Social psychology (8th ed)

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Eighth Edition Michael A Hogg Graham M Vaughan SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Eighth Edition Advisory editorial board Dominic Abrams (University of Kent, England) Giuseppe Carrus (Roma Tre University, Italy) Carsten de Dreu (Leiden University, and University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands) Tom Farsides (University of Sussex, England) Antonis Gardikiotis (Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece) Nick Hopkins (University of Dundee, Scotland) Carmen Huici (Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia, Spain) Thomas Kessler (Friedrich-Schiller Universität Jena, Germany) Torun Lindholm (Stockholm University, Sweden) Greg Maio (University of Bath, England) José Marques (University of Porto, Portugal) Sabine Otten (University of Groningen, The Netherlands) Müjde Peker (MEF University, Turkey) Antonio Pierro (Sapienza University of Rome, Italy) Michelle Ryan (University of Exeter, England) Constantine Sedikides (University of Southampton, England) Paschal Sheeran (University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, USA) Nicole Tausch (University of St Andrews, Scotland) Kees van den Bos (University of Utrecht, The Netherlands) Daan van Knippenberg (Erasmus University Rotterdam, The Netherlands) Bas Verplanken (University of Bath, England) Vincent Yzerbyt (Université Catholique de Louvain, Belgium) Editorial Consultants for the eighth edition Mhairi Bowe (Nottingham Trent University, England) Kevin Buchanan (University of Northampton, England) Rob Lowe (Swansea University, England) Mei Mason-Li (Southampton Solent University, England) Laura McGrath (University of East London, England) Paul Muff (University of Bradford, England) Eighth Edition SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Michael A Hogg Claremont Graduate University Graham M Vaughan University of Auckland Harlow, England • London • New York • Boston • San Francisco • Toronto • Sydney • Dubai • Singapore • Hong Kong Tokyo • Seoul • Taipei • New Delhi • Cape Town • São Paulo • Mexico City • Madrid • Amsterdam • Munich • Paris • Milan Pearson Education Limited KAO Two KAO Park Harlow CM17 9NA United Kingdom Tel: +44 (0)1279 623623 Web: www.pearson.com/uk First published 1995 (print) Second edition published 1998 (print) Third edition published 2002 (print) Fourth edition published 2005 (print) Fifth edition published 2008 (print) Sixth edition published 2011 (print) Seventh edition published 2014 (print and electronic) Eighth edition published 2018 (print and electronic) © Pearson Education Limited 1995, 1998, 2002, 2005, 2008, 2011 (print) © Pearson Education Limited 2014, 2018 (print and electronic) The rights of Michael A Hogg and Graham M Vaughan to be identified as authors of this work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 The print publication is protected by copyright Prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, distribution or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, recording or otherwise, permission should 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affiliation with or endorsement of this book by such owners Pearson Education is not responsible for the content of third-party internet sites ISBN: 978-1-292-09045-0 (print) 978-1-292-09050-4 (PDF) 978-1-292-18245-2 (ePub) British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for the print edition is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Hogg, Michael A., 1954–author | Vaughan, Graham M., author Title: Social Psychology / Michael A Hogg, Claremont Graduate University, Graham M Vaughan, University of Auckland Description: Eighth Edition | New York : Pearson, [2018] | Revised edition of the authors’ Social psychology, 2014 Identifiers: LCCN 2017028310 | ISBN 9781292090450 (Print) | ISBN 9781292090504 (PDF) | ISBN 9781292182452 (ePub) Subjects: LCSH: Social psychology Classification: LCC HM1033 H64 2018 | DDC 302—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017028310 10 22 21 20 19 18 Print edition typeset in 10/12 Sabon MT Pro by iEnergizer Aptara®, Ltd Printed by DZS Grafic, Slovenia NOTE THAT ANY PAGE CROSS REFERENCES REFER TO THE PRINT EDITION Brief contents Advisory editorial board  ii Preface  xvii About the authors  xxi Acknowledgements  xxiii Guided tour  xxv Introducing social psychology  Social cognition and social thinking  Attribution and social explanation  Self and identity  42 82 116 5 Attitudes 152 Persuasion and attitude change  Social influence  People in groups  Leadership and group decision-making  194 238 274 10 Prejudice and discrimination  11 Intergroup behaviour  366 412 12 Aggression  468 13 Prosocial behaviour  516 14 Attraction and close relationships  15 Language and communication  16 Culture  638 Glossary  676 References  687 Author index 759 Subject index 765 596 554 320 vi  CONTENTS This page intentionally left blank Contents Advisory editorial board  ii Preface  xvii About the authors  xxi Acknowledgements  xxiii Guided tour  xxv Introducing social psychology  What is social psychology?  Social psychology and its close neighbours  Topics of social psychology  Research methods  Scientific method  Experiments 9 Non-experimental methods  12 Data and analysis  14 Research ethics  18 Physical welfare of participants  18 Respect for privacy  19 Use of deception  19 Informed consent  19 Debriefing  20 Theories and theorising  20 Theories in social psychology  21 Social psychology in crisis  24 Reductionism and levels of explanation  24 Positivism and post-positivism  25 Historical context  26 Social psychology in the nineteenth century  26 The rise of experimentation  27 Later influences  29 The journals  33 Social psychology in Europe  33 About this text  36 Summary  38 Literature, film and TV  39 Learn more  40 Social cognition and social thinking  Social psychology and cognition  44 A short history of cognition in social psychology  44 Forming impressions of other people  46 What information is important?  46 Biases in forming impressions  47 Cognitive algebra  49 42 viii  CONTENTS Social schemas and categories  51 Types of schemas  52 Categories and prototypes  53 Categorization and stereotyping  56 How we use, acquire and change schemas  59 Using schemas  59 Acquiring schemas  61 Changing schemas  62 Social encoding  63 Salience  63 Vividness  64 Accessibility  65 Memory for people  65 Contents of person memory  66 Organisation of person memory  68 Using person memory  68 Social inference  70 Departures from normality  70 Heuristics  73 Improving social inference  74 Affect and emotion  74 Antecedents of affect  75 Consequences of affect  76 Emotion regulation  77 Beyond cognition and neuroscience  77 Where is the ‘social’ in social cognition?  77 Summary  78 Literature, film and TV  80 Learn more  80 Attribution and social explanation  82 Seeking the causes of behaviour  84 How people attribute causality  85 People as naive psychologists  85 From acts to dispositions  86 People as everyday scientists  87 Extensions of attribution theory  89 Explaining our emotions  89 Attributions for our own behaviour  91 Task performance attributions  91 Applications of attribution theory  92 Individual differences and attributional styles  92 Interpersonal relationships  93 Attributional biases  94 Correspondence bias and the fundamental attribution error  95 The actor–observer effect  97 The false consensus effect  98 Self-serving biases  99 Intergroup attribution  101 Attribution and stereotyping  104 Social knowledge and societal attributions  105 Social representations  105 Rumour and gossip  107 Conspiracy theories  108 Societal attributions  108 Culture’s contribution  110 764  AUTHOR INDEX Stevens, J R.  520 Stogdill, R M.  325 Stone, J.  229 Stoner, J.  356 Stopeck, M H.  49 Stott, C.  451 Stouffer, S.  416 Straus, M.  480 Strodtbeck, F L.  307 Stroebe, W.  35, 204, 222, 349 Strube, M J.  331 Struch, N.  488 Sullivan, K.  488 Sumner, W G.  300, 420 Surowiecki, J.  292, 293 Sussenbach, P.  501 T Tafani, E.  182 Tajfel, H.  31, 34, 35, 56, 57, 58, 104, 132, 399, 407, 428, 430, 434, 510, 607, 642 Tarde, G.  27, 479 Taylor, D.  102, 393, 604 Taylor, M.  416 Taylor, S.  44, 45, 137, 441 Teger, A.  548 Tepper, B J.  331 Terry, D J.  167, 173, 210 Tesser, A.  128 Test, M.  528 Tetlock, P E.  110, 180 Tetrault, L A.  331 Thakerar, J N.  607 Thayer, S.  624 Thibaut, J.  32, 571 Thomas, W I.  29, 154 Thomson, R.  634 Thoreau, H.  262 Thurstone, L L.  155, 183, 205 Tice, D M.  121, 146 Tiedens, L.  623 Tindale, R S.  323 Tinkham, S F.  207 Titus, L.  285 Toch, H.  444 Tolstoy, L.  326 Tomada, G.  496 Tönnies, F.  277 Tormala, Z L.  202, 234 Towles-Schwen, T.  169, 170 Trafimow, D.  166 Triandis, H C.  174, 200, 641, 644, 655 Tripathi, R.  416 Triplett, N.  28, 278, 279 Tropp, L R.  455, 458 Trost, M R.  217, 300 Tucker, J S.  593 Tuckman, B.  296 Turner, C.  429, 430 Turner, D.  521 Turner, J C.  57, 132, 240, 244, 259, 268, 296, 356, 430 Turner, R H.  449, 451 Turtle, A M.  668 Tversky, A.  73 Tyerman, A.  423 Tyler, T R.  209 V van Avermaet, E.  267 Van Bavel, J J.  429, 432, 433 van der Pligt, J.  160 van der Vliert, E.  550 van Dijk, T.  382 van Gyn, C.  127 van Knippenberg, D.  334 van Lange, P A M.  589 Van Overwalle, E.  170, 171 Van Schie, E.  497 Van Vugt, M.  322 Vandello, J.  495 Vanneman, R.  418 Vaughan, G M.  174, 437, 662 Veitch, R.  568, 569 Verplanken, B.  174 Vignoles, V L.  148, 651 Visser, P S.  209 Vittengl, J.  566 Voigt, H.  533 Volk, A.  496 Volpato, C.  265, 268 Von Neumann, J.  423 von Schiller, J.  486 Vygotsky, L S.  599 W Wack, D L.  281 Walker, I.  416, 417, 529 Walker, L.  228 Wallach, M A.  256 Walster, G W.  581, 582 Walter, M I.  542 Walther, E.  176 Wann, D L.  485 Ward, C.  102 Warren, P.  529 Watson, J B.  27, 154, 574 Watts, J C.  203, 204 Waytz, A.  397 Wegener, D M.  212, 353 Weiner, B.  91 West, C.  611 Wetherell, M.  77 Wheeler, L.  567 Whitcher, S.  625 White, R.  326, 327, 331 Whorf, B.  599, 600 Whyte, W F.  306 Wicker, A W.  161 Wicklund, R A.  122, 448 Widmeyer, W N.  294 Wiegman, O.  497 Wieselquist, J.  589 Wilder, D.  256, 457 Wilkes, A L.  57 Wilkinson, S.  616 Willer, R.  538 Williams, J D.  74 Williams, K D.  290, 315, 634 Willingham, B.  616 Wilson, B J.  502 Wilson, D.  179 Wilson, M S.  405 Wispé, L.  518 Witte, K.  204 Wittgenstein, L.  53 Wolf, S.  270 Wong, C.  132 Wood, G S.  108 Wood, W.  208 Worchel, S.  292 Word, C.  394 Wright, A.  610 Wright, S C.  431 Wundt, W.  27, 44, 119, 640 Y Yancey, G.  565 Yang, K S.  668 Yarbrough, A E.  624 Young, H.  187 Young, J L.  374 Younger, J G.  228 Yuki, M.  130 Yzerbyt, V Y.  49, 58 Z Zaccaro, S.  291 Zahn-Waxler, C.  526 Zajonc, R B.  279 Zebrowitz, L A.  48 Zembrodt, I M.  590 Zhang, S.  646 Zillmann, D.  477, 478 Zimbardo, P G.  31, 226, 227, 305, 422, 446, 447 Zimmerman, D H.  611 Znaniecki, F.  29, 154 Zuckerman, M.  628, 629 SUBJECT INDEX   765 Subject index A above-average effect  137 abuse syndrome  505 accentuation effect 439 principles 57 acceptance, private and internalisation  241 accessibility  61, 65, 433 acculturation 665–7 achievement attributions  91–2 acquiescent response set  182, 183, 403 action research  219–21, 669 actor-observer effect  97–8, 131 adjourning (group socialisation)  296 adjustment (heuristics)  74 advertising  211–12, 213, 503 comparative 202 factual and evaluative  205 issue/advocacy 234 affect 205 -based attitudes  205 -driven reasoning process  110 -infusion model  76 transfer of  205 see also affect and emotion; reinforcementaffect model affect and emotion  74–7, 91, 155, 157, 154–5, 604 affiliated disciplines  5–7 affiliation  49, 313, 556, 574–5, 577 affirmative action  380, 391 age factors  199, 209–10, 612–13, 628 ageism  383–4, 612 agentic state  245, 509 agentic traits  375 aggression  142, 421, 470–512, 557 authoritarian 404 biological explanations  473–6 ethology 474–5 evolutionary social psychology  475–6 limitations 476 psychodynamic theory  474 collective  488, 510 definition 471–2 domestic and intimate partner violence   503–6 and families  649–50 general aggression model (GAM)  492–3, 528 individual differences  482–8 alcohol consumption  486–8 catharsis 484–6 disinhibition, deindividuation and dehumanisation 488 gender and socialisation  484 personality 482–3 sex hormones  483–4 institutionalised 506–10 levels of explanation  509–10 person, role of  509 society, role of  506–7 state, role of  507–9 war 507 intergroup 401 international and intranational  401 interpersonal 400 learnt patterns of  505 mass media  497–503 cognitive analysis  498–500 erotica 501–3 rape myths  501 violent films and video games  497–8 measurement 472–3 physical 484 physical environment  488, 490–1 reduction 511–12 relational 484 situational variables  488–92 social and biosocial explanations  476–82 excitation transfer  477–8 frustration and aggression  477 hate crimes  478, 479 learnt aggression  478–82 social explanation  473 societal influences  493–6 criminality and demographics   494–6 disadvantaged groups  493 subculture of violence  496 see also frustration-aggression hypothesis; violence alcohol consumption and aggression  486–8, 490, 505 alcohol myopia  488 allocentrism 655 altruism  518–19, 523–6, 548–9, 550, 557 altruistic gene  521 amae (passive love)  645, 664 ambiguity, attributional  393–4 Ambivalent Sexism Inventory  58, 378 American Psychological Association  18, 249, 376 American Sign Language (ASL)  619 analogue device or measure  473 analysis of variance (ANOVA)  87 anchoring (heuristics)  74 anonymity  19, 446–8, 489, 567 anxiety  60, 144, 454–5, 575 apologising 538 appearance  48–9, 66–7 appeasement gestures  474–5, 538 appraisals  75, 77, 91 cognitive  75, 91 apprenticeship rites  299 approach strategic means  125 arbitration 463 archival research  13, 563, 591, 593 arguments 196 arousal  279, 522 accidental 583 attraction and close relationships  582–3 heightened 478 labelling 522–3 physiological  89, 522–3 prosocial behaviour  545 sexual  500, 542 undifferentiated 89 unexplained  89, 90 arranged marriage  585–6 assimilation  107, 398, 459, 610, 666, 671 associative meaning  72, 73, 441–2 associative network (propositional) model of memory  55, 65 assortative mating  563–6 attachment 574–80 affiliation 574 anxiety 575 anxious  577, 578 avoidant  577, 578 behaviour 577 longitudinal research  579–80 and non-verbal communication  614 psychological 589 secure 577–8 social deprivation  575–6 social isolation  575–6 styles  538, 577–80 attainments 416 attempt-suppressing signals  630 attention direction-of-attention hypothesis  265 focal  63, 96–7 attentional consequences of social presence 284 attentional narrowing  284 attitudes 154–90 accessibility 169–71 affect-based 205 -behaviour relationship  172, 214, 369, 438 broad 178 change see persuasion and attitude change cognition and evaluation  157–9 cognitive consistency  156–7 cognitive-based 205 decision-making 159–60 environmental 163 formation 175–9 behavioural approaches  175–8 cognitive development  178 learning sources  178–9 functions 156 general 163 766  SUBJECT INDEX attitudes (continued) historical background  154–5 and ideology  180–1 and intention  220–1 measurement 182–90 attitude scales  182–4 covert behaviour  187–8 overt behaviour  186–7 physiological 184–5 moderator variables  172–5 one-component attitude model  155 priming 187–8 scaling 29 similarity and liking  562–3 and social representations  181–2 specific  162–3, 178 strength, and direct experience  171–2 structure 155–6 three-component model  155–6 two-component model  155 and values  179–80 weak 173 see also beliefs, intentions and behaviour attraction  49, 556–93 attractive people  556–7 cultural stereotypes  567–8 and evolution  557–60 facial attractiveness  558–9 genetics 557–8 ideals, search for  559–60 law of  562–3 liking, loving and affiliating  556 personal 294 personal characteristics  566–7 and rewards  568–74 comparison levels  571 costs and benefits  570–1 norms 573–4 reinforcement approach  568–70 social exchange, equity and justice  570, 571–3 social  295, 438 see also attachment; close relationships; liking attractiveness  199, 200 attribution  32, 45 ambiguity 393–4 bias 95 causal  89, 92, 93, 94, 105 conflict 93–4 and culture  645–7 dispositional  85, 87, 95, 97, 98, 104, 111–12, 127 external  88, 98, 100, 103 fundamental attribution error  95–7, 645 intergroup 101–5 internal  88, 97, 100, 103 performance 102 prejudice and discrimination  376–7 and prosocial behaviour  529 responsibility  94, 100 situational  85, 96–7, 98, 101–2, 104, 173 and social impact  270 theories  22, 32, 45, 84, 263 ultimate attribution error  96, 102, 645 see also attribution and social explanation attribution and social explanation  84–112 achievement 91–2 behaviour, seeking causes of  84–5 biases, attributional  94–101 actor-observer effect  97–8 correspondence bias and fundamental attribution error  95–7 false consensus effect  98–9 self-serving biases  99–101 causality, attribution of  85–9 emotions, explanation of  89–91 external (situational)  85 individual differences and attributional styles 92–3 intergroup attribution  101–5 internal dispositional  85, 95 interpersonal relationships  93–4 own behaviour, attributions for  91 task performance attributions  91–2 see also social knowledge and societal attributions attributional biases  94–101 actor-observer effect  97–8 correspondence bias and fundamental attribution error  95–7 false consensus effect  98–9 self-serving biases  99–101 attributional complexity  61 scale (ACS)  93 attributional style  92–3 questionnaire (ASQ)  93 audience 201 effects see mere presence and audience effects: social facilitation inhibition 532–3 authoritarian personality/authoritarianism  31, 402–4, 431, 510 authority 402 ranking (AR)  655, 659, 660 autocratic decision-making  332 autokinesis  250, 251, 302 automatic activation  169, 171, 570 automaticity  381, 382 autonomy  262, 309–10, 657 averageness effect  559 averaging (cognitive algebra)  50 avoidance strategic means  125 B baby boomers  383 ‘baby talk’  612 back-channel communication  630 background (and neutral) stimulus  568, 569 balance theory  52, 157 bandwagon effect  357 bargaining  32, 462 base-rate information  72 behaviour  4, 66, 156 counter-attitudinal  219, 226, 228, 229, 231 exit 590 healthy, promoting  166–9 moral principles  304 negative  94, 229 overt  44, 186–7 planned (volition)  164–6 post-message 234 seeking causes of  84–5 theory of planned behaviour (TPB)  164–6, 167, 174, 221 see also collective behaviour and the crowd; intergroup behaviour; prosocial behaviour behavioural approaches, and attitude formation 175–8 behavioural control, perceived  164, 165, 167 behavioural decision theory  70 behavioural ecology of marriage  588 behavioural style and genetic model  262–4 behaviourism  21–2, 29, 44, 570 belief 205 congruence 406–8 in a just world (just world hypothesis)  99, 490, 513 beliefs, intentions and behaviour  161–9 general attitude  163 planned behaviour   164–6 preventive behaviour against major diseases 168 reasoned action  163–4, 167 specific attitude  162–3 beliefs, prior and persuasive communication 210 bias  12, 13, 14, 25, 45, 70, 101–2 attributional see attributional biases cognitive  174, 210 conformity 261 correspondence  95–7, 111, 305, 341, 645 disconfirmation 210 ethnic 399 experimenter 14 group-enhancing/group-protective 102 impression formation  47–9 in language use  187 linguistic intergroup bias effect  382, 630 outcome  86, 96, 100, 104 social desirability  159–60 spatial agency  600 subject  13, 14 see also under attribution and social explanation bicultural identity  665 Big Five personality dimensions  325, 338, 493, 567 bilingualism and second-language acquisition 607–10 biochemistry 22 biological perspective, intimate partner violence 504 biology and prosocial behaviour  520–2 biopsychosocial model  76, 204 BIRGing (basking in reflected glory)  129 blind obedience to authority  509 ‘blue-green’ studies  259, 261–3 body posture see kinesics body temperature and aggression  490 bogus pipeline technique  186–7, 630 bookkeeping  62, 457 boomerang effect  232 brain electrical activity  185 brain imaging  see also fMRI ‘brain worry’ theory  28 brainstorming 348–50 electronic 349 brainwashing  233, 235 bullying  496, 511 bystander effect  370, 371, 529–35, 540 apathy  291, 371, 531, 532–3 bystander-calculus model  522, 523 ‘he’s having a fit’  532 intervention  529, 530 ‘lady in distress’  531–2 limits to  533–5 three-in-one experiment  533, 534–5 ‘where there’s smoke there’s fire’  530–1 SUBJECT INDEX   767 C California F-scale  403 careers 49 case studies  13 categorization intergroup behaviour  439–40 prejudice and discrimination  381 social  62, 104, 429–30, 431, 612 category -consistent manner  65 -incongruent manner  65 representation 55 see also social schemas and categories cathartic hypothesis  484, 485, 486 causal unit  97 causality  32, 85–9 dual theory  110 ceiling effect  11 central route processing  70, 211 charisma  325, 336, 337–8, 341, 427 choice dilemma  357 circumscribed accuracy  59 classical conditioning  175–6, 213, 399, 526, 569 clinical judgement  71 close relationships  580–7 marriage and love  585 marriages, arranged  585–6 same-sex romantic relationships  586–7 see also love closed-mindedness 404 cognition  89, 156 -based attitude  205 and culture  645–7 data-driven 60 -driven reasoning process  110 and evaluation  157–9 and language  599–601 necessity for  61 see also social cognition cognitive algebra  49–51, 52, 70, 159 cognitive alternatives  435 cognitive analysis and aggression  498–500 cognitive appraisals  75, 91 cognitive approaches  32 cognitive biases  174–5, 210 cognitive closure  61 cognitive complexity  51 cognitive consistency  45, 156–7 theories  22, 178, 221 cognitive development  178 theory 300 cognitive dissonance  31, 196, 219, 299 culture 647 prejudice and discrimination  388 theory 156 see also cognitive dissonance and attitude change cognitive dissonance and attitude change  221–31 effort justification  223–5 free choice  228 induced compliance  225–8 revised cognitive dissonance model  231 self, role of  228–9 self-perception theory  230 vicarious dissonance  230 cognitive factors  100 cognitive heuristics  33, 70, 212 cognitive miser  45, 95, 156 cognitive neuroscience see social neuroscience cognitive process  20, 104 cognitive psychology  22, 45 cognitive schema  51 cognitive theories  22 cohesiveness in groups  292, 293–6 collective action  419–20 collective behaviour and the crowd  260, 402, 444–52 deindividuation and self-awareness  446–9 early theories  445–6 norm theory, emergent  449–51 social identity theory  451–2 collective mind  26 collectivist cultures/collectivism  640, 643, 645–6, 650, 654–5, 657–9, 664, 671 attraction and close relationships  567 groups  278, 292 prosocial behaviour  548–9 self and identity  147–9 collectivist theories  23 commitment  584, 585 constraint 589 in groups  297 lack of  572 moral 589 prior 543 in relationships  589 common bond and common identity  277, 456 common ingroup identity model  459 communal behaviour  588 see also collective behaviour and the crowd communal sharing (CS)  658, 659 communal traits  375 communication  57, 598 accommodation theory  607 back-channel 630 computer-mediated  310, 633–4 intercultural 662–4 intergroup relations  461–4 networks in groups  308–10 theory 198 see also conversation; discourse analysis; language; non-verbal communication communicative gene  521 community 657 companions and friends  588 comparison level 571 process 264 compassion/compassionate love  526 compensation effect  58 competence  47, 51, 58, 66, 145, 214 language and communication  602 prejudice and discrimination  372–3 and prosocial behaviour  540–1 social 527 competition 656–7 intergroup behaviour  427, 428, 429 social 436 see also under realistic conflict compliance 240–1 coercive 240 -conformity distinction  214 induced 225–8 leadership 323 see also under persuasion and attitude change comprehension 63 conciliation (intergroup relations)  464 conditioned reflexes  21 conditioning classical  175–6, 213, 399, 526, 569 evaluative  175, 176 instrumental  177, 399, 526 operant  21, 399 confidentiality 19 configural model  46, 52, 70 confirmatory bias  403 conflict  313, 420, 422 distraction-conflict theory  282–3 intergroup  58, 453 post-decisional 226 see also realistic conflict conformity  7, 31, 36, 240–1, 244, 250–9, 262, 263 arbitrary norm creation  251 bias 261 cultural norms  255 and culture  647–8 as function of presence or absence of support 257 group decision-making  358 group size  256 group unanimity  256–7 individual and group characteristics  254–5 informational and normative influence 257–9 jury verdicts  361 leadership 324 majority group pressure, yielding to  251–4 as a necessity  648 norm formation and influence  250 processes 257–9 referent informational influence  259 situational factors  256–7 confounding 10 variables 11 connectionism 170 consensus information  87–9, 98 consideration individualised 336 and leadership behaviour  327–8, 332 consistency  88–9, 157, 263 information 87–8 perceived 264 synchronic 264 theories in attraction and close relationships 568 conspiracy theories  108 constructs 118 contact hypothesis  456, 661 contagions (collective behaviour)  444 contemplation ladder  221 content-of-thinking hypothesis  265 context  23, 50, 173 -comparison model of minority influence 269 and emotions  90 contextual cues  432 contextual factors in attraction and close relationships  558, 560 contextual variation in language and communication 602 contingency theories  330–3 contrast effect  217 control, illusion of  100 controllability (task performance attributions) 91–2 conventionalism 404 768  SUBJECT INDEX convergent-divergent theory  267–8 conversation 630–2 analysis (CA)  631–2 conversion  62, 457 effect 264 on Internet  265 theory  264–6, 271 cooperation  424, 656–7 cultural variations in aggression  496 intergroup behaviour  422 prosocial behaviour  520–1 see also under realistic conflict coordination loss  287–8 coping  139, 527 appraisal  168, 204 correlation  13, 16–17, 89 distinctiveness-based  72–3, 442 illusory  72–3, 442 studies 94 correspondence bias  95–7, 111, 305, 341, 645 cortisol levels  184 cost-benefit analysis  523, 582 cost-reward ratio  570 counter-attitudinal behaviour  219, 226, 228, 229, 230, 232 covariation  72–3, 89 model 87 criminality, and demographics  494–6 crisis-leadership role  374 cross-level research  25 crosscutting categories and groups  310–11 crowd behaviour see collective behaviour and the crowd crowd event  444 crowding 490–1 cultural diversity  670–2 cultural factors and aggression  495, 504 attitude  167, 180 attraction and close relationships  558, 565, 566–7, 582, 585, 585 correspondence bias  97 depressed self-esteem and ethnic minority status 141 gaze and eye contact  620–2 intergroup relations  459–60 language and communication  598–600, 602–4, 610, 615–19, 622–3, 628 non-verbal communication  619 prejudice and discrimination  387 prosocial behaviour  550 self and identity  147–9 social knowledge and societal attributions 110–12 touch 625 cultural norms  255, 494, 504, 558, 648 cultural orientation  657 cultural pluralism  461, 667, 671 cultural relativism  669, 670 cultural stereotypes and attraction  567–8 culture  30, 640–72 acculturation 665–7 -blind 641 -bound 641 cognition and attribution  645–7 communication, language and speech style 662–4 conformity and obedience  647–8 cooperation, competition and social identity 656–7 cross-cultural challenge  668 cross-cultural psychology  644–5 cultural diversity  671–2 definition 642 history and social psychology  643–5 of honour  495, 649 independent self  651–2 indigenous social psychologies  668–9 interdependent self  651–2 language and understanding  664–5 multicultural challenge  670–2 norms and identity  660–1 origins in cultural anthropology  643–4 prosocial behaviour  657–8 relationships   658–60 and socialisation  648–50 tightness–looseness 656 universals 669–70 values   653–5 see also collectivist cultures/collectivism; cultural factors; individualistic societies/individualism cyber- bullying  511 cyber-dehumanisation 489 cyber-ostracism  315, 634 cyber-relationships (Internet-mediated)  562 D Darwinian theory  22 data  4, 14–17, 44 -driven cognition  60 dating sites  567 death, fear of  143–4 death instinct (thanatos) 474 debriefing 20 decategorisation 457–8 deception  19, 249, 628–30 decision rules  347, 348, 521 decision schemes  360, 361 decision-making  13, 159–60, 333, 653 see also group decision-making deconstruction (subjective analysis)  26 degradation  313, 398 dehumanisation  245, 368, 396–8, 432, 488, 489 deindividuation  31, 123, 446–9, 488, 489, 634 delinquency 433 demand characteristics  12, 13, 14 demographic variables in language and communication  538, 605 dependent measure  10, 12 dependent variables  10 depersonalisation  134, 431–3 depression  93, 353 desensitisation  497, 498, 502 developmental factors and correspondence bias 97 deviants and marginal members (groups)  311–12 differential-influence hypothesis  265–6 diffuse status characteristics  307–8, 339 diffusion of responsibility  532, 533, 534 direct access (information processing)  76 direction-of-attention hypothesis  265 disadvantaged groups  388, 418, 493 disconfirmation bias  210 discounting  88, 207 discourse analysis  14, 17, 632 discrimination see prejudice and discrimination discursive psychology  25, 26 disinhibition  488, 497 hypothesis 486 displacement 401 display rules  616–19, 663 dispositions, internal  87 dissolution (relationships)  93 dissonance  157, 229 cognitive see cognitive dissonance vicarious 230 distinctiveness 88–9 information 87 optimal 442 paired  72, 441 positive 433–4 distraction  60, 199 -conflict theory  282–3 distributive justice  343, 418, 573 divergence (group socialisation)  298 diversity cultural 670–2 intergroup relations  460–1 divinity 657 dogma/dogmatism  8–9, 16, 17, 404 domestic partners  588 domestic violence  503–6 door-in-the-face tactic  217 double-blind experiment  12 drive theory  22, 279–80 dual theory of causality  110 dual-leadership 328 dual-process models  70, 204, 210–14, 241, 259, 264 dyadic influence  396 dyadic phase (break-ups)  592 dynamogenic theory  28, 29 E effort justification  223–5 egalitarianism  361, 654 egotism  548, 550 automatic 137 model 142 elaboration-likelihood model  70, 211–12, 241 ‘elderspeak’ 612 embarrassment 538 emblems 622–3 emergency situation  530, 541 emotional lability  89–90 emotional states  526 emotion(s)  75, 617 attraction and close relationships  557 basic 614–16 displayed through paralinguistic cues  601 distinct 526 explanation of  89–91 expression of  614–16 -in-relationships model  580 intergroup 443 negative 139 regulation 77 -related bias  126 vicarious 526 see also affect and emotion empathy  454, 522, 523–6 enlightenment  118, 643 entitativity  276–7, 293, 432, 434, 647 environmental factors  22, 85, 87–8, 90 equality 572 matching (EM)  659, 660 equity 571–3 theory  572–3, 587 erotica and aggression  500–3 errors  45, 70, 352 essentialism  96, 397, 600 SUBJECT INDEX   769 ethical issues  13, 18–20, 245, 249, 545, 657 see also moral entries ethnic biases  399 ethnic death  398 ethnicity and Internet dating  565–6 language and communication  603–4, 605 self-esteem and social identity  140–1 see also culture ethnocentrism  102, 403, 419, 420, 428, 428–9, 431 embryonic  420, 428 latent 419 ethnographic research  643 ethnolinguistic group  603 ethnolinguistic identity theory  603 ethnolinguistic vitality  604–5 ethnomethodology  300, 301, 632 ethology and aggression  474–5 etic-emic distinction  644 European Association of Social Psychology (EASP) 34 European social psychology  34–7 evaluation, enhanced  299 evaluation apprehension  12, 13, 14, 281–2, 283, 290, 349 evaluation in groups  297 evaluative conditioning  175 evaluative response  177 event-related brain potentials (ERPs)  185 evolution and attraction  557–60, 583 and prosocial behaviour  520–2 evolutionary perspective, intimate partner violence 503 evolutionary psychology  22 evolutionary social psychology  22–3, 24, 475– 6, 520, 557 exam cheating  545–6 excitation transfer  477–8, 501 exemplars 55 exemplification  145, 214 exit behaviour  590 expectancies  104, 163 expectancy-value theory  168, 182, 419 expectation states theory  307, 339 expectations 416 experiences 416 direct 175 experimenter bias  14 experimenter effects  12 experiments  9–12, 19, 28–9, 31 field 12 laboratory 11–12 manipulation 9 expertise 199 expressiveness 373 extended contact effect  458 extremism 510 eye contact see gaze and eye contact eyewitness testimony  67 F face and expression of emotions  614–16 Facebook 566 face-ism 375 Facial Action Coding System (FACS)  615 facial affect programme  617 facial attractiveness  559 facial display rules  615, 616–19, 663 facial expression  185 facial symmetry  559 factor analysis  138, 184 failure and disadvantage (prejudice and discrimination) 393 false consensus effect  98–9 familiarity  561–2, 566 families and aggression  649–50 family resemblance  54 favouritism  407, 408, 431, 453 fear  199, 503 -arousing messages  203–5 of social blunders  532 feelings 74 fertility 558 field studies  14 field theory  22 fighting instinct  475 first shift (decision-making)  348 fitness altruism  521 ‘flip-flopping’ 264 floor effect  11 fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging)  11, 22, 24, 45, 78 focal attention  63 folk psychology  26, 643 followership 341 foot-in-the-door tactic  215–18, 245 football hooliganism  492 forewarning 232 forgetting, differential  97 forgiveness  538, 589 formation (relationships)  93 forming (group socialisation)  296 frame of reference  250, 251, 302 free choice  228 free-rider effect  289, 426 frustration-aggression hypothesis  399–402, 414, 431, 477, 478 full cycle research  30 full-range leadership model  336 fundamental attribution error  95–7, 645 fuzzy sets  53, 54 G game theory  424 see also prisoner’s dilemma gaze and eye contact  607, 620–2, 663 Gemeinschaft  277, 456 gender factors aggression  484, 494 attraction and close relationships  566–7, 574, 581, 583 domestic violence  505 gaze and eye contact  620–1 groups 277 language and communication  611–12, 614, 617, 619, 622, 625, 628, 634 non-verbal communication  614, 625 persuasive communication  208 prejudice and discrimination  373, 396 prosocial behaviour  525, 541–3 social cognition  78 social influence  254 touch 625 gender gaps and leadership  343–5 gender-specific texting  633 General Aggression Model (GAM)  492–3, 528 General Learning Model (GLM)  528 general psychology  26, 27 generalisation  401, 457–9 generation X  384 generative psychology  669 genetic model  262–4 genetics and attraction  557–8 genocide  368, 379, 396–8, 507, 511 Gesellschaft  277, 456 Gestalt psychology  22, 45, 52, 157 gestures  598, 664 appeasement  474–5, 538 glass ceilings  343–4, 374 glass cliff  345, 374 global village  662 goals 548–9 and effects on person memory  69–70 instrumental 549 mutually exclusive  422, 453 superordinate  421, 453, 460 ultimate 549 good genes hypothesis  558 Good Samaritan syndrome  537 gossip 107 graduated and reciprocated initiatives in tension reduction (GRIT)  464 ‘grand theory’  20, 21 grave-dressing phase (break-ups)  592 great person theory  324, 325 Greenpeace 261 group decision-making  332, 347–59 brainstorming 348–50 groupthink 354–6 memory 351–4 culture 353–4 remembering 351 transactive memory  351–3 persuasive arguments  356–7 polarisation 356–9 rules governing group decisions  347–8 social comparison/cultural values  357–8 social identity theory  358 group-centrism 510 group-enhancing bias  102 group-protective bias  102 group(s)  129, 240, 244, 276–316 acceptance 250 affiliation and group formation, motivations for 314–15 and aggregates  277–8 behaviour  78, 129 categories 276–7 cohesiveness  293–6, 354–5 common-bond and common-identity  277 definition 276–8 deviants and marginal members  311–12 dynamics 29 effectivity, illusion of  350 effects on individual performance  278–93 classification of group tasks  285–7 social loafing and social impact  287–93 see also mere presence and audience effects: social facilitation entitativity 276–7 environment questionnaire  294 ethnolinguistic 603 full member  297 heterogeneous 349 identification  129, 427, 434 and intergroup behaviour and social identity 132 maintenance 329 membership  57, 68, 241 mind  23, 27, 353 minimal group categorisation  131, 440, 453 770  SUBJECT INDEX group(s) (continued) minimal group paradigm  407, 428, 429, 430 nominal 349 non-members 297 non-prototypical member  340 norms  250, 300–4, 669 performance  286, 291, 308, 332 polarisation  259, 356 pressure  31, 248, 251–4 processes  24, 35, 120, 310, 414 prototypicality  339, 340 quasi-member 297 reasons for joining  313 reference group  241 shared group membership  336, 346 size  256, 290, 291 socialisation 296–300 solidarity 296 status 134 structure 304–12 communication networks  308–10 roles 305–6 status 306–8 study of  29–30 subgroups and crosscutting categories  310–11 unanimity and conformity  257 value model  342 see also group decision-making; ingroup; intergroup; outgroup; subgroups groupthink  13, 354–6 guilt arousal 215 collective  438, 443 Guttman scale  182, 183 H habits  166, 174 handicap, physical or mental  385–7 harmony 422 hate crimes  478, 479 health support networks  546 heart rate  184, 185 heat, and aggression 490 hedonic relevance  87 hedonism 537 helpfulness 529 helping behaviour  518–19 see also prosocial behaviour heuristic processing  76 heuristic-systematic model  70, 212–14, 241 heuristics  73–4, 95 hidden profiles  348 hierarchical cultures  655 historical context  26–33 Anglo-European influences  26–7 attitude scaling  29 early texts  27 experimentation  27–9, 31 groups, study of  29–30 journals 33 programmes 31–3 textbooks 30 homogeneity, relative  185, 439–40 homosexuality  385, 386, 479, 505, 586 honesty 567 hospitalism 575 hostility 421 human nature  48, 397 human uniqueness  397 hypodescent 109 hypotheses  8–9, 18 cathartic  484, 485, 486 contact  456, 661 content-of-thinking 265 differential-influence 265–6 direction-of-attention 265 frustration-aggression see frustrationaggression hypothesis good genes  558 image-reparation 537 life stages  210 lifelong openness  209 multiculturalism 610 selective exposure  221 social attraction  438 I id 119 ideal standards model  590 ideals, search for  559–60 identity 129–30 bicultural 665 common  456, 458 -confirming function  433 contextual sensitivity of self and  130–1 and culture  660–1 dual 665 entrepreneurship 341–2 ethnolinguistic identity theory  603 group structure  310 ingroup 58 positive 433 relational 346 superordinate 461 validation 146 see also self and identity; social identity ideo-motor responses  29 ideological dilemmas  181 ideological orthodoxy  181 ideologies of antagonism  661 ideology  405, 656 and attitude  180–1 comparative 656–7 monistic 181 non-comparative 656–7 pluralistic 181 political  109, 180 religious 181 idiocentrism 655 idiosyncrasy credit  333–5 illocution 598 image-reparation hypothesis  537 imagined contact  459 imitation 479 immigration  455, 461 impartiality 462 implicit association test (IAT)  188–9, 382 impression formation  46–51, 62, 70 attraction and close relationships  562 biases 47–9 cognitive algebra  49–51 important information  46–7 impression management  145–7, 189, 628–30 inclusivity 55 independence jury verdicts  361 prejudice and discrimination  373 independent variables  9–10 individual differences  61, 537 and attributional styles  92–3 and leadership  324–6 moderator variables  174–5 personality and  23 persuasive communication  209 see also under aggression individualistic societies/individualism  645, 650, 654–5, 656, 658, 664, 668, 671 attraction and close relationships  567 groups 277–8 self and identity  147–8 individualistic theories  23 industrial psychology  29–30 industrialisation  118, 643 inference causal 93 correspondent  84, 86–7 stereotypic 600 influence  243–4, 323 information diluted 71–2 encoding 52 integration theory  159, 178 processing 159 informational differences  98 informational influence  257–8, 259 informed consent  19 infra-humanisation 397 ingratiation  145, 214–15 ingroup 414 favouritism 431 identity 58 projection 346 trust 346 initiating structure (leadership behaviour)  328–9 initiation 299–300 injunctive norms  301 innovation 262 credit 334 inoculation (resistance to persuasion)  232–4 insecure attachment style  483, 589 instinct  471, 473–4, 574 institutional support variable and language and communication 604 instrumental conditioning  177, 399, 526 integrated threat model  454 integration (culture and migration)  610, 666–7 intellective tasks  347 intellectual stimulation  336 intelligence  48, 325 intention and behaviour  174 to persist  589 intentionality 87 interaction 570 interdependent cultures see collectivist cultures/ collectivism intergroup aggression 401 anxiety 454–5 attribution 102–5 conflicts 58 discrimination 31 language and communication  610–13 leadership 345–7 power relations  243 relational identity  346 relations  57, 126 see also intergroup behaviour; intergroup relations improvement SUBJECT INDEX   771 intergroup behaviour  56, 414–66 competition 428–9 definition 414 differentiation 431 emotions 443 hostility and conflict  453 intergroup emotions theory (IET)  443 intergroup phenomenon  451 relative deprivation  415–18 social cognition  439–42 categorization and relative homogeneity 439–40 distinctive stimuli and illusory correlation 441–2 memory 440–1 optimal distinctiveness  442 social identity  428–38 group membership  418–19 and intergroup relations  434–8 minimal groups  428–30 positive distinctiveness and selfenhancement 433–4 psychological salience  433 social categorization, prototypes and depersonalisation 431–3 uncertainty reduction  434 social protest and collective action  419–20 see also collective behaviour and the crowd; intergroup relations improvement; realistic conflict intergroup relations improvement  452–64 communication and negotiation  461–4 contact policy in multicultural contexts 459–60 generalisation 457–9 pluralism and diversity  460–1 propaganda and education  453–4 similarity 456 superordinate goals  460 international contact (culture)  663 Internet and aggression  502 computer-mediated communication  309, 633–4 conversion on  265 see also cyber entries Internet dating  565–6 interpersonal aggression  399 interpersonal bargaining  31 interpersonal contact  456 interpersonal dependency  258 interpersonal distance  185, 625 interpersonal interdependence model  294 interpersonal liking  294 interpersonal relations  34, 93–4, 101–2 intervention (experiments)  intimacy 584 -equilibrium theory  628 intimidation  145, 214 intrapsychic phase (break-ups)  592 introspection 44 investigation (group socialisation)  298 investment  262, 571 iterative reprocessing model  432, 433 J J-curve  416, 417 joint actions  570 judgements dimensions of  57 implicit and automatic  159–60 memory-based 69 prior 62 of responsibility  92 social  49, 76 stereotypic 187–8 jury verdicts  359–61 justice and attraction  571–3 distributive  343, 418, 428, 573 and fairness  342–3 procedural  343, 418, 428, 573, 574 social  572, 573 K kin selection  520–1 kinesics  622, 663 L language  26, 57, 598–634 acquisition device  599 affect and emotion  77 age groups and generations  612–13 bilingualism and second-language acquisition 607–10 conversation 630–2 culture and migration  610 discourse 632–3 ethnicity and speech style  603–4 gender factors  611–12 intercultural 661–2 intergroup 610–13 local 617 paralanguage 601–2 prosodic features  601 thought and cognition  599–601 and understanding  664–5 use, bias in  187 vitality 604–6 see also linguistic entries; speech leader behaviour description questionnaire (LBDQ)  328, 333 categorisation theory  339 -member exchange (LMX) theory  335–6 -member relations  330–1, 332 schemas 344 see also leadership leadership  29, 240, 241, 243–4, 260, 322–61 attraction and close relationships  572 authoritarian 330 autocratic  327, 333 bad or dangerous  323, 324 charismatic/inspiring  336, 337–8, 427 contingency theories  330–3 definition 323–4 democratic 327–8 dictatorial 323 dual-leadership 328 effective/ineffective  324, 325, 326, 337 expectation states and status characteristics 339 full-range leadership model  336 gender gaps  343–5 glass ceilings  343 glass cliff  345 good 324 great 324 group structure  310 idiosyncrasy credit  333–5 innovative 341 intergroup  345–7, 427–8 justice and fairness  342–3 laissez-faire  327–8, 336 leader categorisation theory  338–9 leader perceptions and leadership schemas 338–9 leader-member exchange theory  335–6 Machiavellian and narcissistic  323 multifactor leadership questionnaire  336 non-interfering 336 normative decision theory  332–3 notorious 324 organisational 323 path-goal theory  333 perceptions 338–9 personality traits and individual differences 324–6 political/public 323 and prosocial behaviour  541 prototypical  334–5, 340–1 relationship-oriented  330, 331, 332 schemas see prototypes situational perspectives  326 social dilemmas  343 social identity and  339–42 task-oriented  330, 331, 332 team 323 transactional 333–6 transformational  325, 336–7, 338, 342 and trust  342–3 types 327–9 visionary 338 learning by direct experience  479 by vicarious experience  479–80, 528 observational  177–8, 526 organisational 351 theories 178 see also self-knowledge; social learning learnt helplessness  93 least-preferred co-worker scale  330–2 legitimation, codes of  661 leniency contract  269–70 level of analysis (or explanation)  24–5, 26, 104, 653 life instinct (eros) 474 life stages hypothesis  210 lifelong openness hypothesis  209 Likert scale  182, 183, 184 liking  556, 560–8, 580, 628 assortative mating  563–6 attitude similarity  562–3 familiarity 561–2 interpersonal 294 name matching and marriage  563, 564 proximity 560–1 social matching  563 linguistic intergroup bias effect  382, 630 linguistic power  199 linguistic relativity  599 locus of control  93 locus (task performance attributions)  91–2 locution 598 love  49, 556, 580, 584–5 amae (passive love)  645, 664 companionate  581, 584, 588 consummate 584 definition 580 772  SUBJECT INDEX love (continued) fatuous 584 and illusions  583–4 as a label  582–3 marriage 585 passionate or romantic  581–2, 584 triangle of  584 types of  581 lovers 588 low-ball tactic  217 loyalty  296, 590 elicitation 299 M Machiavellianism 180 machismo  496, 649 maintenance group socialisation  298 relationships 93 majority group pressure, yielding to  251–4 majority influence  264, 265, 266, 270 majority wins (decision-making)  348 Manicheism 181 manipulation, perceived  199 marginalisation (culture and migration)  610, 666, 667 marital distress  631 marital satisfaction  94, 587, 631 market pricing (MP)  659 marriage  arranged 585–6 love and  585 masculinity-femininity 653 mass media and attitude formation  179 prejudice and discrimination  375 prosocial behaviour  528 see also under aggression matched-guise technique  602, 632 matching to standard  290 meaning (language)  598–9 mechanical turk (MTurk)  15 mediation in intergroup relations  462–3 memory 65–74 contents of  66–8 intergroup behaviour  440–1 long-term  66, 73 organisation of  68 short-term (working)  66 social 76 using 68–70 see also under group decision-making mental readiness  155 mere exposure effect  175, 399, 561 mere observation  481 mere presence and audience effects: social facilitation 278–85 distraction-conflict theory  282–3 drive theory  279–80 evaluation apprehension  281–2 social facilitation  283–5 message 201 type 213 meta-analysis  163, 164, 232, 255, 285, 395, 556, 614, 647 metacontrast principle  132, 259, 432 metastatements 352 metatheory  21, 23, 414, 668 millennials 384 mindlessness 218 minimal group categorisation  131, 440, 453 minimal group paradigm  314, 407, 428 minimax strategy  571 minority 35 minority influence jury verdicts  361 theory 669 see also minority influence and social change minority influence and social change  260–71 attribution and social impact  270 behavioural style and genetic model  262–4 convergent-divergent theory  267–8 conversion theory  264–7 social identity and self-categorisation  268–9 vested interest and leniency contract  269–70 misattribution paradigm  89, 90 modelling  177, 526–7 effect  480, 527 moderator variable  172–5, 209 mood  174, 212–13 states and prosocial behaviour  535–7 moral commitment  589 moral issues and aggression  507 moral norms  162 moral principles  304, 657 moral reasoning  528 moral values  166 motivated processing  76 motivated tactician  45, 95, 156 motivation/motivational  45, 58, 279, 419 factors 100 loss  287–8, 290 see also social loafing orientation 143 motives normative 419 in prosocial behaviour  548–9 multiculturalism 460 hypothesis 610 multifactor leadership questionnaire  336 multiple requests and compliance  215–18 multiple-act criterion  163 mundane realism  12 mutual differentiation model  457 mutual mistrust  424 mutual obligation norm  573 mutual support  588 mutualism 520 mutually exclusive goals  422, 453 N naïve psychologist (scientist)  45, 84, 85–6, 89, 98 name matching and marriage  563, 564 narcissism  142, 455 nature-nurture controversy aggression 473 language and communication  618 prosocial behaviour  520 negativity (impression formation)  48 neglect 590 negotiating styles  264 negotiation in intergroup relations  461–4 neo-associationist analysis  498–9 neo-behaviourism 21 neo-Freudians 474 neuroscience 22 neurosexism 78 non-common effects  86, 87 non-experimental methods  12–14 archival research  13 case studies  13 field studies  14 qualitative research and discourse analysis 14 survey research  14 non-verbal communication  186, 187, 607, 613–30, 663 face and expression of emotions  614–16 facial display rules  616–19 functions 613 gaze and eye contact  620–2 gender factors  614 impression management and deception 628–30 postures and gestures  622–4 proxemics (interpersonal distance)  626–8 relationships and attachment  614 touch 624–6 variations 613–14 see also gestures; kinesics non-zero-sum game  424, 461 normalisation 262 normality, departures from  70–3 normative decision theory  332–3 normative fit  134, 433 normative influence  258, 264, 271 normative models  70 normative motive  419 norming (group socialisation)  296 norms  173, 240 and attraction  573–4 cultural  255, 494, 504, 559, 640, 648, 664 descriptive 301 extreme or polarised  54 formation and influence  31, 250, 251 group  250, 300–4, 358, 657 for helping  547–8 injunctive 301 leadership 324 moral 162 mutual obligation  573 prejudice and discrimination  374 reciprocity  547–8, 631 salient 657 social  241, 251, 530, 613 social responsibility  548 stereotype 301 subjective 163 talk  341, 342 theory, emergent  449–51 O obedience 240–1 and culture  647–8 destructive 31 to authority  244–9, 509 objective accommodation in language and communication 607 observation 526 observational learning  177–8, 526 obstacles, insurmountable  419 one-component view  157 one-factor design  11 ontogeny 615 openness to change versus conservatism  655 operant conditioning  21, 399 operant reinforcement principles  479 operational definition  26, 472 SUBJECT INDEX   773 optimal distinctiveness  442 organisational learning  351 organisational psychology  25 orientation, long-term  589 ostracism  145, 315, 316, 575, 634 outcome bias  86, 96, 100, 104 outgroup 419 behaviour  102, 104 output equity  290 overjustification effect  127–8 overt behaviour  44, 186–7 oxytocin 504 P P-O-X unit  157 pair-bonding system  584 paired distinctiveness  72, 441 paired words  72 paradigm shifts  324 paralanguage and speech style  601–2 parental modelling  399 parental prejudices  399 parents and attitude formation  179 participation-equalisation effect  634 partner regulation  578, 591 partnerships, ideal  590 passion  580, 581, 584 path-goal theory  333 Pavlovian conditioning see classical conditioning pay-off matrix  423 peace studies  511 Pearson’s r 17 perceptual focus  98 performance pressure  60 performing (group socialisation)  296 peripheral and central processing distinction  264 peripheral cues  211, 212 peripheral route processing  70, 212 person perception  46 personal characteristics  566–7 see also under prosocial behaviour personal constructs  48 personal dedication  588 personal factors and causality  85 personalisation 458 personalism 87 personality  23, 31, 119 and aggression  482–3 and attraction  566 authoritarian  31, 402–4, 431, 510 culture 643 exam cheating  545 intergroup behaviour  414 lay theories of  48 measures 537 scale 174 theories  48, 452–3 traits and leadership  324–6 types A and B  483 perspective taking  524–6 persuasion and attitude change  196–235 attitude, arguments and behaviour  196 compliance 214–21 action research  219–21 ingratiation 214–15 multiple requests  215–18 systematic processing  212 dual process models  210–14 persuasive communication  196–210 age factors  209 audience  195, 208–10 cognitive biases  210 communicator 200–2 facts versus feelings  205 fear-arousing messages  203–5 framing a message  206 gender factors  208 individual differences  209 medium and message  206 message  199, 202–8 prior beliefs  210 repetition, effects of  202–3 self-esteem 208 sleeper effect  207–8 source credibility  200–2 source factors  199 Yale approach  198 resistance to persuasion  231–5 attitude accessibility and strength  234–5 forewarning 232 inoculation 232–4 reactance 232 see also cognitive dissonance persuasive arguments  356–7 persuasive influence  241 phenomenological approach  30 phone language  622 phonetics and phonemics distinction  644 phylogeny 615 physical aggression  484 physical appearance  48–9 physical welfare of participants  18 physiological arousal  89, 523 planned behaviour   164–9 pluralism 460–1 cultural  461, 671 methodological 9 pluralistic ignorance  357 polarisation 356–9 political ideologies  180 political issues and aggression  507 polygraph 184 popularity 199 pornography 500 positive psychology  518 positive reinforcement  136, 177 positivism  24, 25–6 positivity (impression formation)  48 postmodern paradox  670 postures and gestures  622–4 power  241, 242, 323–4 and aggression  505 differentials 58 distance  645, 653, 654, 655 distribution (decision-making)  347 group structure  309–10 imbalance 631 and influence  241–3 intergroup behaviour  243, 462 legitimate  243, 260 position 331 prejudice and discrimination  402 and speech style  611 pre-attentive analysis  63 prejudice and discrimination  14, 56, 58, 368–408 ageism 383–4 aggression 478 culture 655 effects of  389–98 attributional ambiguity  393–4 dehumanisation, violence and genocide 396–8 failure and disadvantage  393 self-fulfilling prophecies  394–6 self-worth, self-esteem and psychological well-being 390–2 social stigma  389–90 stereotype threat  392–3 envious prejudice  56 explanations 399–408 authoritarian personality  402–4 belief congruence  406–8 dogmatism and closed-mindedness  404 frustration-aggression 399–402 right-wing authoritarianism  404–5 social dominance theory  405 stereotypes 408 handicap, physical or mental  385–7 homosexuality  385, 386 innate component of prejudice  399 intergroup behaviour  31, 414, 421, 429, 431, 452–3, 453, 456 language and communication  630, 632 learnt prejudices  399 nature and dimensions of  368–9 parental prejudice  399 paternalistic prejudice  58 persuasion and attitude change  209 prejudiced attitude and discriminatory behaviour 369–71 racism 379–83 reluctance to help  387 reverse discrimination  388–9, 391 sexism 371–9 tokenism 387–8 prestige 134 prevention focus  443 prevention system  125 primacy effect  47–8, 51, 59 priming  65, 488, 499, 500 primus inter pares effect see optimal distinctiveness principlism 549 prisoner’s dilemma  423–4, 425, 656 privacy  19, 567 procedural justice  343, 418, 428, 573, 574 process loss  286, 351 production blocking/matching  349 profile of non-verbal sensitivity (PONS)  613 profit (in relationships)  571 promotion focus  443 promotion system  125–6 propaganda 196–7 propositions 65 prosocial behaviour  32, 177, 518–50 attribution, impact of  529 biology and evolution  520–2 bystander-calculus model  522, 523 calculating whether to help  522–3 culture 657–8 empathy and altruism  523–6 empathy and arousal  522 empathy and emotional states  525 exam cheating  545 game playing and the media  528 Genovese, Kitty, and  519–20, 523, 524 health support networks  546 helping behaviour and altruism  518–19 774  SUBJECT INDEX prosocial behaviour (continued) helping to prevent crime  543–4 learning to be helpful  526–9 motives and goals  548–9 norms for helping  547–8 personal characteristics  535–43 competence 540–1 gender factors  541–3 guilty helper  537 individual differences  537–8 leaders and followers  541 mood states  535–6 ‘Scrooge effect’  539–40 town size  538–9 perspective taking  524–6 receiving help  546–7 shoplifting 544 volunteers 549–50 see also bystander effect protection motivation theory  167, 168, 204 protest, massed  260 prototypes  53–5, 104, 132, 338, 346 group  339, 432 leadership  334, 340 proxemics (interpersonal distance)  626–8 proximity  313, 566 and liking  560–1 psychic energy  399–400 psychoanalysis 119 psychodynamic theory and aggression  474 psycholinguistic distinctiveness  607 psychological salience and intergroup behaviour 433 psychological well-being  390–2 public goods dilemma  426 public speaking 279 punishment  177, 242, 527 Pygmalion effect  395 Q qualitative data/analysis  14, 17, 51 quantitative data/analysis  15, 17, 51 R racism  190, 379–83 aversive 380, detection 380–3 new 379–80 radical behaviourists 21 radicalization 10 rape myths  501 rationalism 8–9 reactance 232 realism, experimental  12 realistic conflict  420–8 cooperation, competition and social dilemmas 423–8 prisoner’s dilemma  423–4 social dilemmas, resolution of  427–8 ‘tragedy of the commons’  425–7 trucking game  424–5 theory  422–3, 428, 453 reasoned action  163–4 theory of (TRA)  162, 163, 164–6, 167, reasoning elaborative 63 process, affect- and cognition-driven  110 recall 66 recategorisation 459 received pronunciation  603 recency  47–8, 360 reciprocity norm  547–8, 631 reciprocity principle  215, 547–8 reductionism  24–5, 26, 78, 431 reference group  241 referent informational influence theory  259, 438 reflexive thought  118 regression 71–2 to the mean  646 regulatory focus theory  125–6 reinforcement 242 -affect model  21, 536, 568 approach  568, 570 schedules 21 relational aggression  484 relational identity  346 relational models  343, 660 relational theory  658 relationship distress  588 relationships 658–60 breakdown  572, 590–3 dissolution model  591 maintaining  587–8, 594 and non-verbal communication  614 as social exchange  570 relative deprivation  402, 414–20 aggression  471, 493, 511 egoistic 416–17 fraternalistic 416–19 intergroup behaviour  453 relativism, cultural  669, 670 releasers 474 relief state model, negative  537 religions/religiosity  84, 657 remembrance 298 repetition, effects of  202–3 representation, distinct forms of  68 representativeness heuristic  73, 228 reproductive fitness  496, 557–8 research methods  8–17 data and analysis  14–17 experiments 9–12 non-experimental methods  12–14 scientific method  8–9 resocialisation 298 response set  14 responsible bystanders  543 reward  31, 177, 527 intrinsic and extrinsic  168 motive 419 performance-contingent 127 task-contingent 127 see also under attraction Right-Wing Authoritarianism (RWA)  404–5 Ringelmann effect  287 riots  110, 414–15, 417, 452, 459 risky shift  356 road rage  477 role(s) 31 assignment 373 congruity theory  344, 373 groups 305–6 identity theory  306 making 335 routinisation 335 taking 335 transition  30, 297, 298, 299 see also social roles romance  581–2, 583, 585 of leadership  338 rumour 107 Russian cultural-historical school  643 S salience (social encoding)  63–4 salient norms  657 same-sex relationships  385, 505, 586–7, 590 sanctions 547 scapegoat 400–1 schemas  55, 59–61, 156 accessible 59 aggression 501 causal  89, 105 culture 658 gender 61 -inconsistent information  60 leader 338–9 mood-congruent 60 multiple necessary cause  89 political 61 racial 59 self-schemas  53, 61, 123–5, 131 social decision  347 social inference  70, 71, 72 see also social schemas schism  310, 311 science 4 scientific method  8–9 scripts  52–3, 480, 500 causal 105 secularisation  118, 643, 657 seeing red  558 selective exposure hypothesis  221 self activities 148 actual  125, 126 collective  78, 119–20, 130 concept of  305 ideal  124, 125, 126 independent  147–8, 651 individual  119, 130 interactionist 120–2 interdependent  130, 147–8, 651 looking-glass 121 ‘ought’  125, 126 private  121–122, 123 psychodynamic 119 public  121–122, 123 role of  228–9 see also self and identity self and identity  118–49 collective identities  130 contextual sensitivity  130–1 cultural differences  147–9 group-based social identities  130 historical context  118–22 personal identity  129, 132 self-esteem see self-esteem self-knowledge see self-knowledge social identity  130, 132–4 types of  129–30 self-affirmation  135, 136, 229 self-assessment  135, 136, 137 self-awareness  122–3, 284, 446–9 self-blame  101, 254, 522 self-categorization  78, 259, 268–9, 452 theory  57, 132, 295, 358, 359, 430–1, 439 self-coherence 131 SUBJECT INDEX   775 self-complexity 129 self-concept  53, 118, 121, 124, 133, 139, 142–3, 292, 650 self-conceptual positivity bias  139 self-concern 536 self-confidence 608–9 self-consistency  217, 228, 229 self-definition 148 self-disclosure  566–7, 631, 633 self-discrepancy theory  125, 126, 284 self-distinctiveness  148, 652 self-efficacy 168 self-enhancement  135–7, 138, 140, 433–4, 655 self-enhancing triad  122, 137 self-esteem  102, 134, 137–45, 198, 199, 208, 229, 390–2 affiliation and group formation  314 aggression  483, 512 attraction and close relationships  564, 575 death, fear of  143–4 depressed, and ethnic minority status  141 high  143–4, 145 individual differences  142–3 intergroup behaviour  434 language and communication  609 positive or neutral self-esteem feedback  144 prejudice and discrimination  393 process 104 and social identity  140–1 as sociometer  144–5 self-evaluation maintenance model  128 self-fulfilling prophecies  394–6 self-guides  125, 126 self-handicapping  100–1, 139 self-identity 175 self-image 139 self-interest  336, 524, 549 self-knowledge 123–9 behaviour, inferences from  127–8 ideal self  124 overjustification effect  127, 128 regulatory focus theory  125–6 self-discrepancy theory  125 self-schemas 123–5 and social comparison  128–9 self-monitoring 145 self-motives 134–7 self-observation 44 self-other effect see actor-observer effect self-perception 76 theory  91, 127, 178, 217, 230, 388–9 self-presentation  121–2, 145–7, 214, 284 self-promotion  145, 214 self-protecting bias  100 self-regulation  125, 591 self-report measures  77 self-schema  53, 61, 123–5, 131 self-serving biases  99–101 self-standards 229 self-structure 148 self-transcendence 655 self-uncertainty 314 self-verification  135, 136 self-worth  314, 390–2 semantics  77, 182, 184 separation (culture and migration)  610, 666, 667 sex hormones and aggression  483–4 sex role  371, 373 sex stereotype  371–3, 375–7 sexism 371–9 behaviour and roles  373–4 benevolent 56 changes in  377–9 sex stereotypes  371–3, 375–7 sexual desire  584 sexual mating system  584 sexual orientation  622 see also homosexuality sexual selection theory  484 shoplifting 544 similarity  200, 456 situational attribution  85, 101, 102, 173–4 situational control  330–1 situational factors  87, 256–7, 455, 545 situational perspectives  326 situational rules in language and communication 616–17 situational variables  173, 488, 490–2 skin resistance  184 sleeper effect  207–8 small numbers, law of  71 snowball effect (primitive sympathy)  446 sociability 372 social action  436 social approval and acceptance  259 social attraction  295 hypothesis 438 social categorization  62, 429, 430, 431–3, 440, 660 social change  438 belief system  435 see also minority influence and social change social cognition  22, 32, 35, 4, 45, 46, 74, 76, 77 see also under intergroup behaviour social cognitive neuroscience  22, 24, 45 social cohesion  294 social comparison and cultural values  357–8 and self-knowledge  128–9 theory  128, 140, 307, 575 social compensation  291 social competition  436 social creativity  435 social decision schemas  347 social deprivation  575–6 social desirability  12, 66 bias 159–60 social dilemmas  343 see also under realistic conflict social distance  186, 380 social dominance theory  405 social encoding  63–5 social exchange  21, 31, 570, 571–3 social exclusion see ostracism social expectancy theory  558 social explanation see attribution and social explanation social facilitation  28, 279, 415 non-drive explanations of 283–5 see also mere presence and audience effects: social facilitation social factors in attraction and close relationships  558, 560 social identity  21, 129, 130, 259, 268–9 affiliation and group formation  314 analysis  244, 634 and culture  656–7 dynamics 271 groups  292, 296 intergroup behaviour  35, 419, 443, 452 language and communication  607 leadership 339–42 model of deindividuation phenomenon (SIDE model)  452 and self-esteem  140–1 see also under intergroup behaviour; social identity theory social identity theory  24–5, 57, 104, 259, 339, 341, 344, 346, 356, 358 aggression 510 attitude 173 collective behaviour and the crowd  437–8 culture 669 group decision-making  358 intergroup behaviour  439, 440 language and communication  603 leadership  334, 336, 337, 338 and memory  68 social impact  270 and groups  287–93 and minority influence  270 social inference  70–4 heuristics 73–4 improvement 74 normality, departures from  70–3 social influence  240–71, 533, 534 compliance, obedience and conformity 240–1 intergroup behaviour  414 modalities 262 obedience to authority  244–9 power and influence  241–4 types 240–4 see also conformity; minority influence and social change social information, gathering and sampling 70–1 social inhibition  279 social interaction  21, 145 social isolation  574–5 see also ostracism social judgement  49, 76 social justice  572, 573 social knowledge and societal attributions  105–12 causal attribution  105 conspiracy theories  108 cultural factors  110–12 rumour 107 social representations  105–6 societal attributions  108–10 social learning theory  478–9, 480 aggression 497 prosocial behaviour  528 social loafing  287–93, 349 social markers in speech  602–3 social matching  563 social mobility belief system  435 social modelling  21–2 social networking  567, 578 social networking sites (SNSs) 566 social neuroscience  22, 45–6, 78, 185 social norms  241, 251, 530 social order  506 social orientation in language and communication 606 social ostracism  145, 315 social penetration model  566 social perception  32, 58 776  SUBJECT INDEX social phase (break-ups)  592 social presence  279, 284 social protest  419–20 social representations  35, 105–7, 119, 120, 632 and attitude  181–2 culture  643–4, 669 social responsibility norm  548 social roles  58 theory 484 social schemas  59–63 acquisition of  61–2 changing 62–3 use of  59–61 see also social schemas and categories social schemas and categories  51–8 categories and prototypes  53–5 categorisation and stereotyping  56–8 content-free schemas  53 person schemas  52 role schemas  52 scripts 52–3 self-schemas 53 social support network  546, 587, 588, 666 social transition scheme  348 social validation  146 social-identity-related processes  340 socialisation  298, 525 and aggression  484 and culture  648–50 groups 296–300 theory 558 societal influences see under aggression societal uncertainty  510 Society of Experimental Social Psychology  10 socio-psychological dimensions  609 sociocognitive model  158, 159 sociocultural values  658 socioemotional attributes  329 socioemotional specialist  328 sociometer  144, 564 solidarity 421 variables 602–3 source credibility  200–2, 207, 213 spanking 480 spatial agency bias  600 speaking-from-ignorance effect 255 spectator violence 491–2 speech 613 accommodation  606–7, 612 convergence and divergence  606–7 rate 199 social markers  602–3 stereotyped 607 style  602, 611 intercultural 662 sports events, and aggression 491–2 spreading attitude effect  176 stability (task performance attributions)  91–2 standing out  64 statistics 15–16 status affiliation and group formation  315 characteristics  307, 339 differences 310 gaze and eye contact  620–2 language and communication  611, 625, 628 postures and gestures  623–4 diffuse status characteristics  307, 339 and groups  307 language and communication  602, 605, 606, 620 status–resources (ideal standards model)  560, 590, 591 step-by-step decision approach  523 stereotype  52, 61, 103, 104, 156 affect and emotion  76 ambivalent outgroup  58 attribution  96, 104–5 and categorization  56–8 content model  58 cultural 567–8 dominant 56 efficient 56 emotional 56 empathic 56 impression formation  49 intergroup behaviour  431, 432, 440, 442 language and communication  611, 612 lift 393 negative  72–3, 73, 455 norms 301 prejudice and discrimination  368, 371–3, 387, 395, 401408 rebound effect  646 social  52, 59 social cognition  78 social inference  70, 72–3 threat  345, 392–3, 396 stereotyped speech  607 stereotypic inferences  600 stereotypic judgements  187–8 stigma  140, 389–90, 392, 393 stimuli ambiguous 65 distinctive 441–2 storming (group socialisation)  296 stress and aggression  505 and message processing  268 strictness (decision-making)  347 Stroop task  284–5 structural fit  134, 433 structuring (leadership)  333 subgroups and crosscutting categories  310–11 distinctiveness 461 subject bias  13 subject effects  12 subject pool  12 subjective acceptance and conversion  241 subjective accommodation in language and communication 607 subjective group dynamics  312, 438 subjective norm  163 subjective vitality  605–6 submission, authoritarian  404 subordinates 335–6 substantive processing  76 subtyping  62, 457 sufficiency threshold  212 summation (cognitive algebra)  50 sunk costs  217 superego 119 superordinate culture  666, 671 superordinate goals  421, 423, 453, 460 superordinate identity  460, 461 supplication  145, 214 supportive defence  233 survey research  14 symbolic interactionism  6, 120–2 symbolic rites  299 sympathiser 419 system justification theory  405, 436 systematic experimentation  9, 12 systematic processing  212 T t test  15, 16 talkativeness 325 task importance 213 judgemental 347 motivation 292 -oriented attributes  328–9 performance 329 specialist 328 structure 331 taxonomy 286 temperature, ambient and aggression  490 terror management theory  143–4, 181, 205, 314, 539–40 terrorism 507 test of non-verbal cue knowledge (TONCK) 614 theories  4, 11–12, 20–6, 30, 44 behaviourism 21–2 cognitive psychology  22 collectivist 23 crisis of confidence  24 evolutionary social psychology  22–3 neuroscience and biochemistry  22 personality 23 positivism and post-positivism  25–6 reductionism and levels of explanation  24–5 social identity  20 theory of planned behaviour (TPB)  164–7, 174 theory of reasoned action (TRA)  163–4, 165–7, 174 third-person effect  199, 210 thought  44, 155–6 and language  599–600 processes 645 reform 232 see also cognition and cognitive entries threat  136, 454–5 appraisal  168, 204 direct 136 displays 475 integrated threat model  454 three-component attitude model  155–6, 369 three-factor theory of love  582 Thurstone scale  182, 183 tit-for-tat strategy  464 tokenism  387–8, 391 topics, social psychology  touch 624–6 traditionalists 383 ‘tragedy of the commons’ (commons dilemma) 425–7 traits 66 central  46, 51, 136 peripheral  46, 47, 136 transactional leadership theory  333–6, 571 trilingualism  607, 608 trucking game  424–5 trust  567, 589 ingroup 346 and leadership  342–3 in relationships  567, 589 SUBJECT INDEX   777 trustworthiness  560, 566, 590, 591 truth wins (decision-making)  348 two-factor design  11 two-feet-in-the-door technique  216 two-thirds majority (decision-making)  348 U ultimate attribution error  96, 102, 645 unanimity   348 group 256–7 uncertainty  254, 262 avoidance  653, 654 existential 314 -identity theory  314 orientation 61 reduction 433 societal 510 subjective 258 unidimensionality  182, 183, 184 universals 669–70 use values  660 utterance  598, 601 V validation process 264 social 146 validity  12, 473 values  163, 472, 653–5 and attitude  179–80 instrumental 180 moral 166 sociocultural 658 terminal 180 verbal reinforcers  177 vertical dyad linkage model  335 vested interest and leniency contract  269–70 vicarious dissonance  230 victim blaming  505 violence 142 domestic 503–6 in films and videos  471, 481, 489, 497, 498–9 prejudice and discrimination  396–8 spectator/fans violence 491–2 subculture of  496, 649 visual dominance  620 vitality ethnolinguistic 604 language 604–6 objective 605 subjective 605–6 vitality–attractiveness (ideal standards model)  560, 590, 591 vividness (social encoding)  64–5 voice behaviour  590 volkerpsychologie (folk psychology)  26, 643 volunteers 549–50 vulnerability 205 W waist-to-hip ratio (hourglass figure)  558 war  507, 508–9, 511 warmth (sociability)  46, 47, 51, 58, 145, 214, 372, 560, 590, 591 warmth–trustworthiness (ideal standards model)  560, 590, 591 weapons 470 effect  453, 500, 511 weighted averaging (cognitive algebra)  50–1 Y Yale attitude change programme  31, 207 yielding 308 Z zero-sum game  424, 461 ‘This is a comprehensive guide to the fast-moving world of social psychology, using daily examples and up-to-date research to illustrate key issues I’m delighted to say the reader remains the focus in this updated edition It is well-organised, informative and engaging.’ Dr Ashley Weinberg, University of Salford ‘This updated text provides an elegant and easy-to-read tour of the basic ideas that are being tested as explanations of diverse social psychological processes With its vast range of references, this edition enables students to both cognitively and emotionally engage with the ideas and evidence.’ Professor Greg Maio, University of Bath The eighth edition of this lively introduction places social psychology in a contemporary, real-world context and explores new, cutting-edge research as well as bringing classic theories to life Thoroughly revised to enhance accessibility, and updated to include over 250 new references, this trusted, market-leading, textbook remains as comprehensive as ever Key features: • In-depth scientific coverage of social psychological theory and research • Combines UK, European and North American perspectives effectively to provide coverage with a unique global take • Updated and expanded coverage of morality, affect and emotion, rumour and gossip, trust and leadership, social media-based communication, multiculturalism, radicalisation, deviance, and sexual minorities • Thoroughly revised and rewritten chapters and sections on aggression, prosocial behaviour, close relationships, and attitude-behaviour relations particularly in the context of health Social Psychology, eighth edition, includes a range of pedagogically developed features to aid independent study: • Research Classic and Research highlight sections focus on either seminal or contemporary areas of research to help you to refine your understanding of these key areas • Your Life sections explore everyday social psychology and encourage you to apply the ideas within your own life • Our World boxes consider examples of social psychology or social issues within the wider world to help you gain a deeper and applied understanding of concepts and issues • A range of photos, reflective questions and the film/literature and TV section in each chapter further help to bring alive this fascinating subject for everyone Michael Hogg is Professor of Social Psychology at Claremont Graduate University Graham Vaughan is Professor of Psychology at The University of Auckland Cover image © Paul Viant / Getty Images www.pearson-books.com ... Acknowledgements  xxiii Guided tour  xxv Introducing social psychology What is social psychology?   Social psychology and its close neighbours  Topics of social psychology Research methods  Scientific method ... 02/08/17 2:49 PM Chapter Introducing social psychology Chapter contents What is social psychology? Social psychology and its close neighbours Topics of social psychology Research methods Scientific... 20 Theories in social psychology 21 Social psychology in crisis  24 Reductionism and levels of explanation  24 Positivism and post-positivism  25 Historical context  26 Social psychology in the