409–11, 415, 439 reasoned action 159–60, 162 theory of (TRA) 158, 159, 160–63, 164, 165, 170, 407 reasoning elaborative 61 process, affect- and cognition-driven 107 recall 64 recategorisation 444 received pronunciation 582 recency 45–6, 351 reciprocity norm 611 reciprocity principle 210, 530–1 reductionism 23–4, 25, 75, 419 reference group 237 referent informational influence theory 425 reflexive thought 114 regression 69–70 to the mean 625 regulatory focus theory 121–3, 430 Subject Index reinforcement 237–8 -affect model 21, 520, 550 approach 549–50 schedules 21 relational identity 337 relational models 333, 640 relational theory 637–8 relationship distress 567 relationships breakdown 553, 569–72 characterising cultures by 637–40 dissolution model 570 maintaining 566–8, 570 and non-verbal communication 594 as social exchange 550 relative deprivation 390, 402–6 aggression 457, 479, 496 egoistic 404–6 fraternalistic 404–7 intergroup behaviour 439 relativism, cultural 648, 649 releasers 460 relief state model, negative 520 religions/religiosity 82, 636–7 remembrance 294, 343 repetition, effects of 198–9 representation, distinct forms of 66 representativeness heuristic 225 reproductive fitness 481, 539 resocialisation 294 response set 14 responsible bystanders 526–7 reward 30, 173, 511 intrinsic and extrinsic 164 motive 407 performance-contingent 123 task-contingent 123 see also under attraction Right-Wing Authoritarianism (RWA) 393 Ringelmann effect 282–3 riots 402–3, 438 risky shift 346, 347 road rage 463 role(s) 30 assignment 363 congruity theory 335 groups 299–300 identity theory 300 making 327 routinisation 327 taking 327 transition 29, 292 see also social roles romance 561–2, 563, 564 of leadership 329 rumour 104–5 Russian cultural-historical school 623 salience (social encoding) 61–2 salient norms 636 same-sex relationships 374, 375, 465, 489, 566 sanctions 530 scapegoat 388–90 schemas 53, 57, 152 accessible 57 aggression 486 causal 87, 102 culture 637 gender 59 -inconsistent information 58 leader 329–30 mood-congruent 57 multiple necessary cause 87 political 59 racial 57 self-schemas 119–21 social decision 338 social inference 68, 70, 71 see also social schemas schism 305 science 4 scientific method 8–9 scripts 50–1, 466, 485 causal 102 secularisation 114, 623, 636 seeing red 540 selective exposure hypothesis 217 self activities 144 actual 121, 122 collective 75, 115, 116, 126 concept of 300 ideal 121, 122 independent 143–4, 631 individual 115, 126 interactionist 116–18 interdependent 126, 143–4, 631 looking-glass 117 ‘ought’ 121, 122 private 117, 119 psychodynamic 115 public 117, 119 role of 225 see also self and identity self and identity 114–45 collective identities 126 contextual sensitivity 126–7 cultural differences 143–4 group-based social identities 126 historical context 114–18 personal identity 126, 128 self-esteem see self-esteem self-knowledge see self-knowledge social identity 126, 128–30 types of 125–6 self-affirmation 132, 225 self-assessment 131, 132–3 self-awareness 118–19, 280, 432–6 self-blame 99 self-categorisation 75, 255, 263–4, 438 theory 55, 125, 290, 348–9, 418, 419, 425 self-coherence 127 self-complexity 125 self-concept 51, 114, 118, 129, 135, 138, 287, 632 self-conceptual positivity bias 133, 135 self-concern 520 self-confidence 588–9 self-consistency 212, 225 self-definition 144 self-disclosure 547–8, 611 self-discrepancy theory 121–2, 280 self-distinctiveness 144 self-efficacy 164 self-enhancement 131–3, 134, 135, 420–21, 634 bias 134 self-enhancing triad 118, 133 self-esteem 100, 130, 133–41, 194–5, 204, 225, 379–81 affiliation and group formation 307 aggression 469, 496 attraction and close relationships 546, 556 747 death, fear of 139–40 depressed, and ethnic minority status 137 high 139–40, 141 individual differences 138–9 intergroup behaviour 421 language and communication 589 positive or neutral self-esteem feedback 140 prejudice and discrimination 382 process 102 and social identity 136–7 as sociometer 140–1 self-evaluation maintenance model 124 self-fulfilling prophecies 383–5 self-guides 122 self-handicapping 97–8, 135 self-identity 171 self-image 135 self-interest 520 self-knowledge 119–25 behaviour, inferences from 123–4 ideal self 120 overjustification effect 124 regulatory focus theory 121–3 self-discrepancy theory 122 self-schemas 119–21 and social comparison 124 self-monitoring 141 self-motives 130–3 self-observation 42 self-other effect see actor-observer effect self-perception 74 theory 89, 123, 174, 212, 226, 378 self-presentation 141–3, 210, 280 self-promotion 141, 210 self-protecting bias 97 self-regulation 121, 570 self-report measures 74 self-schema 59, 119–21, 127 self-serving biases 97–9 self-standards 225 self-structure 144 self-transcendence 634 self-uncertainty 307 self-verification 131, 132–3 self-worth 307, 379–81 semantics 74, 75, 178–9 separation (culture and migration) 590, 645–6 sex hormones and aggression 469–70 sex role 363 sex-stereotype 555 sexism 361–8 behaviour and roles 363–7 benevolent 56 changes in 367–8 sex stereotypes 361–3, 364–7 sexual desire 564 sexual mating system 564 sexual orientation 602 see also homosexuality sexual selection theory 470 shoplifting 527 similarity 196, 442 situational attribution 94, 95, 96, 99–100, 102, 169–70 situational control 322–3 situational factors 85, 250, 252–3, 528 situational perspectives 318 situational rules in language and communication 596–7 situational variables 169, 477–8 skin resistance 180 748 Subject Index sleeper effect 202–3 snowball effect (primitive sympathy) 432 sociability 362–3 social action 422 social approval and acceptance 254 social attraction 280, 291 hypothesis 425 social categorisation 60, 417, 418, 419–20, 648 social change 424–5 belief system 423 see also minority influence and social change social cognition 21–2, 31, 34, 42–4, 72, 74, 75 see also under intergroup behaviour social cognitive neuroscience 24 social cohesion 289 social comparison /cultural values 347–8 and self-knowledge 124 theory 136, 301, 556 social compensation 286–7 social competition 423 social creativity 423 social decision schemas 338 social deprivation 556–7 social desirability 11, 64 bias 155–6 social dilemmas 334 see also under realistic conflict social distance 182, 370 social dominance theory 393 social encoding 61–3 social exchange 21, 31, 552–4 social exclusion see ostracism social expectancy theory 540 social explanation see attribution and social explanation social facilitation 27, 403 see also mere presence and audience effects: social facilitation social factors in attraction and close relationships 540, 541 social identity 20, 125, 126, 256, 263–4 affiliation and group formation 307 analysis 240, 613 and culture 635–7 dynamics 266 groups 287, 291 intergroup behaviour 34, 407, 429, 439 language and communication 587 leadership 330–3 model of deindividuation phenomenon (SIDE model) 438 and self-esteem 136–7 see also under intergroup behaviour; social identity theory social identity theory 23–4, 55, 102, 255, 330, 332, 335–6, 347–8 aggression 495 attitude 169 collective behaviour and the crowd 437–8 culture 648 group decision-making 348–9 intergroup behaviour 425, 427 language and communication 583 leadership 326, 327, 328, 329 and memory 66 prejudice and discrimination 393 social impact 266 and groups 282–7 and minority influence 265–6 social inference 68–72 heuristics 71–2 improvement 72 normality, departures from 68–71 social influence 236–67, 517, 518 compliance, obedience and conformity 236–7 intergroup behaviour 402 modalities 258 obedience to authority 240–5 power and influence 237–40 types 236–40 see also conformity; minority influence and social change social information, gathering and sampling 68–9 social inhibition 275 social interaction 114 social isolation 555–6 see also ostracism social judgement 47, 74, 226 social justice 553, 554 social knowledge and societal attributions 102–9 causal attribution 103 conspiracy theories 105–6 cultural factors 107–9 rumour 104–5 social representations 103–4 societal attributions 106–7 social learning theory 464–5, 467 aggression 482, 483 prosocial behaviour 512 social loafing 282–7, 340 social markers in speech 582–3 social matching 545 social mobility belief system 423 social modelling 21 social networking 548, 568 social neuroscience 43–4, 75, 181 social norms 237, 247, 514 social order 491 social orientation in language and communication 586 social ostracism 140, 308 social penetration model 547 social perception 31, 56 social phase (break-ups) 572 social presence 276, 280 social protest 407–8 social representations 34, 102–4, 115, 116, 612 and attitude 177–8 culture 623–4, 648 social responsibility norm 531 social roles 56 theory 470, 525 social schemas 57–61 acquisition of 59–60 changing 60–1 use of 57–9 see also social schemas and categories social schemas and categories 49–56 categories and prototypes 51–3 categorisation and stereotyping 54–6 content-free schemas 51 person schemas 50 role schemas 50 scripts 50–1 self-schemas 51 social stigma 378–9 social support network 529, 548, 568, 645 social transition scheme 339 social validation 141–2, 143 social-identity-related processes 331 socialisation 294, 509 and aggression 470 and culture 627–30 groups 291–5 theory 540 societal influences see under aggression societal uncertainty 495 Society of Experimental Social Psychology 10 socio-psychological dimensions 589, 590 sociocognitive model 154–5 sociocultural values 638 socioemotional attributes 320–1 socioemotional specialist 320 sociometer 546 solidarity 409 variables 582–3 source credibility 196–8, 203, 209 spanking 468 spatial agency bias 580 speech 593 accommodation 586–7, 592 convergence and divergence 586–7 rate 195 social markers 582–3 stereotyped 587 style 581, 591 intercultural 641–2 spreading attitude effect 172 stability (task performance attributions) 89–90 standing out 62 statistics 15–16 status affiliation and group formation 307 characteristics 301–2, 330 differences 304 gaze and eye contact 600, 601 language and communication 591, 606, 607 postures and gestures 602–4 diffuse status characteristics 301–2, 330 and groups 301–2 language and communication 582, 585, 586, 600 relationship 136 -resources 541, 569, 570 step-by-step decision approach 507 stereotype 50, 59, 100, 102, 152, 256 affect and emotion 74 ambivalent outgroup 56 attribution 94, 102 and categorisation 54–6 content model 56 cultural 548–9 dominant 54 efficient 54 emotional 54 empathic 54 impression formation 47 intergroup behaviour 418, 419, 426, 428–9 language and communication 591, 592, 604 lift 382 negative 70–1, 72, 441 norms 297 prejudice and discrimination 358, 371–4, 376, 384, 386, 389, 395 rebound effect 626 social 50, 57 Subject Index social cognition 75 social inference 68, 70–1 threat 335, 381–2, 385 stereotyped speech 587 stereotypic inferences 580 stereotypic jugdements 183–4 stigma 378–9, 381, 382 stimuli ambiguous 63 distinctive 428–9 storming (group socialisation) 291 stress and aggression 490 and message processing 263 strictness (decision-making) 338 Stroop task 280 structural fit 130, 420 structuring (leadership) 324 subgroups and crosscutting categories 304–5 distinctiveness 446 subject bias 14 subject effects 11 subject pool 12 subjective acceptance and conversion 237 subjective accommodation in language and communication 587 subjective group dynamics 305, 425 subjective norm 159 subjective vitality 584–6 submission, authoritarian 393 subordinates 326–7 substantive processing 74 subtyping 57, 60, 443 sufficiency threshold 208 summation (cognitive algebra) 47–8 sunk costs 214 superego 115 superordinate culture 646 superordinate goals 409–10, 439, 445–6 superordinate identity 446 supplication 141, 210 supportive defence 229 survey research 13–14 symbolic interactionism symbolic rites 293 sympathiser 407 system justification theory 379, 393, 423 systematic experimentation 12 systematic processing 209 t test 15 talkativeness 317 task importance 209 judgemental 338 motivation 287 -oriented attributes 320–1 performance 321 specialist 320 structure 323 taxonomy 281 temperature, ambient and aggression 477–8 terror management theory 139–40, 177, 201, 307, 523 terrorism 491 test of non-verbal cue knowledge (TONCK) 594 theoretical issues 20–5 behaviourism 21 cognitive psychology 21–2 collectivist theories 23 crisis of confidence 23 evolutionary social psychology 22 neuroscience and biochemistry 22 personality 22–3 positivism 24–5 reductionism and levels of explanation 23–4, 25 theories 4, 11, 12, 29, 42 theory of planned behaviour (TPB) 160–3, 165, 170, 216 theory of reasoned action (TRA) 160–3, 165, 170 third-person effect 195, 206 thought 42, 151–2 and language 579–80 processes 625 reform 228 see also cognition and cognitive entries threat 132, 440–41 appraisal 164, 200 direct 132 displays 461 integrated threat model 440 three-component attitude model 359–60 three-factor theory of love 562 Thurstone scale 179 tit-for-tat strategy 450 tokenism 377, 380 topics of social psychology touch 604–6 traditionalists 373 ‘tragedy of the commons’ (commons dilemma) 413–14, 531 traits 64 central 44, 45, 49, 132 peripheral 44, 45, 132 transactional leadership theory 324, 550 trilingualism 587, 588 trucking game 412–13 trust 548, 568 ingroup 336 and leadership 333–4 in relationships 569 trustworthiness 541, 547, 548, 569, 570 truth wins wins (decision-making) 338 two-factor design 10–11 two-feet-in-the-door technique 212 two-thirds majority (decision-making) 338 ultimate attribution error 94, 100, 625 unanimity (decision-making) 338 749 uncertainty 250 avoidance 633–4 existential 307 -identity theory 307 orientation 59 reduction 421 societal 495 unidimensionality 178, 179, 180 universals 648–9 use values 640 utterance 578–9 validation process 260 social 141–2, 143 validity 11, 12, 458 values 160, 458, 480 and attitude 175–6 characterising cultures by 632–5 instrumental 175 moral 163 sociocultural 638 terminal 175, 176 verbal reinforcers 173 vertical dyad linkage model 321 vested interest and leniency contract 264–5 vicarious dissonance 225–6 victim blaming 490 violence 138 cycle of 496 domestic 488–90 in films and videos 457, 467, 475, 482, 483, 484 prejudice and discrimination 385–7 subculture of 629 visual dominance 600 vitality -attractiveness 541, 569, 570 language 584–6 objective 585 subjective 584–6 vividness (social encoding) 62–3 voice behaviour 570 volition 160–5 volkerpsychologie (folk psychology) 26, 622–3 volunteers 532–3 vulnerability 200 waist-to-hip ratio (hourglass figure) 540 war 492–3, 494, 496 warmth (sociability) 45, 49, 56, 141, 210, 362–3, 541, 569, 570 weapons 461 effect 439, 484–5, 496 weighted averaging (cognitive algebra) 48–9 Yale attitude change programme 30 yielding 302 zero-sum game 412, 446–7 ... effect Self-categorisation theory Social categorisation Social change belief system Social competition Social creativity 451 Social identity Social identity theory Social mobility belief system Stereotype... Second edition published 1998 (print) Third edition published 2002 (print) Fourth edition published 2005 (print) Fifth edition published 2008 (print) Sixth edition published 2011 (print) Seventh edition. .. acknowledgements Guided tour xxv xxii Introducing social psychology What is social psychology? Social psychology and its close neighbours Topics of social psychology Methodological issues Scientific