SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Eighth Edition Michael A Hogg Graham M Vaughan SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Eighth Edition Advisory editorial board Dominic Abrams (University of Kent, England) Giuseppe Carrus (Roma Tre University, Italy) Carsten de Dreu (Leiden University, and University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands) Tom Farsides (University of Sussex, England) Antonis Gardikiotis (Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece) Nick Hopkins (University of Dundee, Scotland) Carmen Huici (Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia, Spain) Thomas Kessler (Friedrich-Schiller Universität Jena, Germany) Torun Lindholm (Stockholm University, Sweden) Greg Maio (University of Bath, England) José Marques (University of Porto, Portugal) Sabine Otten (University of Groningen, The Netherlands) Müjde Peker (MEF University, Turkey) Antonio Pierro (Sapienza University of Rome, Italy) Michelle Ryan (University of Exeter, England) Constantine Sedikides (University of Southampton, England) Paschal Sheeran (University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, USA) Nicole Tausch (University of St Andrews, Scotland) Kees van den Bos (University of Utrecht, The Netherlands) Daan van Knippenberg (Erasmus University Rotterdam, The Netherlands) Bas Verplanken (University of Bath, England) Vincent Yzerbyt (Université Catholique de Louvain, Belgium) Editorial Consultants for the eighth edition Mhairi Bowe (Nottingham Trent University, England) Kevin Buchanan (University of Northampton, England) Rob Lowe (Swansea University, England) Mei Mason-Li (Southampton Solent University, England) Laura McGrath (University of East London, England) Paul Muff (University of Bradford, England) Eighth Edition SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Michael A Hogg Claremont Graduate University Graham M Vaughan University of Auckland Harlow, England • London • New York • Boston • San Francisco • Toronto • Sydney • Dubai • Singapore • Hong Kong Tokyo • Seoul • Taipei • New Delhi • Cape Town • São Paulo • Mexico City • Madrid • Amsterdam • Munich • Paris • Milan Pearson Education Limited KAO Two KAO Park Harlow CM17 9NA United Kingdom Tel: +44 (0)1279 623623 Web: www.pearson.com/uk First published 1995 (print) Second edition published 1998 (print) Third edition published 2002 (print) Fourth edition published 2005 (print) Fifth edition published 2008 (print) Sixth edition published 2011 (print) Seventh edition published 2014 (print and electronic) Eighth edition published 2018 (print and electronic) © Pearson Education Limited 1995, 1998, 2002, 2005, 2008, 2011 (print) © Pearson Education Limited 2014, 2018 (print and electronic) The rights of Michael A Hogg and Graham M Vaughan to be identified as authors of this work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 The print publication is protected by copyright Prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, distribution or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, recording or otherwise, permission should 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affiliation with or endorsement of this book by such owners Pearson Education is not responsible for the content of third-party internet sites ISBN: 978-1-292-09045-0 (print) 978-1-292-09050-4 (PDF) 978-1-292-18245-2 (ePub) British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for the print edition is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Hogg, Michael A., 1954–author | Vaughan, Graham M., author Title: Social Psychology / Michael A Hogg, Claremont Graduate University, Graham M Vaughan, University of Auckland Description: Eighth Edition | New York : Pearson, [2018] | Revised edition of the authors’ Social psychology, 2014 Identifiers: LCCN 2017028310 | ISBN 9781292090450 (Print) | ISBN 9781292090504 (PDF) | ISBN 9781292182452 (ePub) Subjects: LCSH: Social psychology Classification: LCC HM1033 H64 2018 | DDC 302—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017028310 10 22 21 20 19 18 Print edition typeset in 10/12 Sabon MT Pro by iEnergizer Aptara®, Ltd Printed by DZS Grafic, Slovenia NOTE THAT ANY PAGE CROSS REFERENCES REFER TO THE PRINT EDITION Brief contents Advisory editorial board ii Preface xvii About the authors xxi Acknowledgements xxiii Guided tour xxv Introducing social psychology Social cognition and social thinking Attribution and social explanation Self and identity 42 82 116 5 Attitudes 152 Persuasion and attitude change Social influence People in groups Leadership and group decision-making 194 238 274 10 Prejudice and discrimination 11 Intergroup behaviour 366 412 12 Aggression 468 13 Prosocial behaviour 516 14 Attraction and close relationships 15 Language and communication 16 Culture 638 Glossary 676 References 687 Author index 759 Subject index 765 596 554 320 vi CONTENTS This page intentionally left blank Contents Advisory editorial board ii Preface xvii About the authors xxi Acknowledgements xxiii Guided tour xxv Introducing social psychology What is social psychology? Social psychology and its close neighbours Topics of social psychology Research methods Scientific method Experiments 9 Non-experimental methods 12 Data and analysis 14 Research ethics 18 Physical welfare of participants 18 Respect for privacy 19 Use of deception 19 Informed consent 19 Debriefing 20 Theories and theorising 20 Theories in social psychology 21 Social psychology in crisis 24 Reductionism and levels of explanation 24 Positivism and post-positivism 25 Historical context 26 Social psychology in the nineteenth century 26 The rise of experimentation 27 Later influences 29 The journals 33 Social psychology in Europe 33 About this text 36 Summary 38 Literature, film and TV 39 Learn more 40 Social cognition and social thinking Social psychology and cognition 44 A short history of cognition in social psychology 44 Forming impressions of other people 46 What information is important? 46 Biases in forming impressions 47 Cognitive algebra 49 42 viii CONTENTS Social schemas and categories 51 Types of schemas 52 Categories and prototypes 53 Categorization and stereotyping 56 How we use, acquire and change schemas 59 Using schemas 59 Acquiring schemas 61 Changing schemas 62 Social encoding 63 Salience 63 Vividness 64 Accessibility 65 Memory for people 65 Contents of person memory 66 Organisation of person memory 68 Using person memory 68 Social inference 70 Departures from normality 70 Heuristics 73 Improving social inference 74 Affect and emotion 74 Antecedents of affect 75 Consequences of affect 76 Emotion regulation 77 Beyond cognition and neuroscience 77 Where is the ‘social’ in social cognition? 77 Summary 78 Literature, film and TV 80 Learn more 80 Attribution and social explanation 82 Seeking the causes of behaviour 84 How people attribute causality 85 People as naive psychologists 85 From acts to dispositions 86 People as everyday scientists 87 Extensions of attribution theory 89 Explaining our emotions 89 Attributions for our own behaviour 91 Task performance attributions 91 Applications of attribution theory 92 Individual differences and attributional styles 92 Interpersonal relationships 93 Attributional biases 94 Correspondence bias and the fundamental attribution error 95 The actor–observer effect 97 The false consensus effect 98 Self-serving biases 99 Intergroup attribution 101 Attribution and stereotyping 104 Social knowledge and societal attributions 105 Social representations 105 Rumour and gossip 107 Conspiracy theories 108 Societal attributions 108 Culture’s contribution 110 764 AUTHOR INDEX Stevens, J R. 520 Stogdill, R M. 325 Stone, J. 229 Stoner, J. 356 Stopeck, M H. 49 Stott, C. 451 Stouffer, S. 416 Straus, M. 480 Strodtbeck, F L. 307 Stroebe, W. 35, 204, 222, 349 Strube, M J. 331 Struch, N. 488 Sullivan, K. 488 Sumner, W G. 300, 420 Surowiecki, J. 292, 293 Sussenbach, P. 501 T Tafani, E. 182 Tajfel, H. 31, 34, 35, 56, 57, 58, 104, 132, 399, 407, 428, 430, 434, 510, 607, 642 Tarde, G. 27, 479 Taylor, D. 102, 393, 604 Taylor, M. 416 Taylor, S. 44, 45, 137, 441 Teger, A. 548 Tepper, B J. 331 Terry, D J. 167, 173, 210 Tesser, A. 128 Test, M. 528 Tetlock, P E. 110, 180 Tetrault, L A. 331 Thakerar, J N. 607 Thayer, S. 624 Thibaut, J. 32, 571 Thomas, W I. 29, 154 Thomson, R. 634 Thoreau, H. 262 Thurstone, L L. 155, 183, 205 Tice, D M. 121, 146 Tiedens, L. 623 Tindale, R S. 323 Tinkham, S F. 207 Titus, L. 285 Toch, H. 444 Tolstoy, L. 326 Tomada, G. 496 Tönnies, F. 277 Tormala, Z L. 202, 234 Towles-Schwen, T. 169, 170 Trafimow, D. 166 Triandis, H C. 174, 200, 641, 644, 655 Tripathi, R. 416 Triplett, N. 28, 278, 279 Tropp, L R. 455, 458 Trost, M R. 217, 300 Tucker, J S. 593 Tuckman, B. 296 Turner, C. 429, 430 Turner, D. 521 Turner, J C. 57, 132, 240, 244, 259, 268, 296, 356, 430 Turner, R H. 449, 451 Turtle, A M. 668 Tversky, A. 73 Tyerman, A. 423 Tyler, T R. 209 V van Avermaet, E. 267 Van Bavel, J J. 429, 432, 433 van der Pligt, J. 160 van der Vliert, E. 550 van Dijk, T. 382 van Gyn, C. 127 van Knippenberg, D. 334 van Lange, P A M. 589 Van Overwalle, E. 170, 171 Van Schie, E. 497 Van Vugt, M. 322 Vandello, J. 495 Vanneman, R. 418 Vaughan, G M. 174, 437, 662 Veitch, R. 568, 569 Verplanken, B. 174 Vignoles, V L. 148, 651 Visser, P S. 209 Vittengl, J. 566 Voigt, H. 533 Volk, A. 496 Volpato, C. 265, 268 Von Neumann, J. 423 von Schiller, J. 486 Vygotsky, L S. 599 W Wack, D L. 281 Walker, I. 416, 417, 529 Walker, L. 228 Wallach, M A. 256 Walster, G W. 581, 582 Walter, M I. 542 Walther, E. 176 Wann, D L. 485 Ward, C. 102 Warren, P. 529 Watson, J B. 27, 154, 574 Watts, J C. 203, 204 Waytz, A. 397 Wegener, D M. 212, 353 Weiner, B. 91 West, C. 611 Wetherell, M. 77 Wheeler, L. 567 Whitcher, S. 625 White, R. 326, 327, 331 Whorf, B. 599, 600 Whyte, W F. 306 Wicker, A W. 161 Wicklund, R A. 122, 448 Widmeyer, W N. 294 Wiegman, O. 497 Wieselquist, J. 589 Wilder, D. 256, 457 Wilkes, A L. 57 Wilkinson, S. 616 Willer, R. 538 Williams, J D. 74 Williams, K D. 290, 315, 634 Willingham, B. 616 Wilson, B J. 502 Wilson, D. 179 Wilson, M S. 405 Wispé, L. 518 Witte, K. 204 Wittgenstein, L. 53 Wolf, S. 270 Wong, C. 132 Wood, G S. 108 Wood, W. 208 Worchel, S. 292 Word, C. 394 Wright, A. 610 Wright, S C. 431 Wundt, W. 27, 44, 119, 640 Y Yancey, G. 565 Yang, K S. 668 Yarbrough, A E. 624 Young, H. 187 Young, J L. 374 Younger, J G. 228 Yuki, M. 130 Yzerbyt, V Y. 49, 58 Z Zaccaro, S. 291 Zahn-Waxler, C. 526 Zajonc, R B. 279 Zebrowitz, L A. 48 Zembrodt, I M. 590 Zhang, S. 646 Zillmann, D. 477, 478 Zimbardo, P G. 31, 226, 227, 305, 422, 446, 447 Zimmerman, D H. 611 Znaniecki, F. 29, 154 Zuckerman, M. 628, 629 SUBJECT INDEX 765 Subject index A above-average effect 137 abuse syndrome 505 accentuation effect 439 principles 57 acceptance, private and internalisation 241 accessibility 61, 65, 433 acculturation 665–7 achievement attributions 91–2 acquiescent response set 182, 183, 403 action research 219–21, 669 actor-observer effect 97–8, 131 adjourning (group socialisation) 296 adjustment (heuristics) 74 advertising 211–12, 213, 503 comparative 202 factual and evaluative 205 issue/advocacy 234 affect 205 -based attitudes 205 -driven reasoning process 110 -infusion model 76 transfer of 205 see also affect and emotion; reinforcementaffect model affect and emotion 74–7, 91, 155, 157, 154–5, 604 affiliated disciplines 5–7 affiliation 49, 313, 556, 574–5, 577 affirmative action 380, 391 age factors 199, 209–10, 612–13, 628 ageism 383–4, 612 agentic state 245, 509 agentic traits 375 aggression 142, 421, 470–512, 557 authoritarian 404 biological explanations 473–6 ethology 474–5 evolutionary social psychology 475–6 limitations 476 psychodynamic theory 474 collective 488, 510 definition 471–2 domestic and intimate partner violence 503–6 and families 649–50 general aggression model (GAM) 492–3, 528 individual differences 482–8 alcohol consumption 486–8 catharsis 484–6 disinhibition, deindividuation and dehumanisation 488 gender and socialisation 484 personality 482–3 sex hormones 483–4 institutionalised 506–10 levels of explanation 509–10 person, role of 509 society, role of 506–7 state, role of 507–9 war 507 intergroup 401 international and intranational 401 interpersonal 400 learnt patterns of 505 mass media 497–503 cognitive analysis 498–500 erotica 501–3 rape myths 501 violent films and video games 497–8 measurement 472–3 physical 484 physical environment 488, 490–1 reduction 511–12 relational 484 situational variables 488–92 social and biosocial explanations 476–82 excitation transfer 477–8 frustration and aggression 477 hate crimes 478, 479 learnt aggression 478–82 social explanation 473 societal influences 493–6 criminality and demographics 494–6 disadvantaged groups 493 subculture of violence 496 see also frustration-aggression hypothesis; violence alcohol consumption and aggression 486–8, 490, 505 alcohol myopia 488 allocentrism 655 altruism 518–19, 523–6, 548–9, 550, 557 altruistic gene 521 amae (passive love) 645, 664 ambiguity, attributional 393–4 Ambivalent Sexism Inventory 58, 378 American Psychological Association 18, 249, 376 American Sign Language (ASL) 619 analogue device or measure 473 analysis of variance (ANOVA) 87 anchoring (heuristics) 74 anonymity 19, 446–8, 489, 567 anxiety 60, 144, 454–5, 575 apologising 538 appearance 48–9, 66–7 appeasement gestures 474–5, 538 appraisals 75, 77, 91 cognitive 75, 91 apprenticeship rites 299 approach strategic means 125 arbitration 463 archival research 13, 563, 591, 593 arguments 196 arousal 279, 522 accidental 583 attraction and close relationships 582–3 heightened 478 labelling 522–3 physiological 89, 522–3 prosocial behaviour 545 sexual 500, 542 undifferentiated 89 unexplained 89, 90 arranged marriage 585–6 assimilation 107, 398, 459, 610, 666, 671 associative meaning 72, 73, 441–2 associative network (propositional) model of memory 55, 65 assortative mating 563–6 attachment 574–80 affiliation 574 anxiety 575 anxious 577, 578 avoidant 577, 578 behaviour 577 longitudinal research 579–80 and non-verbal communication 614 psychological 589 secure 577–8 social deprivation 575–6 social isolation 575–6 styles 538, 577–80 attainments 416 attempt-suppressing signals 630 attention direction-of-attention hypothesis 265 focal 63, 96–7 attentional consequences of social presence 284 attentional narrowing 284 attitudes 154–90 accessibility 169–71 affect-based 205 -behaviour relationship 172, 214, 369, 438 broad 178 change see persuasion and attitude change cognition and evaluation 157–9 cognitive consistency 156–7 cognitive-based 205 decision-making 159–60 environmental 163 formation 175–9 behavioural approaches 175–8 cognitive development 178 learning sources 178–9 functions 156 general 163 766 SUBJECT INDEX attitudes (continued) historical background 154–5 and ideology 180–1 and intention 220–1 measurement 182–90 attitude scales 182–4 covert behaviour 187–8 overt behaviour 186–7 physiological 184–5 moderator variables 172–5 one-component attitude model 155 priming 187–8 scaling 29 similarity and liking 562–3 and social representations 181–2 specific 162–3, 178 strength, and direct experience 171–2 structure 155–6 three-component model 155–6 two-component model 155 and values 179–80 weak 173 see also beliefs, intentions and behaviour attraction 49, 556–93 attractive people 556–7 cultural stereotypes 567–8 and evolution 557–60 facial attractiveness 558–9 genetics 557–8 ideals, search for 559–60 law of 562–3 liking, loving and affiliating 556 personal 294 personal characteristics 566–7 and rewards 568–74 comparison levels 571 costs and benefits 570–1 norms 573–4 reinforcement approach 568–70 social exchange, equity and justice 570, 571–3 social 295, 438 see also attachment; close relationships; liking attractiveness 199, 200 attribution 32, 45 ambiguity 393–4 bias 95 causal 89, 92, 93, 94, 105 conflict 93–4 and culture 645–7 dispositional 85, 87, 95, 97, 98, 104, 111–12, 127 external 88, 98, 100, 103 fundamental attribution error 95–7, 645 intergroup 101–5 internal 88, 97, 100, 103 performance 102 prejudice and discrimination 376–7 and prosocial behaviour 529 responsibility 94, 100 situational 85, 96–7, 98, 101–2, 104, 173 and social impact 270 theories 22, 32, 45, 84, 263 ultimate attribution error 96, 102, 645 see also attribution and social explanation attribution and social explanation 84–112 achievement 91–2 behaviour, seeking causes of 84–5 biases, attributional 94–101 actor-observer effect 97–8 correspondence bias and fundamental attribution error 95–7 false consensus effect 98–9 self-serving biases 99–101 causality, attribution of 85–9 emotions, explanation of 89–91 external (situational) 85 individual differences and attributional styles 92–3 intergroup attribution 101–5 internal dispositional 85, 95 interpersonal relationships 93–4 own behaviour, attributions for 91 task performance attributions 91–2 see also social knowledge and societal attributions attributional biases 94–101 actor-observer effect 97–8 correspondence bias and fundamental attribution error 95–7 false consensus effect 98–9 self-serving biases 99–101 attributional complexity 61 scale (ACS) 93 attributional style 92–3 questionnaire (ASQ) 93 audience 201 effects see mere presence and audience effects: social facilitation inhibition 532–3 authoritarian personality/authoritarianism 31, 402–4, 431, 510 authority 402 ranking (AR) 655, 659, 660 autocratic decision-making 332 autokinesis 250, 251, 302 automatic activation 169, 171, 570 automaticity 381, 382 autonomy 262, 309–10, 657 averageness effect 559 averaging (cognitive algebra) 50 avoidance strategic means 125 B baby boomers 383 ‘baby talk’ 612 back-channel communication 630 background (and neutral) stimulus 568, 569 balance theory 52, 157 bandwagon effect 357 bargaining 32, 462 base-rate information 72 behaviour 4, 66, 156 counter-attitudinal 219, 226, 228, 229, 231 exit 590 healthy, promoting 166–9 moral principles 304 negative 94, 229 overt 44, 186–7 planned (volition) 164–6 post-message 234 seeking causes of 84–5 theory of planned behaviour (TPB) 164–6, 167, 174, 221 see also collective behaviour and the crowd; intergroup behaviour; prosocial behaviour behavioural approaches, and attitude formation 175–8 behavioural control, perceived 164, 165, 167 behavioural decision theory 70 behavioural ecology of marriage 588 behavioural style and genetic model 262–4 behaviourism 21–2, 29, 44, 570 belief 205 congruence 406–8 in a just world (just world hypothesis) 99, 490, 513 beliefs, intentions and behaviour 161–9 general attitude 163 planned behaviour 164–6 preventive behaviour against major diseases 168 reasoned action 163–4, 167 specific attitude 162–3 beliefs, prior and persuasive communication 210 bias 12, 13, 14, 25, 45, 70, 101–2 attributional see attributional biases cognitive 174, 210 conformity 261 correspondence 95–7, 111, 305, 341, 645 disconfirmation 210 ethnic 399 experimenter 14 group-enhancing/group-protective 102 impression formation 47–9 in language use 187 linguistic intergroup bias effect 382, 630 outcome 86, 96, 100, 104 social desirability 159–60 spatial agency 600 subject 13, 14 see also under attribution and social explanation bicultural identity 665 Big Five personality dimensions 325, 338, 493, 567 bilingualism and second-language acquisition 607–10 biochemistry 22 biological perspective, intimate partner violence 504 biology and prosocial behaviour 520–2 biopsychosocial model 76, 204 BIRGing (basking in reflected glory) 129 blind obedience to authority 509 ‘blue-green’ studies 259, 261–3 body posture see kinesics body temperature and aggression 490 bogus pipeline technique 186–7, 630 bookkeeping 62, 457 boomerang effect 232 brain electrical activity 185 brain imaging see also fMRI ‘brain worry’ theory 28 brainstorming 348–50 electronic 349 brainwashing 233, 235 bullying 496, 511 bystander effect 370, 371, 529–35, 540 apathy 291, 371, 531, 532–3 bystander-calculus model 522, 523 ‘he’s having a fit’ 532 intervention 529, 530 ‘lady in distress’ 531–2 limits to 533–5 three-in-one experiment 533, 534–5 ‘where there’s smoke there’s fire’ 530–1 SUBJECT INDEX 767 C California F-scale 403 careers 49 case studies 13 categorization intergroup behaviour 439–40 prejudice and discrimination 381 social 62, 104, 429–30, 431, 612 category -consistent manner 65 -incongruent manner 65 representation 55 see also social schemas and categories cathartic hypothesis 484, 485, 486 causal unit 97 causality 32, 85–9 dual theory 110 ceiling effect 11 central route processing 70, 211 charisma 325, 336, 337–8, 341, 427 choice dilemma 357 circumscribed accuracy 59 classical conditioning 175–6, 213, 399, 526, 569 clinical judgement 71 close relationships 580–7 marriage and love 585 marriages, arranged 585–6 same-sex romantic relationships 586–7 see also love closed-mindedness 404 cognition 89, 156 -based attitude 205 and culture 645–7 data-driven 60 -driven reasoning process 110 and evaluation 157–9 and language 599–601 necessity for 61 see also social cognition cognitive algebra 49–51, 52, 70, 159 cognitive alternatives 435 cognitive analysis and aggression 498–500 cognitive appraisals 75, 91 cognitive approaches 32 cognitive biases 174–5, 210 cognitive closure 61 cognitive complexity 51 cognitive consistency 45, 156–7 theories 22, 178, 221 cognitive development 178 theory 300 cognitive dissonance 31, 196, 219, 299 culture 647 prejudice and discrimination 388 theory 156 see also cognitive dissonance and attitude change cognitive dissonance and attitude change 221–31 effort justification 223–5 free choice 228 induced compliance 225–8 revised cognitive dissonance model 231 self, role of 228–9 self-perception theory 230 vicarious dissonance 230 cognitive factors 100 cognitive heuristics 33, 70, 212 cognitive miser 45, 95, 156 cognitive neuroscience see social neuroscience cognitive process 20, 104 cognitive psychology 22, 45 cognitive schema 51 cognitive theories 22 cohesiveness in groups 292, 293–6 collective action 419–20 collective behaviour and the crowd 260, 402, 444–52 deindividuation and self-awareness 446–9 early theories 445–6 norm theory, emergent 449–51 social identity theory 451–2 collective mind 26 collectivist cultures/collectivism 640, 643, 645–6, 650, 654–5, 657–9, 664, 671 attraction and close relationships 567 groups 278, 292 prosocial behaviour 548–9 self and identity 147–9 collectivist theories 23 commitment 584, 585 constraint 589 in groups 297 lack of 572 moral 589 prior 543 in relationships 589 common bond and common identity 277, 456 common ingroup identity model 459 communal behaviour 588 see also collective behaviour and the crowd communal sharing (CS) 658, 659 communal traits 375 communication 57, 598 accommodation theory 607 back-channel 630 computer-mediated 310, 633–4 intercultural 662–4 intergroup relations 461–4 networks in groups 308–10 theory 198 see also conversation; discourse analysis; language; non-verbal communication communicative gene 521 community 657 companions and friends 588 comparison level 571 process 264 compassion/compassionate love 526 compensation effect 58 competence 47, 51, 58, 66, 145, 214 language and communication 602 prejudice and discrimination 372–3 and prosocial behaviour 540–1 social 527 competition 656–7 intergroup behaviour 427, 428, 429 social 436 see also under realistic conflict compliance 240–1 coercive 240 -conformity distinction 214 induced 225–8 leadership 323 see also under persuasion and attitude change comprehension 63 conciliation (intergroup relations) 464 conditioned reflexes 21 conditioning classical 175–6, 213, 399, 526, 569 evaluative 175, 176 instrumental 177, 399, 526 operant 21, 399 confidentiality 19 configural model 46, 52, 70 confirmatory bias 403 conflict 313, 420, 422 distraction-conflict theory 282–3 intergroup 58, 453 post-decisional 226 see also realistic conflict conformity 7, 31, 36, 240–1, 244, 250–9, 262, 263 arbitrary norm creation 251 bias 261 cultural norms 255 and culture 647–8 as function of presence or absence of support 257 group decision-making 358 group size 256 group unanimity 256–7 individual and group characteristics 254–5 informational and normative influence 257–9 jury verdicts 361 leadership 324 majority group pressure, yielding to 251–4 as a necessity 648 norm formation and influence 250 processes 257–9 referent informational influence 259 situational factors 256–7 confounding 10 variables 11 connectionism 170 consensus information 87–9, 98 consideration individualised 336 and leadership behaviour 327–8, 332 consistency 88–9, 157, 263 information 87–8 perceived 264 synchronic 264 theories in attraction and close relationships 568 conspiracy theories 108 constructs 118 contact hypothesis 456, 661 contagions (collective behaviour) 444 contemplation ladder 221 content-of-thinking hypothesis 265 context 23, 50, 173 -comparison model of minority influence 269 and emotions 90 contextual cues 432 contextual factors in attraction and close relationships 558, 560 contextual variation in language and communication 602 contingency theories 330–3 contrast effect 217 control, illusion of 100 controllability (task performance attributions) 91–2 conventionalism 404 768 SUBJECT INDEX convergent-divergent theory 267–8 conversation 630–2 analysis (CA) 631–2 conversion 62, 457 effect 264 on Internet 265 theory 264–6, 271 cooperation 424, 656–7 cultural variations in aggression 496 intergroup behaviour 422 prosocial behaviour 520–1 see also under realistic conflict coordination loss 287–8 coping 139, 527 appraisal 168, 204 correlation 13, 16–17, 89 distinctiveness-based 72–3, 442 illusory 72–3, 442 studies 94 correspondence bias 95–7, 111, 305, 341, 645 cortisol levels 184 cost-benefit analysis 523, 582 cost-reward ratio 570 counter-attitudinal behaviour 219, 226, 228, 229, 230, 232 covariation 72–3, 89 model 87 criminality, and demographics 494–6 crisis-leadership role 374 cross-level research 25 crosscutting categories and groups 310–11 crowd behaviour see collective behaviour and the crowd crowd event 444 crowding 490–1 cultural diversity 670–2 cultural factors and aggression 495, 504 attitude 167, 180 attraction and close relationships 558, 565, 566–7, 582, 585, 585 correspondence bias 97 depressed self-esteem and ethnic minority status 141 gaze and eye contact 620–2 intergroup relations 459–60 language and communication 598–600, 602–4, 610, 615–19, 622–3, 628 non-verbal communication 619 prejudice and discrimination 387 prosocial behaviour 550 self and identity 147–9 social knowledge and societal attributions 110–12 touch 625 cultural norms 255, 494, 504, 558, 648 cultural orientation 657 cultural pluralism 461, 667, 671 cultural relativism 669, 670 cultural stereotypes and attraction 567–8 culture 30, 640–72 acculturation 665–7 -blind 641 -bound 641 cognition and attribution 645–7 communication, language and speech style 662–4 conformity and obedience 647–8 cooperation, competition and social identity 656–7 cross-cultural challenge 668 cross-cultural psychology 644–5 cultural diversity 671–2 definition 642 history and social psychology 643–5 of honour 495, 649 independent self 651–2 indigenous social psychologies 668–9 interdependent self 651–2 language and understanding 664–5 multicultural challenge 670–2 norms and identity 660–1 origins in cultural anthropology 643–4 prosocial behaviour 657–8 relationships 658–60 and socialisation 648–50 tightness–looseness 656 universals 669–70 values 653–5 see also collectivist cultures/collectivism; cultural factors; individualistic societies/individualism cyber- bullying 511 cyber-dehumanisation 489 cyber-ostracism 315, 634 cyber-relationships (Internet-mediated) 562 D Darwinian theory 22 data 4, 14–17, 44 -driven cognition 60 dating sites 567 death, fear of 143–4 death instinct (thanatos) 474 debriefing 20 decategorisation 457–8 deception 19, 249, 628–30 decision rules 347, 348, 521 decision schemes 360, 361 decision-making 13, 159–60, 333, 653 see also group decision-making deconstruction (subjective analysis) 26 degradation 313, 398 dehumanisation 245, 368, 396–8, 432, 488, 489 deindividuation 31, 123, 446–9, 488, 489, 634 delinquency 433 demand characteristics 12, 13, 14 demographic variables in language and communication 538, 605 dependent measure 10, 12 dependent variables 10 depersonalisation 134, 431–3 depression 93, 353 desensitisation 497, 498, 502 developmental factors and correspondence bias 97 deviants and marginal members (groups) 311–12 differential-influence hypothesis 265–6 diffuse status characteristics 307–8, 339 diffusion of responsibility 532, 533, 534 direct access (information processing) 76 direction-of-attention hypothesis 265 disadvantaged groups 388, 418, 493 disconfirmation bias 210 discounting 88, 207 discourse analysis 14, 17, 632 discrimination see prejudice and discrimination discursive psychology 25, 26 disinhibition 488, 497 hypothesis 486 displacement 401 display rules 616–19, 663 dispositions, internal 87 dissolution (relationships) 93 dissonance 157, 229 cognitive see cognitive dissonance vicarious 230 distinctiveness 88–9 information 87 optimal 442 paired 72, 441 positive 433–4 distraction 60, 199 -conflict theory 282–3 distributive justice 343, 418, 573 divergence (group socialisation) 298 diversity cultural 670–2 intergroup relations 460–1 divinity 657 dogma/dogmatism 8–9, 16, 17, 404 domestic partners 588 domestic violence 503–6 door-in-the-face tactic 217 double-blind experiment 12 drive theory 22, 279–80 dual theory of causality 110 dual-leadership 328 dual-process models 70, 204, 210–14, 241, 259, 264 dyadic influence 396 dyadic phase (break-ups) 592 dynamogenic theory 28, 29 E effort justification 223–5 egalitarianism 361, 654 egotism 548, 550 automatic 137 model 142 elaboration-likelihood model 70, 211–12, 241 ‘elderspeak’ 612 embarrassment 538 emblems 622–3 emergency situation 530, 541 emotional lability 89–90 emotional states 526 emotion(s) 75, 617 attraction and close relationships 557 basic 614–16 displayed through paralinguistic cues 601 distinct 526 explanation of 89–91 expression of 614–16 -in-relationships model 580 intergroup 443 negative 139 regulation 77 -related bias 126 vicarious 526 see also affect and emotion empathy 454, 522, 523–6 enlightenment 118, 643 entitativity 276–7, 293, 432, 434, 647 environmental factors 22, 85, 87–8, 90 equality 572 matching (EM) 659, 660 equity 571–3 theory 572–3, 587 erotica and aggression 500–3 errors 45, 70, 352 essentialism 96, 397, 600 SUBJECT INDEX 769 ethical issues 13, 18–20, 245, 249, 545, 657 see also moral entries ethnic biases 399 ethnic death 398 ethnicity and Internet dating 565–6 language and communication 603–4, 605 self-esteem and social identity 140–1 see also culture ethnocentrism 102, 403, 419, 420, 428, 428–9, 431 embryonic 420, 428 latent 419 ethnographic research 643 ethnolinguistic group 603 ethnolinguistic identity theory 603 ethnolinguistic vitality 604–5 ethnomethodology 300, 301, 632 ethology and aggression 474–5 etic-emic distinction 644 European Association of Social Psychology (EASP) 34 European social psychology 34–7 evaluation, enhanced 299 evaluation apprehension 12, 13, 14, 281–2, 283, 290, 349 evaluation in groups 297 evaluative conditioning 175 evaluative response 177 event-related brain potentials (ERPs) 185 evolution and attraction 557–60, 583 and prosocial behaviour 520–2 evolutionary perspective, intimate partner violence 503 evolutionary psychology 22 evolutionary social psychology 22–3, 24, 475– 6, 520, 557 exam cheating 545–6 excitation transfer 477–8, 501 exemplars 55 exemplification 145, 214 exit behaviour 590 expectancies 104, 163 expectancy-value theory 168, 182, 419 expectation states theory 307, 339 expectations 416 experiences 416 direct 175 experimenter bias 14 experimenter effects 12 experiments 9–12, 19, 28–9, 31 field 12 laboratory 11–12 manipulation 9 expertise 199 expressiveness 373 extended contact effect 458 extremism 510 eye contact see gaze and eye contact eyewitness testimony 67 F face and expression of emotions 614–16 Facebook 566 face-ism 375 Facial Action Coding System (FACS) 615 facial affect programme 617 facial attractiveness 559 facial display rules 615, 616–19, 663 facial expression 185 facial symmetry 559 factor analysis 138, 184 failure and disadvantage (prejudice and discrimination) 393 false consensus effect 98–9 familiarity 561–2, 566 families and aggression 649–50 family resemblance 54 favouritism 407, 408, 431, 453 fear 199, 503 -arousing messages 203–5 of social blunders 532 feelings 74 fertility 558 field studies 14 field theory 22 fighting instinct 475 first shift (decision-making) 348 fitness altruism 521 ‘flip-flopping’ 264 floor effect 11 fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) 11, 22, 24, 45, 78 focal attention 63 folk psychology 26, 643 followership 341 foot-in-the-door tactic 215–18, 245 football hooliganism 492 forewarning 232 forgetting, differential 97 forgiveness 538, 589 formation (relationships) 93 forming (group socialisation) 296 frame of reference 250, 251, 302 free choice 228 free-rider effect 289, 426 frustration-aggression hypothesis 399–402, 414, 431, 477, 478 full cycle research 30 full-range leadership model 336 fundamental attribution error 95–7, 645 fuzzy sets 53, 54 G game theory 424 see also prisoner’s dilemma gaze and eye contact 607, 620–2, 663 Gemeinschaft 277, 456 gender factors aggression 484, 494 attraction and close relationships 566–7, 574, 581, 583 domestic violence 505 gaze and eye contact 620–1 groups 277 language and communication 611–12, 614, 617, 619, 622, 625, 628, 634 non-verbal communication 614, 625 persuasive communication 208 prejudice and discrimination 373, 396 prosocial behaviour 525, 541–3 social cognition 78 social influence 254 touch 625 gender gaps and leadership 343–5 gender-specific texting 633 General Aggression Model (GAM) 492–3, 528 General Learning Model (GLM) 528 general psychology 26, 27 generalisation 401, 457–9 generation X 384 generative psychology 669 genetic model 262–4 genetics and attraction 557–8 genocide 368, 379, 396–8, 507, 511 Gesellschaft 277, 456 Gestalt psychology 22, 45, 52, 157 gestures 598, 664 appeasement 474–5, 538 glass ceilings 343–4, 374 glass cliff 345, 374 global village 662 goals 548–9 and effects on person memory 69–70 instrumental 549 mutually exclusive 422, 453 superordinate 421, 453, 460 ultimate 549 good genes hypothesis 558 Good Samaritan syndrome 537 gossip 107 graduated and reciprocated initiatives in tension reduction (GRIT) 464 ‘grand theory’ 20, 21 grave-dressing phase (break-ups) 592 great person theory 324, 325 Greenpeace 261 group decision-making 332, 347–59 brainstorming 348–50 groupthink 354–6 memory 351–4 culture 353–4 remembering 351 transactive memory 351–3 persuasive arguments 356–7 polarisation 356–9 rules governing group decisions 347–8 social comparison/cultural values 357–8 social identity theory 358 group-centrism 510 group-enhancing bias 102 group-protective bias 102 group(s) 129, 240, 244, 276–316 acceptance 250 affiliation and group formation, motivations for 314–15 and aggregates 277–8 behaviour 78, 129 categories 276–7 cohesiveness 293–6, 354–5 common-bond and common-identity 277 definition 276–8 deviants and marginal members 311–12 dynamics 29 effectivity, illusion of 350 effects on individual performance 278–93 classification of group tasks 285–7 social loafing and social impact 287–93 see also mere presence and audience effects: social facilitation entitativity 276–7 environment questionnaire 294 ethnolinguistic 603 full member 297 heterogeneous 349 identification 129, 427, 434 and intergroup behaviour and social identity 132 maintenance 329 membership 57, 68, 241 mind 23, 27, 353 minimal group categorisation 131, 440, 453 770 SUBJECT INDEX group(s) (continued) minimal group paradigm 407, 428, 429, 430 nominal 349 non-members 297 non-prototypical member 340 norms 250, 300–4, 669 performance 286, 291, 308, 332 polarisation 259, 356 pressure 31, 248, 251–4 processes 24, 35, 120, 310, 414 prototypicality 339, 340 quasi-member 297 reasons for joining 313 reference group 241 shared group membership 336, 346 size 256, 290, 291 socialisation 296–300 solidarity 296 status 134 structure 304–12 communication networks 308–10 roles 305–6 status 306–8 study of 29–30 subgroups and crosscutting categories 310–11 unanimity and conformity 257 value model 342 see also group decision-making; ingroup; intergroup; outgroup; subgroups groupthink 13, 354–6 guilt arousal 215 collective 438, 443 Guttman scale 182, 183 H habits 166, 174 handicap, physical or mental 385–7 harmony 422 hate crimes 478, 479 health support networks 546 heart rate 184, 185 heat, and aggression 490 hedonic relevance 87 hedonism 537 helpfulness 529 helping behaviour 518–19 see also prosocial behaviour heuristic processing 76 heuristic-systematic model 70, 212–14, 241 heuristics 73–4, 95 hidden profiles 348 hierarchical cultures 655 historical context 26–33 Anglo-European influences 26–7 attitude scaling 29 early texts 27 experimentation 27–9, 31 groups, study of 29–30 journals 33 programmes 31–3 textbooks 30 homogeneity, relative 185, 439–40 homosexuality 385, 386, 479, 505, 586 honesty 567 hospitalism 575 hostility 421 human nature 48, 397 human uniqueness 397 hypodescent 109 hypotheses 8–9, 18 cathartic 484, 485, 486 contact 456, 661 content-of-thinking 265 differential-influence 265–6 direction-of-attention 265 frustration-aggression see frustrationaggression hypothesis good genes 558 image-reparation 537 life stages 210 lifelong openness 209 multiculturalism 610 selective exposure 221 social attraction 438 I id 119 ideal standards model 590 ideals, search for 559–60 identity 129–30 bicultural 665 common 456, 458 -confirming function 433 contextual sensitivity of self and 130–1 and culture 660–1 dual 665 entrepreneurship 341–2 ethnolinguistic identity theory 603 group structure 310 ingroup 58 positive 433 relational 346 superordinate 461 validation 146 see also self and identity; social identity ideo-motor responses 29 ideological dilemmas 181 ideological orthodoxy 181 ideologies of antagonism 661 ideology 405, 656 and attitude 180–1 comparative 656–7 monistic 181 non-comparative 656–7 pluralistic 181 political 109, 180 religious 181 idiocentrism 655 idiosyncrasy credit 333–5 illocution 598 image-reparation hypothesis 537 imagined contact 459 imitation 479 immigration 455, 461 impartiality 462 implicit association test (IAT) 188–9, 382 impression formation 46–51, 62, 70 attraction and close relationships 562 biases 47–9 cognitive algebra 49–51 important information 46–7 impression management 145–7, 189, 628–30 inclusivity 55 independence jury verdicts 361 prejudice and discrimination 373 independent variables 9–10 individual differences 61, 537 and attributional styles 92–3 and leadership 324–6 moderator variables 174–5 personality and 23 persuasive communication 209 see also under aggression individualistic societies/individualism 645, 650, 654–5, 656, 658, 664, 668, 671 attraction and close relationships 567 groups 277–8 self and identity 147–8 individualistic theories 23 industrial psychology 29–30 industrialisation 118, 643 inference causal 93 correspondent 84, 86–7 stereotypic 600 influence 243–4, 323 information diluted 71–2 encoding 52 integration theory 159, 178 processing 159 informational differences 98 informational influence 257–8, 259 informed consent 19 infra-humanisation 397 ingratiation 145, 214–15 ingroup 414 favouritism 431 identity 58 projection 346 trust 346 initiating structure (leadership behaviour) 328–9 initiation 299–300 injunctive norms 301 innovation 262 credit 334 inoculation (resistance to persuasion) 232–4 insecure attachment style 483, 589 instinct 471, 473–4, 574 institutional support variable and language and communication 604 instrumental conditioning 177, 399, 526 integrated threat model 454 integration (culture and migration) 610, 666–7 intellective tasks 347 intellectual stimulation 336 intelligence 48, 325 intention and behaviour 174 to persist 589 intentionality 87 interaction 570 interdependent cultures see collectivist cultures/ collectivism intergroup aggression 401 anxiety 454–5 attribution 102–5 conflicts 58 discrimination 31 language and communication 610–13 leadership 345–7 power relations 243 relational identity 346 relations 57, 126 see also intergroup behaviour; intergroup relations improvement SUBJECT INDEX 771 intergroup behaviour 56, 414–66 competition 428–9 definition 414 differentiation 431 emotions 443 hostility and conflict 453 intergroup emotions theory (IET) 443 intergroup phenomenon 451 relative deprivation 415–18 social cognition 439–42 categorization and relative homogeneity 439–40 distinctive stimuli and illusory correlation 441–2 memory 440–1 optimal distinctiveness 442 social identity 428–38 group membership 418–19 and intergroup relations 434–8 minimal groups 428–30 positive distinctiveness and selfenhancement 433–4 psychological salience 433 social categorization, prototypes and depersonalisation 431–3 uncertainty reduction 434 social protest and collective action 419–20 see also collective behaviour and the crowd; intergroup relations improvement; realistic conflict intergroup relations improvement 452–64 communication and negotiation 461–4 contact policy in multicultural contexts 459–60 generalisation 457–9 pluralism and diversity 460–1 propaganda and education 453–4 similarity 456 superordinate goals 460 international contact (culture) 663 Internet and aggression 502 computer-mediated communication 309, 633–4 conversion on 265 see also cyber entries Internet dating 565–6 interpersonal aggression 399 interpersonal bargaining 31 interpersonal contact 456 interpersonal dependency 258 interpersonal distance 185, 625 interpersonal interdependence model 294 interpersonal liking 294 interpersonal relations 34, 93–4, 101–2 intervention (experiments) intimacy 584 -equilibrium theory 628 intimidation 145, 214 intrapsychic phase (break-ups) 592 introspection 44 investigation (group socialisation) 298 investment 262, 571 iterative reprocessing model 432, 433 J J-curve 416, 417 joint actions 570 judgements dimensions of 57 implicit and automatic 159–60 memory-based 69 prior 62 of responsibility 92 social 49, 76 stereotypic 187–8 jury verdicts 359–61 justice and attraction 571–3 distributive 343, 418, 428, 573 and fairness 342–3 procedural 343, 418, 428, 573, 574 social 572, 573 K kin selection 520–1 kinesics 622, 663 L language 26, 57, 598–634 acquisition device 599 affect and emotion 77 age groups and generations 612–13 bilingualism and second-language acquisition 607–10 conversation 630–2 culture and migration 610 discourse 632–3 ethnicity and speech style 603–4 gender factors 611–12 intercultural 661–2 intergroup 610–13 local 617 paralanguage 601–2 prosodic features 601 thought and cognition 599–601 and understanding 664–5 use, bias in 187 vitality 604–6 see also linguistic entries; speech leader behaviour description questionnaire (LBDQ) 328, 333 categorisation theory 339 -member exchange (LMX) theory 335–6 -member relations 330–1, 332 schemas 344 see also leadership leadership 29, 240, 241, 243–4, 260, 322–61 attraction and close relationships 572 authoritarian 330 autocratic 327, 333 bad or dangerous 323, 324 charismatic/inspiring 336, 337–8, 427 contingency theories 330–3 definition 323–4 democratic 327–8 dictatorial 323 dual-leadership 328 effective/ineffective 324, 325, 326, 337 expectation states and status characteristics 339 full-range leadership model 336 gender gaps 343–5 glass ceilings 343 glass cliff 345 good 324 great 324 group structure 310 idiosyncrasy credit 333–5 innovative 341 intergroup 345–7, 427–8 justice and fairness 342–3 laissez-faire 327–8, 336 leader categorisation theory 338–9 leader perceptions and leadership schemas 338–9 leader-member exchange theory 335–6 Machiavellian and narcissistic 323 multifactor leadership questionnaire 336 non-interfering 336 normative decision theory 332–3 notorious 324 organisational 323 path-goal theory 333 perceptions 338–9 personality traits and individual differences 324–6 political/public 323 and prosocial behaviour 541 prototypical 334–5, 340–1 relationship-oriented 330, 331, 332 schemas see prototypes situational perspectives 326 social dilemmas 343 social identity and 339–42 task-oriented 330, 331, 332 team 323 transactional 333–6 transformational 325, 336–7, 338, 342 and trust 342–3 types 327–9 visionary 338 learning by direct experience 479 by vicarious experience 479–80, 528 observational 177–8, 526 organisational 351 theories 178 see also self-knowledge; social learning learnt helplessness 93 least-preferred co-worker scale 330–2 legitimation, codes of 661 leniency contract 269–70 level of analysis (or explanation) 24–5, 26, 104, 653 life instinct (eros) 474 life stages hypothesis 210 lifelong openness hypothesis 209 Likert scale 182, 183, 184 liking 556, 560–8, 580, 628 assortative mating 563–6 attitude similarity 562–3 familiarity 561–2 interpersonal 294 name matching and marriage 563, 564 proximity 560–1 social matching 563 linguistic intergroup bias effect 382, 630 linguistic power 199 linguistic relativity 599 locus of control 93 locus (task performance attributions) 91–2 locution 598 love 49, 556, 580, 584–5 amae (passive love) 645, 664 companionate 581, 584, 588 consummate 584 definition 580 772 SUBJECT INDEX love (continued) fatuous 584 and illusions 583–4 as a label 582–3 marriage 585 passionate or romantic 581–2, 584 triangle of 584 types of 581 lovers 588 low-ball tactic 217 loyalty 296, 590 elicitation 299 M Machiavellianism 180 machismo 496, 649 maintenance group socialisation 298 relationships 93 majority group pressure, yielding to 251–4 majority influence 264, 265, 266, 270 majority wins (decision-making) 348 Manicheism 181 manipulation, perceived 199 marginalisation (culture and migration) 610, 666, 667 marital distress 631 marital satisfaction 94, 587, 631 market pricing (MP) 659 marriage arranged 585–6 love and 585 masculinity-femininity 653 mass media and attitude formation 179 prejudice and discrimination 375 prosocial behaviour 528 see also under aggression matched-guise technique 602, 632 matching to standard 290 meaning (language) 598–9 mechanical turk (MTurk) 15 mediation in intergroup relations 462–3 memory 65–74 contents of 66–8 intergroup behaviour 440–1 long-term 66, 73 organisation of 68 short-term (working) 66 social 76 using 68–70 see also under group decision-making mental readiness 155 mere exposure effect 175, 399, 561 mere observation 481 mere presence and audience effects: social facilitation 278–85 distraction-conflict theory 282–3 drive theory 279–80 evaluation apprehension 281–2 social facilitation 283–5 message 201 type 213 meta-analysis 163, 164, 232, 255, 285, 395, 556, 614, 647 metacontrast principle 132, 259, 432 metastatements 352 metatheory 21, 23, 414, 668 millennials 384 mindlessness 218 minimal group categorisation 131, 440, 453 minimal group paradigm 314, 407, 428 minimax strategy 571 minority 35 minority influence jury verdicts 361 theory 669 see also minority influence and social change minority influence and social change 260–71 attribution and social impact 270 behavioural style and genetic model 262–4 convergent-divergent theory 267–8 conversion theory 264–7 social identity and self-categorisation 268–9 vested interest and leniency contract 269–70 misattribution paradigm 89, 90 modelling 177, 526–7 effect 480, 527 moderator variable 172–5, 209 mood 174, 212–13 states and prosocial behaviour 535–7 moral commitment 589 moral issues and aggression 507 moral norms 162 moral principles 304, 657 moral reasoning 528 moral values 166 motivated processing 76 motivated tactician 45, 95, 156 motivation/motivational 45, 58, 279, 419 factors 100 loss 287–8, 290 see also social loafing orientation 143 motives normative 419 in prosocial behaviour 548–9 multiculturalism 460 hypothesis 610 multifactor leadership questionnaire 336 multiple requests and compliance 215–18 multiple-act criterion 163 mundane realism 12 mutual differentiation model 457 mutual mistrust 424 mutual obligation norm 573 mutual support 588 mutualism 520 mutually exclusive goals 422, 453 N naïve psychologist (scientist) 45, 84, 85–6, 89, 98 name matching and marriage 563, 564 narcissism 142, 455 nature-nurture controversy aggression 473 language and communication 618 prosocial behaviour 520 negativity (impression formation) 48 neglect 590 negotiating styles 264 negotiation in intergroup relations 461–4 neo-associationist analysis 498–9 neo-behaviourism 21 neo-Freudians 474 neuroscience 22 neurosexism 78 non-common effects 86, 87 non-experimental methods 12–14 archival research 13 case studies 13 field studies 14 qualitative research and discourse analysis 14 survey research 14 non-verbal communication 186, 187, 607, 613–30, 663 face and expression of emotions 614–16 facial display rules 616–19 functions 613 gaze and eye contact 620–2 gender factors 614 impression management and deception 628–30 postures and gestures 622–4 proxemics (interpersonal distance) 626–8 relationships and attachment 614 touch 624–6 variations 613–14 see also gestures; kinesics non-zero-sum game 424, 461 normalisation 262 normality, departures from 70–3 normative decision theory 332–3 normative fit 134, 433 normative influence 258, 264, 271 normative models 70 normative motive 419 norming (group socialisation) 296 norms 173, 240 and attraction 573–4 cultural 255, 494, 504, 559, 640, 648, 664 descriptive 301 extreme or polarised 54 formation and influence 31, 250, 251 group 250, 300–4, 358, 657 for helping 547–8 injunctive 301 leadership 324 moral 162 mutual obligation 573 prejudice and discrimination 374 reciprocity 547–8, 631 salient 657 social 241, 251, 530, 613 social responsibility 548 stereotype 301 subjective 163 talk 341, 342 theory, emergent 449–51 O obedience 240–1 and culture 647–8 destructive 31 to authority 244–9, 509 objective accommodation in language and communication 607 observation 526 observational learning 177–8, 526 obstacles, insurmountable 419 one-component view 157 one-factor design 11 ontogeny 615 openness to change versus conservatism 655 operant conditioning 21, 399 operant reinforcement principles 479 operational definition 26, 472 SUBJECT INDEX 773 optimal distinctiveness 442 organisational learning 351 organisational psychology 25 orientation, long-term 589 ostracism 145, 315, 316, 575, 634 outcome bias 86, 96, 100, 104 outgroup 419 behaviour 102, 104 output equity 290 overjustification effect 127–8 overt behaviour 44, 186–7 oxytocin 504 P P-O-X unit 157 pair-bonding system 584 paired distinctiveness 72, 441 paired words 72 paradigm shifts 324 paralanguage and speech style 601–2 parental modelling 399 parental prejudices 399 parents and attitude formation 179 participation-equalisation effect 634 partner regulation 578, 591 partnerships, ideal 590 passion 580, 581, 584 path-goal theory 333 Pavlovian conditioning see classical conditioning pay-off matrix 423 peace studies 511 Pearson’s r 17 perceptual focus 98 performance pressure 60 performing (group socialisation) 296 peripheral and central processing distinction 264 peripheral cues 211, 212 peripheral route processing 70, 212 person perception 46 personal characteristics 566–7 see also under prosocial behaviour personal constructs 48 personal dedication 588 personal factors and causality 85 personalisation 458 personalism 87 personality 23, 31, 119 and aggression 482–3 and attraction 566 authoritarian 31, 402–4, 431, 510 culture 643 exam cheating 545 intergroup behaviour 414 lay theories of 48 measures 537 scale 174 theories 48, 452–3 traits and leadership 324–6 types A and B 483 perspective taking 524–6 persuasion and attitude change 196–235 attitude, arguments and behaviour 196 compliance 214–21 action research 219–21 ingratiation 214–15 multiple requests 215–18 systematic processing 212 dual process models 210–14 persuasive communication 196–210 age factors 209 audience 195, 208–10 cognitive biases 210 communicator 200–2 facts versus feelings 205 fear-arousing messages 203–5 framing a message 206 gender factors 208 individual differences 209 medium and message 206 message 199, 202–8 prior beliefs 210 repetition, effects of 202–3 self-esteem 208 sleeper effect 207–8 source credibility 200–2 source factors 199 Yale approach 198 resistance to persuasion 231–5 attitude accessibility and strength 234–5 forewarning 232 inoculation 232–4 reactance 232 see also cognitive dissonance persuasive arguments 356–7 persuasive influence 241 phenomenological approach 30 phone language 622 phonetics and phonemics distinction 644 phylogeny 615 physical aggression 484 physical appearance 48–9 physical welfare of participants 18 physiological arousal 89, 523 planned behaviour 164–9 pluralism 460–1 cultural 461, 671 methodological 9 pluralistic ignorance 357 polarisation 356–9 political ideologies 180 political issues and aggression 507 polygraph 184 popularity 199 pornography 500 positive psychology 518 positive reinforcement 136, 177 positivism 24, 25–6 positivity (impression formation) 48 postmodern paradox 670 postures and gestures 622–4 power 241, 242, 323–4 and aggression 505 differentials 58 distance 645, 653, 654, 655 distribution (decision-making) 347 group structure 309–10 imbalance 631 and influence 241–3 intergroup behaviour 243, 462 legitimate 243, 260 position 331 prejudice and discrimination 402 and speech style 611 pre-attentive analysis 63 prejudice and discrimination 14, 56, 58, 368–408 ageism 383–4 aggression 478 culture 655 effects of 389–98 attributional ambiguity 393–4 dehumanisation, violence and genocide 396–8 failure and disadvantage 393 self-fulfilling prophecies 394–6 self-worth, self-esteem and psychological well-being 390–2 social stigma 389–90 stereotype threat 392–3 envious prejudice 56 explanations 399–408 authoritarian personality 402–4 belief congruence 406–8 dogmatism and closed-mindedness 404 frustration-aggression 399–402 right-wing authoritarianism 404–5 social dominance theory 405 stereotypes 408 handicap, physical or mental 385–7 homosexuality 385, 386 innate component of prejudice 399 intergroup behaviour 31, 414, 421, 429, 431, 452–3, 453, 456 language and communication 630, 632 learnt prejudices 399 nature and dimensions of 368–9 parental prejudice 399 paternalistic prejudice 58 persuasion and attitude change 209 prejudiced attitude and discriminatory behaviour 369–71 racism 379–83 reluctance to help 387 reverse discrimination 388–9, 391 sexism 371–9 tokenism 387–8 prestige 134 prevention focus 443 prevention system 125 primacy effect 47–8, 51, 59 priming 65, 488, 499, 500 primus inter pares effect see optimal distinctiveness principlism 549 prisoner’s dilemma 423–4, 425, 656 privacy 19, 567 procedural justice 343, 418, 428, 573, 574 process loss 286, 351 production blocking/matching 349 profile of non-verbal sensitivity (PONS) 613 profit (in relationships) 571 promotion focus 443 promotion system 125–6 propaganda 196–7 propositions 65 prosocial behaviour 32, 177, 518–50 attribution, impact of 529 biology and evolution 520–2 bystander-calculus model 522, 523 calculating whether to help 522–3 culture 657–8 empathy and altruism 523–6 empathy and arousal 522 empathy and emotional states 525 exam cheating 545 game playing and the media 528 Genovese, Kitty, and 519–20, 523, 524 health support networks 546 helping behaviour and altruism 518–19 774 SUBJECT INDEX prosocial behaviour (continued) helping to prevent crime 543–4 learning to be helpful 526–9 motives and goals 548–9 norms for helping 547–8 personal characteristics 535–43 competence 540–1 gender factors 541–3 guilty helper 537 individual differences 537–8 leaders and followers 541 mood states 535–6 ‘Scrooge effect’ 539–40 town size 538–9 perspective taking 524–6 receiving help 546–7 shoplifting 544 volunteers 549–50 see also bystander effect protection motivation theory 167, 168, 204 protest, massed 260 prototypes 53–5, 104, 132, 338, 346 group 339, 432 leadership 334, 340 proxemics (interpersonal distance) 626–8 proximity 313, 566 and liking 560–1 psychic energy 399–400 psychoanalysis 119 psychodynamic theory and aggression 474 psycholinguistic distinctiveness 607 psychological salience and intergroup behaviour 433 psychological well-being 390–2 public goods dilemma 426 public speaking 279 punishment 177, 242, 527 Pygmalion effect 395 Q qualitative data/analysis 14, 17, 51 quantitative data/analysis 15, 17, 51 R racism 190, 379–83 aversive 380, detection 380–3 new 379–80 radical behaviourists 21 radicalization 10 rape myths 501 rationalism 8–9 reactance 232 realism, experimental 12 realistic conflict 420–8 cooperation, competition and social dilemmas 423–8 prisoner’s dilemma 423–4 social dilemmas, resolution of 427–8 ‘tragedy of the commons’ 425–7 trucking game 424–5 theory 422–3, 428, 453 reasoned action 163–4 theory of (TRA) 162, 163, 164–6, 167, reasoning elaborative 63 process, affect- and cognition-driven 110 recall 66 recategorisation 459 received pronunciation 603 recency 47–8, 360 reciprocity norm 547–8, 631 reciprocity principle 215, 547–8 reductionism 24–5, 26, 78, 431 reference group 241 referent informational influence theory 259, 438 reflexive thought 118 regression 71–2 to the mean 646 regulatory focus theory 125–6 reinforcement 242 -affect model 21, 536, 568 approach 568, 570 schedules 21 relational aggression 484 relational identity 346 relational models 343, 660 relational theory 658 relationship distress 588 relationships 658–60 breakdown 572, 590–3 dissolution model 591 maintaining 587–8, 594 and non-verbal communication 614 as social exchange 570 relative deprivation 402, 414–20 aggression 471, 493, 511 egoistic 416–17 fraternalistic 416–19 intergroup behaviour 453 relativism, cultural 669, 670 releasers 474 relief state model, negative 537 religions/religiosity 84, 657 remembrance 298 repetition, effects of 202–3 representation, distinct forms of 68 representativeness heuristic 73, 228 reproductive fitness 496, 557–8 research methods 8–17 data and analysis 14–17 experiments 9–12 non-experimental methods 12–14 scientific method 8–9 resocialisation 298 response set 14 responsible bystanders 543 reward 31, 177, 527 intrinsic and extrinsic 168 motive 419 performance-contingent 127 task-contingent 127 see also under attraction Right-Wing Authoritarianism (RWA) 404–5 Ringelmann effect 287 riots 110, 414–15, 417, 452, 459 risky shift 356 road rage 477 role(s) 31 assignment 373 congruity theory 344, 373 groups 305–6 identity theory 306 making 335 routinisation 335 taking 335 transition 30, 297, 298, 299 see also social roles romance 581–2, 583, 585 of leadership 338 rumour 107 Russian cultural-historical school 643 S salience (social encoding) 63–4 salient norms 657 same-sex relationships 385, 505, 586–7, 590 sanctions 547 scapegoat 400–1 schemas 55, 59–61, 156 accessible 59 aggression 501 causal 89, 105 culture 658 gender 61 -inconsistent information 60 leader 338–9 mood-congruent 60 multiple necessary cause 89 political 61 racial 59 self-schemas 53, 61, 123–5, 131 social decision 347 social inference 70, 71, 72 see also social schemas schism 310, 311 science 4 scientific method 8–9 scripts 52–3, 480, 500 causal 105 secularisation 118, 643, 657 seeing red 558 selective exposure hypothesis 221 self activities 148 actual 125, 126 collective 78, 119–20, 130 concept of 305 ideal 124, 125, 126 independent 147–8, 651 individual 119, 130 interactionist 120–2 interdependent 130, 147–8, 651 looking-glass 121 ‘ought’ 125, 126 private 121–122, 123 psychodynamic 119 public 121–122, 123 role of 228–9 see also self and identity self and identity 118–49 collective identities 130 contextual sensitivity 130–1 cultural differences 147–9 group-based social identities 130 historical context 118–22 personal identity 129, 132 self-esteem see self-esteem self-knowledge see self-knowledge social identity 130, 132–4 types of 129–30 self-affirmation 135, 136, 229 self-assessment 135, 136, 137 self-awareness 122–3, 284, 446–9 self-blame 101, 254, 522 self-categorization 78, 259, 268–9, 452 theory 57, 132, 295, 358, 359, 430–1, 439 self-coherence 131 SUBJECT INDEX 775 self-complexity 129 self-concept 53, 118, 121, 124, 133, 139, 142–3, 292, 650 self-conceptual positivity bias 139 self-concern 536 self-confidence 608–9 self-consistency 217, 228, 229 self-definition 148 self-disclosure 566–7, 631, 633 self-discrepancy theory 125, 126, 284 self-distinctiveness 148, 652 self-efficacy 168 self-enhancement 135–7, 138, 140, 433–4, 655 self-enhancing triad 122, 137 self-esteem 102, 134, 137–45, 198, 199, 208, 229, 390–2 affiliation and group formation 314 aggression 483, 512 attraction and close relationships 564, 575 death, fear of 143–4 depressed, and ethnic minority status 141 high 143–4, 145 individual differences 142–3 intergroup behaviour 434 language and communication 609 positive or neutral self-esteem feedback 144 prejudice and discrimination 393 process 104 and social identity 140–1 as sociometer 144–5 self-evaluation maintenance model 128 self-fulfilling prophecies 394–6 self-guides 125, 126 self-handicapping 100–1, 139 self-identity 175 self-image 139 self-interest 336, 524, 549 self-knowledge 123–9 behaviour, inferences from 127–8 ideal self 124 overjustification effect 127, 128 regulatory focus theory 125–6 self-discrepancy theory 125 self-schemas 123–5 and social comparison 128–9 self-monitoring 145 self-motives 134–7 self-observation 44 self-other effect see actor-observer effect self-perception 76 theory 91, 127, 178, 217, 230, 388–9 self-presentation 121–2, 145–7, 214, 284 self-promotion 145, 214 self-protecting bias 100 self-regulation 125, 591 self-report measures 77 self-schema 53, 61, 123–5, 131 self-serving biases 99–101 self-standards 229 self-structure 148 self-transcendence 655 self-uncertainty 314 self-verification 135, 136 self-worth 314, 390–2 semantics 77, 182, 184 separation (culture and migration) 610, 666, 667 sex hormones and aggression 483–4 sex role 371, 373 sex stereotype 371–3, 375–7 sexism 371–9 behaviour and roles 373–4 benevolent 56 changes in 377–9 sex stereotypes 371–3, 375–7 sexual desire 584 sexual mating system 584 sexual orientation 622 see also homosexuality sexual selection theory 484 shoplifting 544 similarity 200, 456 situational attribution 85, 101, 102, 173–4 situational control 330–1 situational factors 87, 256–7, 455, 545 situational perspectives 326 situational rules in language and communication 616–17 situational variables 173, 488, 490–2 skin resistance 184 sleeper effect 207–8 small numbers, law of 71 snowball effect (primitive sympathy) 446 sociability 372 social action 436 social approval and acceptance 259 social attraction 295 hypothesis 438 social categorization 62, 429, 430, 431–3, 440, 660 social change 438 belief system 435 see also minority influence and social change social cognition 22, 32, 35, 4, 45, 46, 74, 76, 77 see also under intergroup behaviour social cognitive neuroscience 22, 24, 45 social cohesion 294 social comparison and cultural values 357–8 and self-knowledge 128–9 theory 128, 140, 307, 575 social compensation 291 social competition 436 social creativity 435 social decision schemas 347 social deprivation 575–6 social desirability 12, 66 bias 159–60 social dilemmas 343 see also under realistic conflict social distance 186, 380 social dominance theory 405 social encoding 63–5 social exchange 21, 31, 570, 571–3 social exclusion see ostracism social expectancy theory 558 social explanation see attribution and social explanation social facilitation 28, 279, 415 non-drive explanations of 283–5 see also mere presence and audience effects: social facilitation social factors in attraction and close relationships 558, 560 social identity 21, 129, 130, 259, 268–9 affiliation and group formation 314 analysis 244, 634 and culture 656–7 dynamics 271 groups 292, 296 intergroup behaviour 35, 419, 443, 452 language and communication 607 leadership 339–42 model of deindividuation phenomenon (SIDE model) 452 and self-esteem 140–1 see also under intergroup behaviour; social identity theory social identity theory 24–5, 57, 104, 259, 339, 341, 344, 346, 356, 358 aggression 510 attitude 173 collective behaviour and the crowd 437–8 culture 669 group decision-making 358 intergroup behaviour 439, 440 language and communication 603 leadership 334, 336, 337, 338 and memory 68 social impact 270 and groups 287–93 and minority influence 270 social inference 70–4 heuristics 73–4 improvement 74 normality, departures from 70–3 social influence 240–71, 533, 534 compliance, obedience and conformity 240–1 intergroup behaviour 414 modalities 262 obedience to authority 244–9 power and influence 241–4 types 240–4 see also conformity; minority influence and social change social information, gathering and sampling 70–1 social inhibition 279 social interaction 21, 145 social isolation 574–5 see also ostracism social judgement 49, 76 social justice 572, 573 social knowledge and societal attributions 105–12 causal attribution 105 conspiracy theories 108 cultural factors 110–12 rumour 107 social representations 105–6 societal attributions 108–10 social learning theory 478–9, 480 aggression 497 prosocial behaviour 528 social loafing 287–93, 349 social markers in speech 602–3 social matching 563 social mobility belief system 435 social modelling 21–2 social networking 567, 578 social networking sites (SNSs) 566 social neuroscience 22, 45–6, 78, 185 social norms 241, 251, 530 social order 506 social orientation in language and communication 606 social ostracism 145, 315 social penetration model 566 social perception 32, 58 776 SUBJECT INDEX social phase (break-ups) 592 social presence 279, 284 social protest 419–20 social representations 35, 105–7, 119, 120, 632 and attitude 181–2 culture 643–4, 669 social responsibility norm 548 social roles 58 theory 484 social schemas 59–63 acquisition of 61–2 changing 62–3 use of 59–61 see also social schemas and categories social schemas and categories 51–8 categories and prototypes 53–5 categorisation and stereotyping 56–8 content-free schemas 53 person schemas 52 role schemas 52 scripts 52–3 self-schemas 53 social support network 546, 587, 588, 666 social transition scheme 348 social validation 146 social-identity-related processes 340 socialisation 298, 525 and aggression 484 and culture 648–50 groups 296–300 theory 558 societal influences see under aggression societal uncertainty 510 Society of Experimental Social Psychology 10 socio-psychological dimensions 609 sociocognitive model 158, 159 sociocultural values 658 socioemotional attributes 329 socioemotional specialist 328 sociometer 144, 564 solidarity 421 variables 602–3 source credibility 200–2, 207, 213 spanking 480 spatial agency bias 600 speaking-from-ignorance effect 255 spectator violence 491–2 speech 613 accommodation 606–7, 612 convergence and divergence 606–7 rate 199 social markers 602–3 stereotyped 607 style 602, 611 intercultural 662 sports events, and aggression 491–2 spreading attitude effect 176 stability (task performance attributions) 91–2 standing out 64 statistics 15–16 status affiliation and group formation 315 characteristics 307, 339 differences 310 gaze and eye contact 620–2 language and communication 611, 625, 628 postures and gestures 623–4 diffuse status characteristics 307, 339 and groups 307 language and communication 602, 605, 606, 620 status–resources (ideal standards model) 560, 590, 591 step-by-step decision approach 523 stereotype 52, 61, 103, 104, 156 affect and emotion 76 ambivalent outgroup 58 attribution 96, 104–5 and categorization 56–8 content model 58 cultural 567–8 dominant 56 efficient 56 emotional 56 empathic 56 impression formation 49 intergroup behaviour 431, 432, 440, 442 language and communication 611, 612 lift 393 negative 72–3, 73, 455 norms 301 prejudice and discrimination 368, 371–3, 387, 395, 401408 rebound effect 646 social 52, 59 social cognition 78 social inference 70, 72–3 threat 345, 392–3, 396 stereotyped speech 607 stereotypic inferences 600 stereotypic judgements 187–8 stigma 140, 389–90, 392, 393 stimuli ambiguous 65 distinctive 441–2 storming (group socialisation) 296 stress and aggression 505 and message processing 268 strictness (decision-making) 347 Stroop task 284–5 structural fit 134, 433 structuring (leadership) 333 subgroups and crosscutting categories 310–11 distinctiveness 461 subject bias 13 subject effects 12 subject pool 12 subjective acceptance and conversion 241 subjective accommodation in language and communication 607 subjective group dynamics 312, 438 subjective norm 163 subjective vitality 605–6 submission, authoritarian 404 subordinates 335–6 substantive processing 76 subtyping 62, 457 sufficiency threshold 212 summation (cognitive algebra) 50 sunk costs 217 superego 119 superordinate culture 666, 671 superordinate goals 421, 423, 453, 460 superordinate identity 460, 461 supplication 145, 214 supportive defence 233 survey research 14 symbolic interactionism 6, 120–2 symbolic rites 299 sympathiser 419 system justification theory 405, 436 systematic experimentation 9, 12 systematic processing 212 T t test 15, 16 talkativeness 325 task importance 213 judgemental 347 motivation 292 -oriented attributes 328–9 performance 329 specialist 328 structure 331 taxonomy 286 temperature, ambient and aggression 490 terror management theory 143–4, 181, 205, 314, 539–40 terrorism 507 test of non-verbal cue knowledge (TONCK) 614 theories 4, 11–12, 20–6, 30, 44 behaviourism 21–2 cognitive psychology 22 collectivist 23 crisis of confidence 24 evolutionary social psychology 22–3 neuroscience and biochemistry 22 personality 23 positivism and post-positivism 25–6 reductionism and levels of explanation 24–5 social identity 20 theory of planned behaviour (TPB) 164–7, 174 theory of reasoned action (TRA) 163–4, 165–7, 174 third-person effect 199, 210 thought 44, 155–6 and language 599–600 processes 645 reform 232 see also cognition and cognitive entries threat 136, 454–5 appraisal 168, 204 direct 136 displays 475 integrated threat model 454 three-component attitude model 155–6, 369 three-factor theory of love 582 Thurstone scale 182, 183 tit-for-tat strategy 464 tokenism 387–8, 391 topics, social psychology touch 624–6 traditionalists 383 ‘tragedy of the commons’ (commons dilemma) 425–7 traits 66 central 46, 51, 136 peripheral 46, 47, 136 transactional leadership theory 333–6, 571 trilingualism 607, 608 trucking game 424–5 trust 567, 589 ingroup 346 and leadership 342–3 in relationships 567, 589 SUBJECT INDEX 777 trustworthiness 560, 566, 590, 591 truth wins (decision-making) 348 two-factor design 11 two-feet-in-the-door technique 216 two-thirds majority (decision-making) 348 U ultimate attribution error 96, 102, 645 unanimity 348 group 256–7 uncertainty 254, 262 avoidance 653, 654 existential 314 -identity theory 314 orientation 61 reduction 433 societal 510 subjective 258 unidimensionality 182, 183, 184 universals 669–70 use values 660 utterance 598, 601 V validation process 264 social 146 validity 12, 473 values 163, 472, 653–5 and attitude 179–80 instrumental 180 moral 166 sociocultural 658 terminal 180 verbal reinforcers 177 vertical dyad linkage model 335 vested interest and leniency contract 269–70 vicarious dissonance 230 victim blaming 505 violence 142 domestic 503–6 in films and videos 471, 481, 489, 497, 498–9 prejudice and discrimination 396–8 spectator/fans violence 491–2 subculture of 496, 649 visual dominance 620 vitality ethnolinguistic 604 language 604–6 objective 605 subjective 605–6 vitality–attractiveness (ideal standards model) 560, 590, 591 vividness (social encoding) 64–5 voice behaviour 590 volkerpsychologie (folk psychology) 26, 643 volunteers 549–50 vulnerability 205 W waist-to-hip ratio (hourglass figure) 558 war 507, 508–9, 511 warmth (sociability) 46, 47, 51, 58, 145, 214, 372, 560, 590, 591 warmth–trustworthiness (ideal standards model) 560, 590, 591 weapons 470 effect 453, 500, 511 weighted averaging (cognitive algebra) 50–1 Y Yale attitude change programme 31, 207 yielding 308 Z zero-sum game 424, 461 ‘This is a comprehensive guide to the fast-moving world of social psychology, using daily examples and up-to-date research to illustrate key issues I’m delighted to say the reader remains the focus in this updated edition It is well-organised, informative and engaging.’ Dr Ashley Weinberg, University of Salford ‘This updated text provides an elegant and easy-to-read tour of the basic ideas that are being tested as explanations of diverse social psychological processes With its vast range of references, this edition enables students to both cognitively and emotionally engage with the ideas and evidence.’ Professor Greg Maio, University of Bath The eighth edition of this lively introduction places social psychology in a contemporary, real-world context and explores new, cutting-edge research as well as bringing classic theories to life Thoroughly revised to enhance accessibility, and updated to include over 250 new references, this trusted, market-leading, textbook remains as comprehensive as ever Key features: • In-depth scientific coverage of social psychological theory and research • Combines UK, European and North American perspectives effectively to provide coverage with a unique global take • Updated and expanded coverage of morality, affect and emotion, rumour and gossip, trust and leadership, social media-based communication, multiculturalism, radicalisation, deviance, and sexual minorities • Thoroughly revised and rewritten chapters and sections on aggression, prosocial behaviour, close relationships, and attitude-behaviour relations particularly in the context of health Social Psychology, eighth edition, includes a range of pedagogically developed features to aid independent study: • Research Classic and Research highlight sections focus on either seminal or contemporary areas of research to help you to refine your understanding of these key areas • Your Life sections explore everyday social psychology and encourage you to apply the ideas within your own life • Our World boxes consider examples of social psychology or social issues within the wider world to help you gain a deeper and applied understanding of concepts and issues • A range of photos, reflective questions and the film/literature and TV section in each chapter further help to bring alive this fascinating subject for everyone Michael Hogg is Professor of Social Psychology at Claremont Graduate University Graham Vaughan is Professor of Psychology at The University of Auckland Cover image © Paul Viant / Getty Images www.pearson-books.com ... Acknowledgements xxiii Guided tour xxv Introducing social psychology What is social psychology? Social psychology and its close neighbours Topics of social psychology Research methods Scientific method ... 02/08/17 2:49 PM Chapter Introducing social psychology Chapter contents What is social psychology? Social psychology and its close neighbours Topics of social psychology Research methods Scientific... 20 Theories in social psychology 21 Social psychology in crisis 24 Reductionism and levels of explanation 24 Positivism and post-positivism 25 Historical context 26 Social psychology in the