Social psychology 8th global edition by aronson

giáo trình Social psychology 8th global edition by aronson giáo trình Social psychology 8th global edition by aronson giáo trình Social psychology 8th global edition by aronson giáo trình Social psychology 8th global edition by aronson giáo trình Social psychology 8th global edition by aronson giáo trình Social psychology 8th global edition by aronson giáo trình Social psychology 8th global edition by aronson

Social Psychology Ninth Edition Global Edition Elliot Aronson Timothy D Wilson Robin M Akert Samuel R Sommers Columbus • Indianapolis • New York City • San Francisco Amsterdam • Cape Town • Dubai • London • Madrid • Milan • Paris • Montréal • Toronto • Delhi • Mexico City • São Paulo • Sydney • Hong Kong • Seoul • Singapore • Taipei • Tokyo VP, Product Development: Dickson Musslewhite Senior Acquisitions Editor: Amber Chow Editorial Assistant: Luke Robbins Executive Development Editor: Sharon Geary Project Development: Piper Editorial Senior Acquisitions Editor, Global Edition: Sandhya Ghoshal Editor, Global Edition: Punita Kaur Mann Director, Project Management Services: Lisa Iarkowski Project Management Team Lead: Denise Forlow Project Manager: Shelly Kupperman Content Producer: Isha Sachdeva Program Management Team Lead: Amber Mackey Program Manager: Diane Szulecki Director of Field Marketing: Jonathan Cottrell Senior Product Marketing Manager: Lindsey Prudhomme Gill Executive Field Marketing Manager: Kate Stewart Marketing Assistant, Field Marketing: Paige Patunas Marketing Assistant, Product Marketing: Frank Alarcon Operations Manager: Mary Fischer Operations Specialist: Diane Peirano Associate Director of Design: Blair Brown Interior Design: Kathryn Foot Cover Design: Lumina Datamatics, Inc Cover Art: Topform/Shutterstock Digital Media Editor: Christopher Fegan Digital Media Project Manager: Pamela Weldin Media Editor, Global Edition: Naina Singh Full-Service Project Management   and Composition: Lumina Datamatics, Inc Text Font: Palatino LT Pro 9.5/13 Credits and acknowledgments borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with permission, in this textbook appear on the appropriate page within the text or on pages 587–592 Pearson Education Limited KAO Two KAO Park Harlow CM17 9NA United Kingdom and Associated Companies throughout the world Visit us on the World Wide Web at: www.pearsonglobaleditions.com © Pearson Education Limited 2018 The rights of Elliot Aronson, Timothy D Wilson, Robin M Akert, and Samuel R Sommers to be identified as the authors of this work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 Authorized adaptation from the United States edition, entitled Social Psychology, 9th Edition, ISBN 978-0-13-393654-4 by Elliot Aronson, Timothy D Wilson, Robin M Akert, and Samuel R Sommers, published by Pearson Education © 2018 All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without either the prior written permission of the publisher or a license permitting restricted copying in the United Kingdom issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS All trademarks used herein are the property of their respective owners The use of any trademark in this text does not vest in the author or publisher any trademark ownership rights in such trademarks, nor does the use of such trademarks imply any affiliation with or endorsement of this book by such owners ISBN 10: 1-292-18654-2 ISBN 13: 978-1-29-218654-2 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Typeset in Palatino LT Pro 9.5/13 by Lumina Datamatics, Inc Printed and bound by Vivar in Malaysia To my grandchildren: Jacob, Jason, Ruth, Eliana, Natalie, Rachel, and Leo My hope is that your capacity for empathy and compassion will help make the world a better place —E.A To my family, Deirdre Smith, Christopher Wilson, and Leigh Wilson —T.D.W To my mentor, colleague, and friend, Dane Archer —R.M.A To my students—past, present, and future—for making coming to work each morning fun, educational, and unpredictable —S.R.S Brief Contents  1 Introducing Social Psychology  21  2 Methodology: How Social Psychologists Do Research  43  3 Social Cognition: How We Think About the Social World  71  4 Social Perception: How We Come to Understand Other People   5 The Self: Understanding Ourselves in a Social Context  104 139  6 The Need to Justify Our Actions: The Costs and Benefits of Dissonance Reduction   7 Attitudes and Attitude Change: Influencing Thoughts and Feelings   8 Conformity: Influencing Behavior  208 246  9 Group Processes: Influence in Social Groups  289 10 Interpersonal Attraction: From First Impressions to Close Relationships  11 Prosocial Behavior: Why Do People Help?  323 364 12 Aggression: Why Do We Hurt Other People? Can We Prevent It?  13 Prejudice: Causes, Consequences, and Cures  395 433 Social Psychology in Action  sing Social Psychology to Achieve a U Sustainable and Happy Future  475 Social Psychology in Action Social Psychology and Health  496 Social Psychology in Action Social Psychology and the Law  516 177 Contents Preface11 About the Authors 17 Special Tips for Students 19 Introducing Social Psychology 21 Defining Social Psychology 23 TRY IT! How Do Other People Affect Your Values? 23 Social Psychology, Philosophy, Science, and Common Sense 24 How Social Psychology Differs from Its Closest Cousins 26 TRY IT! Social Situations and Behaviors 27 The Power of the Situation The Importance of Explanation The Importance of Interpretation 29 30 32 Where Construals Come From: Basic Human Motives The Self-Esteem Motive: The Need to Feel Good About Ourselves 35 36 Ethical Issues in Social Psychology Types of Automatic Thinking Automatic Goal Pursuit Automatic Decision Making Automatic Thinking and Metaphors About the Body and the Mind Mental Strategies and Shortcuts: Judgmental Heuristics TRY IT! Reasoning Quiz Summary  40 • Test Yourself  41 Social Psychology: An Empirical Science 44 TRY IT! Social Psychology Quiz: What’s Your Prediction? 45 45 INSPIRATION FROM EARLIER THEORIES AND RESEARCH  •  HYPOTHESES BASED ON PERSONAL OBSERVATIONS Research Designs 47 50 SURVEYS  •  LIMITS OF THE CORRELATIONAL METHOD: CORRELATION DOES NOT EQUAL CAUSATION The Experimental Method: Answering Causal Questions 53 54 90 90 91 Controlled Social Cognition: High-Effort Thinking Controlled Thinking and Free Will 93 93 TRY IT! Can You Predict Your (or Your Friend’s) Future?96 TRY IT! How Well Do You Reason? Watson Revisited 96 97 98 99 Social Perception: How We Come to Understand Other People 104 Nonverbal Communication 106 TRY IT! Using Your Voice as a Nonverbal Cue 107 Facial Expressions of Emotion 107 EVOLUTION AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS  •  WHY IS DECODING SOMETIMES DIFFICULT? INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT VARIABLES  •  INTERNAL VALIDITY IN EXPERIMENTS  •  EXTERNAL VALIDITY IN EXPERIMENTS • FIELD EXPERIMENTS • REPLICATIONS AND META-ANALYSIS  •  BASIC VERSUS APPLIED RESEARCH New Frontiers in Social Psychological Research Culture and Social Psychology The Evolutionary Approach Social Neuroscience 89 Summary  100 • Test Yourself  102 ETHNOGRAPHY • ARCHIVAL ANALYSIS • LIMITS OF THE OBSERVATIONAL METHOD TRY IT! Correlation and Causation: Knowing the Difference 83 85 Cultural Differences in Social Cognition Cultural Determinants of Schemas Holistic versus Analytic Thinking Mentally Undoing the Past: Counterfactual Reasoning Improving Human Thinking The Observational Method: Describing Social Behavior 48 The Correlational Method: Predicting Social Behavior 81 82 83 PERSONALITY TESTS AND THE REPRESENTATIVENESS HEURISTIC Methodology: How Social Psychologists Do Research 43 Formulating Hypotheses and Theories 71 HOW EASILY DOES IT COME TO MIND? THE AVAILABILITY HEURISTIC  •  HOW SIMILAR IS A TO B? THE REPRESENTATIVENESS HEURISTIC 37 EXPECTATIONS ABOUT THE SOCIAL WORLD Social Cognition: How We Think About the ­Social World On Automatic Pilot: Low-Effort Thinking 73 People as Everyday Theorists: Automatic Thinking with Schemas 74 Which Schemas Do We Use? Accessibility and Priming 76 Making Our Schemas Come True: The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy78 SUFFERING AND SELF-JUSTIFICATION The Social Cognition Motive: The Need to Be Accurate 65 Summary  68 • Test Yourself  69 62 63 63 64 Culture and the Channels of Nonverbal Communication110 First Impressions: Quick but Long-Lasting The Lingering Influence of Initial Impressions Using First Impressions and Nonverbal Communication to Our Advantage 113 114 115 6 Contents Causal Attribution: Answering the “Why” Question The Nature of the Attribution Process 117 117 TRY IT! Listen as People Make Attributions 118 The Covariation Model: Internal versus External Attributions The Fundamental Attribution Error: People as Personality Psychologists 118 121 THE ROLE OF PERCEPTUAL SALIENCE IN THE FUNDAMENTAL ATTRIBUTION ERROR  •  THE TWO-STEP ATTRIBUTION PROCESS Self-Serving Attributions The “Bias Blind Spot” Culture and Social Perception Holistic versus Analytic Thinking 126 128 129 130 The Self: Understanding Ourselves in a Social Context 131 133 139 140 142 TRY IT! A Measure of Independence and Interdependence 143 Knowing Ourselves Through Introspection Focusing on the Self: Self-Awareness Theory TRY IT! Measure Your Private SelfConsciousness147 Judging Why We Feel the Way We Do: Telling More Than We Can Know The Consequences of Introspecting About Reasons Knowing Ourselves by Observing Our Own Behavior Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Motivation Mindsets and Motivation Understanding Our Emotions: The Two-Factor Theory of Emotion Finding the Wrong Cause: Misattribution of Arousal 147 148 Self-Justification in Everyday Life The Justification of Effort 189 189 TRY IT! Justifying What You’ve Done 191 164 Impression Management: All the World’s a Stage Ingratiation and Self-Handicapping Culture, Impression Management, and Self-Enhancement 166 167 Self-Esteem: How We Feel About Ourselves 170 191 COUNTERATTITUDINAL ADVOCACY Punishment and Self-Persuasion 193 THE LASTING EFFECTS OF SELF-PERSUASION  •  NOT JUST TANGIBLE REWARDS OR PUNISHMENTS The Hypocrisy Paradigm Justifying Good Deeds and Harmful Acts 196 197 THE BEN FRANKLIN EFFECT: JUSTIFYING ACTS OF KINDNESS TRY IT! The Internal Consequences of Doing Good 199 DEHUMANIZING THE ENEMY: JUSTIFYING CRUELTY Some Final Thoughts on Dissonance: Learning from Our Mistakes 201 POLITICS AND SELF-JUSTIFICATION  •  OVERCOMING DISSONANCE Summary  205 • Test Yourself  206 The Nature and Origin of Attitudes Where Do Attitudes Come From? Self-Control: The Executive Function of the Self 187 DISSONANCE IN THE BRAIN  •  DISSONANCE ACROSS CULTURES 154 157 160 185 CREATING THE ILLUSION OF IRREVOCABILITY  •  THE DECISION TO BEHAVE IMMORALLY 159 Summary  173 • Test Yourself  175 TRY IT! The Advantage of Finality 150 151 154 Using Other People to Know Ourselves Knowing Ourselves by Comparing Ourselves to Others Knowing Ourselves by Adopting Other People’s Views Knowing Our Future Feelings by Consulting Other People 182 183 DISTORTING OUR LIKES AND DISLIKES  •  THE PERMANENCE OF THE DECISION 144 145 145 178 178 WHY WE OVERESTIMATE THE PAIN OF DISAPPOINTMENT External versus Internal Justification The Origins and Nature of the Self-Concept Cultural Influences on the Self-Concept Functions of the Self The Theory of Cognitive Dissonance When Cognitions Conflict Dissonance, Culture, and the Brain Summary  135 • Test Yourself  137 The Costs and Benefits of Dissonance Reduction 177 Dissonance and the Self-Concept Decisions, Decisions, Decisions SOCIAL NEUROSCIENCE EVIDENCE Cultural Differences in the Fundamental Attribution Error Culture and Other Attributional Biases The Need to Justify Our Actions: Attitudes and Attitude Change: Influencing Thoughts and Feelings 208 210 210 COGNITIVELY BASED ATTITUDES  •  AFFECTIVELY BASED ATTITUDES TRY IT! Affective and Cognitive Bases of Attitudes 212 BEHAVIORALLY BASED ATTITUDES 161 163 169 Explicit versus Implicit Attitudes When Do Attitudes Predict Behavior? Predicting Spontaneous Behaviors Predicting Deliberative Behaviors 213 215 216 216 SPECIFIC ATTITUDES • SUBJECTIVE NORMS • PERCEIVED BEHAVIORAL CONTROL How Do Attitudes Change? Changing Attitudes by Changing Behavior: Cognitive Dissonance Theory Revisited Persuasive Communications and Attitude Change 219 219 220 Contents 7 Using Norms to Change Behavior: Beware the “Boomerang Effect” Other Tactics of Social Influence THE CENTRAL AND PERIPHERAL ROUTES TO PERSUASION  •  THE MOTIVATION TO PAY ATTENTION TO THE ARGUMENTS  •  THE ABILITY TO PAY ATTENTION TO THE ARGUMENTS  •  HOW TO ACHIEVE LONG-LASTING ATTITUDE CHANGE Emotion and Attitude Change 225 FEAR-AROUSING COMMUNICATIONS • EMOTIONS AS A HEURISTIC  •  EMOTION AND DIFFERENT TYPES OF ATTITUDES Attitude Change and the Body The Power of Advertising How Advertising Works Subliminal Advertising: A Form of Mind Control? 230 231 232 Advertising, Stereotypes, and Culture 235 235 GENDER STEREOTYPES AND EXPECTATIONS  •  CULTURE AND ADVERTISING Resisting Persuasive Messages Attitude Inoculation Being Alert to Product Placement Resisting Peer Pressure When Persuasion Attempts Backfire: Reactance Theory 239 239 239 240 241 Summary  243 • Test Yourself  244 Conformity: Influencing Behavior Conformity: When and Why Informational Social Influence: The Need to Know What’s “Right” The Importance of Being Accurate When Informational Conformity Backfires When Will People Conform to Informational Social Influence? 246 248 250 253 254 255 WHEN THE SITUATION IS AMBIGUOUS  •  WHEN THE SITUATION IS A CRISIS  •  WHEN OTHER PEOPLE ARE EXPERTS Normative Social Influence: The Need to Be Accepted Conformity and Social Approval: The Asch Line-Judgment Studies The Importance of Being Accurate, Revisited The Consequences of Resisting Normative Social Influence TRY IT! Unveiling Normative Social Influence by Breaking the Rules When Will People Conform to Normative Social Influence? 256 258 261 263 264 264 WHEN THE GROUP GROWS LARGER  •  WHEN THE GROUP IS IMPORTANT  •  WHEN ONE HAS NO ALLIES IN THE GROUP  •  WHEN THE GROUP’S CULTURE IS COLLECTIVISTIC 276 279 280 281 CONFORMING TO THE WRONG NORM  •  SELF-JUSTIFICATION  •  THE LOSS OF PERSONAL RESPONSIBILITY 229 DEBUNKING THE CLAIMS ABOUT SUBLIMINAL ADVERTISING  •  LABORATORY EVIDENCE FOR SUBLIMINAL INFLUENCE TRY IT! Consumer Brand Attitudes Obedience to Authority The Role of Normative Social Influence The Role of Informational Social Influence Other Reasons Why We Obey 272 273 The Obedience Studies, Then and Now 283 IT’S NOT ABOUT AGGRESSION Summary  286 • Test Yourself  287 Group Processes: Influence in Social Groups What Is a Group? Why Do People Join Groups? The Composition and Functions of Groups 289 290 290 291 SOCIAL NORMS • SOCIAL ROLES • GROUP COHESIVENESS • GROUP DIVERSITY Individual Behavior in a Group Setting Social Facilitation: When the Presence of Others Energizes Us 295 296 SIMPLE VERSUS DIFFICULT TASKS  •  AROUSAL AND THE DOMINANT RESPONSE  •  WHY THE PRESENCE OF OTHERS CAUSES AROUSAL Social Loafing: When the Presence of Others Relaxes Us Gender and Cultural Differences in Social Loafing: Who Slacks Off the Most? Deindividuation: Getting Lost in the Crowd 299 300 301 DEINDIVIDUATION MAKES PEOPLE FEEL LESS ACCOUNTABLE • DEINDIVIDUATION INCREASES OBEDIENCE TO GROUP NORMS  •  DEINDIVIDUATION ONLINE Group Decisions: Are Two (or More) Heads Better Than One? Process Loss: When Group Interactions Inhibit Good Problem Solving 303 304 FAILURE TO SHARE UNIQUE INFORMATION  •  GROUPTHINK: MANY HEADS, ONE MIND Group Polarization: Going to Extremes Leadership in Groups 307 309 LEADERSHIP AND PERSONALITY  •  LEADERSHIP STYLES  •  THE RIGHT PERSON IN THE RIGHT SITUATION • GENDER AND LEADERSHIP • CULTURE AND LEADERSHIP Conflict and Cooperation Social Dilemmas 313 313 TRY IT! The Prisoner’s Dilemma 315 INCREASING COOPERATION IN THE PRISONER’S DILEMMA Using Threats to Resolve Conflict Minority Influence: When the Few Influence the Many 268 EFFECTS OF COMMUNICATION Strategies for Using Social Influence The Role of Injunctive and Descriptive Norms 269 270 Negotiation and Bargaining Summary  320 • Test Yourself  321 316 318 8 Contents 10 Interpersonal Attraction: From First Impressions to Close Relationships 323 What Predicts Attraction? The Person Next Door: The Propinquity Effect 325 326 TRY IT! Mapping the Effect of Propinquity in Your Life 326 Similarity 328 OPINIONS AND PERSONALITY  •  INTERESTS AND EXPERIENCES • APPEARANCE • GENETICS •  SOME FINAL COMMENTS ABOUT SIMILARITY Reciprocal Liking Physical Attractiveness 330 331 WHAT IS ATTRACTIVE?  •  CULTURAL STANDARDS OF BEAUTY  •  THE POWER OF FAMILIARITY  •  ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT ATTRACTIVE PEOPLE Evolution and Mate Selection 336 EVOLUTION AND SEX DIFFERENCES  •  ALTERNATE PERSPECTIVES ON SEX DIFFERENCES Making Connections in the Age of Technology Attraction 2.0: Mate Preference in an Online Era The Promise and Pitfalls of Online Dating 340 341 343 Love and Close Relationships Defining Love: Companionship and Passion 345 345 TRY IT! Passionate Love Scale 347 Culture and Love Attachment Styles in Intimate Relationships This Is Your Brain  .  in Love Theories of Relationship Satisfaction: Social Exchange and Equity 347 349 351 358 358 359 Summary  361 • Test Yourself  362 11 Prosocial Behavior: Why Do People Help? Basic Motives Underlying Prosocial Behavior: Why Do People Help? Evolutionary Psychology: Instincts and Genes 364 365 366 KIN SELECTION  •  THE RECIPROCITY NORM TRY IT! The Dictator Game 367 GROUP SELECTION Social Exchange: The Costs and Rewards of Helping Empathy and Altruism: The Pure Motive for Helping 368 369 Personal Qualities and Prosocial Behavior: Why Do Some People Help More Than Others? Individual Differences: The Altruistic Personality 373 374 TRY IT! Empathic Concern 374 Gender Differences in Prosocial Behavior 375 377 377 EFFECTS OF POSITIVE MOODS: FEEL GOOD, DO GOOD  •  FEEL BAD, DO GOOD Situational Determinants of Prosocial Behavior: When Will People Help? Environment: Rural versus Urban Residential Mobility The Number of Bystanders: The Bystander Effect 379 379 380 381 NOTICING AN EVENT  •  INTERPRETING THE EVENT AS AN EMERGENCY • ASSUMING RESPONSIBILITY • KNOWING HOW TO HELP  •  DECIDING TO IMPLEMENT THE HELP Effects of the Media: Video Games and Music Lyrics How Can Helping Be Increased? Increasing the Likelihood That Bystanders Will Intervene Increasing Volunteerism Positive Psychology, Human Virtues, and Prosocial Behavior 386 388 388 390 391 Summary  392 • Test Yourself  393 12 Aggression: Why Do We Hurt Other People? Can We Prevent It? Is Aggression Innate, Learned, or Optional? The Evolutionary View 395 396 397 AGGRESSION IN OTHER ANIMALS 352 SOCIAL EXCHANGE THEORY  •  EQUITY THEORY Ending Intimate Relationships The Process of Breaking Up The Experience of Breaking Up Cultural Differences in Prosocial Behavior Religion and Prosocial Behavior The Effects of Mood on Prosocial Behavior 375 Culture and Aggression 398 CHANGES IN AGGRESSION ACROSS TIME AND CULTURES  •  CULTURES OF HONOR Gender and Aggression 401 PHYSICAL AGGRESSION  •  RELATIONAL AGGRESSION TRY IT! Do Women and Men Differ in Their Responses? 403 Learning to Behave Aggressively Some Physiological Influences 403 405 THE EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL  •  THE EFFECTS OF PAIN AND HEAT Social Situations and Aggression Frustration and Aggression Provocation and Reciprocation 407 408 409 TRY IT! Insults and Aggression 410 Weapons as Aggressive Cues Putting the Elements Together: The Case of Sexual Assault 410 411 MOTIVATIONS FOR RAPE  •  SEXUAL SCRIPTS AND THE PROBLEM OF CONSENT  •  PUTTING THE ELEMENTS TOGETHER Violence and the Media Studying the Effects of Media Violence 414 414 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES  •  LONGITUDINAL STUDIES The Problem of Determining Cause and Effect 417 Contents 9 How to Decrease Aggression Does Punishing Aggression Reduce Aggression? 419 419 USING PUNISHMENT ON VIOLENT ADULTS Catharsis and Aggression 421 THE EFFECTS OF AGGRESSIVE ACTS ON SUBSEQUENT AGGRESSION  •  BLAMING THE VICTIM OF OUR AGGRESSION What Are We Supposed to Do with Our Anger? 423 VENTING VERSUS SELF-AWARENESS TRY IT! Controlling Your Anger424 TRAINING IN COMMUNICATION AND PROBLEM-SOLVING SKILLS • COUNTERING DEHUMANIZATION BY BUILDING EMPATHY Disrupting the Rejection-Rage Cycle and Cures Defining Prejudice The Cognitive Component: Stereotypes 426 433 434 435 FROM CATEGORIES TO STEREOTYPES TRY IT! Stereotypes and Aggression 437 WHAT’S WRONG WITH POSITIVE STEREOTYPES?  •  STEREOTYPES OF GENDER The Affective Component: Emotions 440 TRY IT! Identifying Your Prejudices441 The Behavioral Component: Discrimination 441 RACIAL DISCRIMINATION • GENDER DISCRIMINATION •  THE ACTIVATION OF PREJUDICE Detecting Hidden Prejudices Ways of Identifying Suppressed Prejudices Ways of Identifying Implicit Prejudices 447 447 448 The Effects of Prejudice on the Victim The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Stereotype Threat 450 450 451 Causes of Prejudice Pressures to Conform: Normative Rules Social Identity Theory: Us versus Them 454 454 456 460 ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL COMPETITION Reducing Prejudice The Contact Hypothesis When Contact Reduces Prejudice 462 463 465 WHERE DESEGREGATION WENT WRONG Cooperation and Interdependence: The Jigsaw Classroom 467 WHY DOES JIGSAW WORK? TRY IT! Jigsaw-Type Group Study THE GRADUAL SPREAD OF COOPERATIVE AND INTERDEPENDENT LEARNING Summary  471 • Test Yourself  473 475 Applied Research in Social Psychology Capitalizing on the Experimental Method 478 479 ASSESSING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF INTERVENTIONS  •  POTENTIAL RISKS OF SOCIAL INTERVENTIONS 481 Using Social Psychology to Achieve a Sustainable Future Conveying and Changing Social Norms 481 482 TRY IT! Reducing Littering with Descriptive Norms 483 Keeping Track of Consumption Introducing a Little Competitiveness Inducing Hypocrisy Removing Small Barriers to Achieve Big Changes Happiness and a Sustainable Lifestyle What Makes People Happy? 484 485 485 487 489 489 SATISFYING RELATIONSHIPS  •  FLOW: BECOMING ENGAGED IN SOMETHING YOU ENJOY  •  ACCUMULATE EXPERIENCES, NOT THINGS  •  HELPING OTHERS TRY IT! Applying the Research to Your Own Life Do People Know What Makes Them Happy? 492 492 Summary  493 • Test Yourself  494 Social Psychology in Action 2  Social Psychology and Health 496 Stress and Human Health Resilience Effects of Negative Life Events 497 498 499 TRY IT! The College Life Stress Inventory 500 LIMITS OF STRESS INVENTORIES ETHNOCENTRISM • IN-GROUP BIAS • OUT-GROUP HOMOGENEITY • BLAMING THE VICTIM • JUSTIFYING FEELINGS OF ENTITLEMENT AND SUPERIORITY Realistic Conflict Theory Using Social Psychology to Achieve a Sustainable and Happy Future Social Psychology to the Rescue Summary  428 • Test Yourself  431 13 Prejudice: Causes, Consequences, Social Psychology in Action 1  469 Perceived Stress and Health Feeling in Charge: The Importance of Perceived Control 501 502 INCREASING PERCEIVED CONTROL IN NURSING HOMES  •  DISEASE, CONTROL, AND WELL-BEING Coping with Stress Gender Differences in Coping with Stress Social Support: Getting Help from Others 506 TRY IT! Social Support 508 Reframing: Finding Meaning in Traumatic Events Prevention: Promoting Healthier Behavior Summary  513 • Test Yourself  514 507 507 509 511 Subject Index 609 Base rate information, 88 Basic research, 61 Beamer, Todd, 365 Beauty attractive faces, 331–336 competence and, 335 cultural differences, 332–333 physical attractiveness, 331–336 stereotypes, 334–336 Behavior See also Environmentally responsible behavior; Prosocial behavior; Sepcific behavior attitude and, 210, 213 causal theories and, 148 individual, in groups, 295–302 Behavioral component, of prejudice, 441–446, 471 Behaviorally based attitudes, 210, 213 Behavioral self-handicapping, 168 Behaviorism, 32, 45 Belief in a just world, 127 Belief perseverance, 115 Ben Franklin effect, 197–199 Beyea, Ed, 365, 369 Bias blind spot, 128–129 Biases See also Prejudice attributional, 125, 128–129, 133–135 correspondence, 122 hindsight, 44 impact, 181 own-race, 520 Bible, 460 Biden, Joe, 447 Big Blue computers, 72 Biggs, Abraham, Jr., 22, 25 “Birds of a feather flock together,”, 26, 328 Blake, William, 331 Blaming the victim, 422–423, 458–459, 472 Blind date study, 331 Bobo Doll experiment, 404, 415 Bogus pipeline, 447–448, 472 Bonobos, 398, 429 Boomerang effect, 272–273 Boy Scout camp, 461 Bradbury, Malcolm, 352 Brain See also Social neuroscience cognitive dissonance in, 187–188 fMRIs, 64, 351–352 love and, 351–352 Breaking up, 358–361 Brown v Board of Education, 454 Buddhism, 92, 130, 349 Bullying See also Aggression Columbine massacre, 396, 426–427 Facebook and, 39 punishment and, 427–428 reducing, 427–428, 431 Burnett, Thomas, 365 Burns, Ken, 531 Burns, Robert, 397 Bush, George H W., 112 Bush, George W., 232–233, 257, 290, 293, 307 Bystander effect Chinese 2-year-old girl, death, 381 defined, 382 diffusion of responsibility, 46, 384, 385–386 Kitty Genovese case, 46, 381–382, 388 pluralistic ignorance, 383–385 prosocial behavior, 381–387 Bystander Intervention Decision Tree, 384 C Carbon dioxide emissions, 476, 484 Carol Marcy experiment, 371 Castro, Fidel, 122, 305 Categorization, social, 457, 472 Catharsis, 421–423, 479 Cats, rats and, 398 Causal theories, 148 Causation, correlation compared to, 52–53, 68 The Central Park Five, 531 Central Park rape, 531 Central route to persuasion, 220–222 Cheating pyramid, 187 Chess, 45, 308 Childhood sexual abuse, 528 Children See also Bullying Bobo Doll experiment, 404, 415 forbidden-toy experiment, 195 gorilla and, 371 insufficient punishment, 194 intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation studies, 151–154 jigsaw classroom, 467–470, 473 media violence and, 414–418 modeling nonaggressive behavior, 424 praising, 32, 183 reading programs, 151–154 Chillingworth, William, 369 Chimpanzees, 398, 429 China See also Collectivistic cultures; East Asian cultures fundamental attribution error study, 132–133 gan qing concept, 349 2-year-old girl, death, 381 yuan concept, 349 Chocolate, love and, 351–352 Christianity Bible and, 460 Golden Rule, 377 homosexuality and, 460 scapegoating and, 463, 472 CISD (Critical Incident Stress Debriefing), 479–481, 510 Cities study, prosocial behavior, 376 Classical conditioning, 211–212 Clinton, Hillary, 310 Coal, oil, water depletion, 476 Cocaine, 352, 441 Cockroaches experiment, 296–300 Cognitive component, of prejudice, 435–439 Cognitive dissonance attitude change, 219–220 in brain, 187–188 culture aspects, 187–188 decisions and, 183–187 definition, 178 final thoughts on, 201–204 Heaven’s Gate massacre, 201–202 hypocrisy induction and, 196–197, 485–487, 494 immoral decision, 186–187 impact bias, 181 irrevocability of decision, 185–186 lowballing, 185–186 overcoming, 203–204 politics and, 202–203 postdecision dissonance, 184 rationalizing and, 180 reduction, 179 self-affirmation, 180 self-concept, 182–183 Cognitively based attitudes, 210–213, 228 Cold, stress and, 502 Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, 507 Collectivistic cultures cognitive dissonance and, 188 groups, 266–268 interdependent view of self, 300 love, 351–352 normative social influence, 266–268 passionate love, 345–346 College Life Stress Inventory, 500–501 Columbine High School massacre, 396, 426–428 Common sense “birds of a feather flock together,” 26, 328 CISD, 480, 510 folk wisdom, 25, 328, 509 naive realism, 33 “opposites attract,”, 26, 324, 328, 361 social psychology compared to, 24–26, 40 Communal relationships, 357, 361 Communication See also Persuasion anger and, 424–425 negotiation, 318–319 Community or Wall Street game, 30–31, 315 Companionate love, 345, 361 Comparison, social comparison theory, 308, 485 Comparison level, interpersonal attraction, 352–354, 362 Comparison level for alternatives, 352–354, 362 Competence, 334, 335 Competition See also Sports economic, prejudice and, 460–461 environmentally responsible behavior and, 485, 494 prisoner’s dilemma game, 30–31, 314–315, 318, 321 Computers Big Blue, 72 Watson Supercomputer, 72 Condoms, STDs and, 52 Confessions, 530–532 Conformity See also Groups; Norms Abu Ghraib prison abuse, 249–250, 293 Asch line-judgment studies, 258–261 autokinetic effect, 251 contagion effect, 254 definition, 250 group size effects, 265 Heaven’s Gate massacre, 249 idiosyncrasy credits, 265 importance of being accurate, 253–254, 261–263 informational social influence, 254–255, 383 McDonald’s incident, 247–248 610  Subject Index Conformity (Continued) minority influence, 268 normative, 454–456, 472 obedience, 276–285 prejudice and, 454–456, 472 private acceptance, 252 public compliance, 252 social impact theory, 264–265 social norms, 257 Confucianism, 92 Consensus information, 119 Consistency information, 119 Construals defined, 32, 41 described, 32–34 source of, 35–39 Contact hypothesis, 463–465, 473 Contagion effect, 254 Contingency theory of leadership, 310 Control internal-external locus of, 503 perceived control, 502–506 Controlled thinking counterfactual thoughts, 96–97 definition, 72, 93 drawbacks of, 93 free will and, 93–95 overconfidence barrier, 97–99 Convincing myself, 181–182 Cooperation group conflict and, 312–319 jigsaw classroom, 467–470, 473 prisoner’s dilemma game, 30–31, 314–315, 318, 321 Cooperative learning, 428, 470, 473 Coping, with stress, 506–511, 514 Coping styles, 506–507 Correlation, causation compared to, 52–53, 68 Correlational method, 47, 50–54, 68 Correlation coefficient, 50 Correspondence bias See Fundamental attribution error Cotton, Ronald, 523–524 Counterattitudinal advocacy, 191–193 Counterfactual thinking, 96–97 Covariation model causal attributions, 120 consensus information, 119 consistency information, 119 definition, 119 description, 118–119 distinctiveness information, 119 Kelley’s theory, 119 Cover story, 58 Critical Incident Stress Debriefing (CISD), 479–481, 510 Cross-cultural differences, social psychology and, 28 Cross-cultural research defined, 63 importance of, 28, 40 passionate love, 345–346 Cuba, 305, 307 Cues, aggressive objects as, 410–411 Cultural argument, aggression, 399–400, 429 Cultural determinants, 90–91 Cultural differences See also Collectivistic cultures; ­­Cross-cultural research; East Asian cultures; East Asiancultures; Individualistic cultures; Western cultures advertising, 238 aggression, 399–400, 429 beauty, 332–333 cognitive dissonance, 187–188 facial expressions, 107–110 fundamental attribution error, 131–133 gender roles, 236 holistic vs analytic thinking, 91–92 impression management, 169 leadership, 312 love, 347–349 nonverbal communication, 111 other attributional biases, 133–135 passionate love, 345–346 prosocial behavior, 375–377 self-knowledge, 144 social cognition, 90–92 social loafing, 300–301 social perception and, 129–135 social psychology and, 63, 68 Cultural truisms, 239 Cultures of honor, aggression and, 399–400, 429 Cyberbullying, 403 D Dalai Lama, 378 Darby, Joe, 293 Darwin, Charles, 63–64, 107, 366 Date rape, 430 Dating blind date study, 331 Internet, 324, 325, 335, 338, 339, 343–344 speed, 338–339 Debriefing CISD, 479–481, 510 experiments, 66, 69 Deception, 66, 283 Deciding to help, bystander intervention process, 386–387 Decision making, automatic, 83 Decisions Bystander Intervention Decision Tree, 384 cognitive dissonance and, 183–187 in groups, 303–312, 321 immoral, 186–187 irrevocability of, 185–186 jury deliberations, 529–533 Decoding facial expressions, 109–110 Dehumanization Abu Ghraib prison abuse, 293 empathy and, 424–425 justifying cruelty, 199–201 Deindividuation, 301302, 321 de La Rochefoucauld, Franỗois, 357, 369 Deliberative prediction behaviors, 216–218 Dependent variables, 54–56, 68 Depletion, of natural resources, 493 Descriptive norms, 270–272, 482–484, 494 de Tocqueville, Alexis, 380, 409 Trucking Game, 317–318 Diallo, Amadou, 443 Diffusion of responsibility, 46, 384, 385–386 See also Bystander effect Disappointment, overestimation of, 181–182 Discrimination See also Prejudice defined, 441 drug abuse and, 441 economic competition and, 460–461 institutional, 454–456, 472 prejudice and, 441–446, 471 realistic conflict theory, 460–462 sexism, 439, 446, 450 social distance, 442, 471 Disease, perceived control and, 505–506 Display rules, 110 Dispositional (internal) attributions blaming the victim, 422–423, 458–459, 472 Dissonance See Cognitive dissonance Dissonance reduction See Cognitive dissonance Distance, social, 442, 471 Distinctiveness information, 119 Distraction, 83 Dogs, fight-or-flight response, 507 Door-in-the-face technique, 274 Dopamine, 352 Downward social comparison, 160–161 Draper, Don, 230–231 Drug usage cocaine, 352, 441 discrimination and, 441 Dryden, John, 303 Duke, David, 166–167 E Early hominid prosocial behavior, 369 East Asian cultures collectivism and, 509 holistic thinking style, 91 perceived control and disease, 505–506 social loafing, 300 Economic competition, prejudice and, 461–462 Edwards, Edwin, 166 EEG (electroencephalography), 64 Eichmann, Adolf, 277 Elaboration likelihood model, 221, 223 Electroencephalography (EEG), 64 Eliot, George, 388 Emblems, 112 Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 307, 309 Emotions See also Facial expressions attitude types, 228–229 facial expressions, 107–110 fear-arousing communications, 225–227 as heuristic, 227 prejudice and, 440–441 two-factor theory, 154–157 Empathy defined, 370 dehumanization and, 424–425 Empathy-altruism hypothesis, 369–372, 392 Empirical science, social psychology as, 24–25, 40–41, 44–47 Encoding facial expressions, 107 Ending intimate relationships, 358–360 Subject Index 611 Energy conservation, 479, 486, 487 natural resource depletion, 485–487, 493 renewable, 478, 494 Enjoying activities, happiness and, 489–492, 490 Environment, prosocial behavior and, 379–380 Environmentally responsible behavior, 478, 482–489 competition and, 485, 494 energy conservation, 479, 486 happiness and sustainable lifestyle, 489–493 implementation intentions, 488, 494 inducing hypocrisy, 485–487, 494 recycling, 487–488, 494 remove small barriers to achieve big changes, 487–488, 494 renewable energy, 478 through social norms, 482–484, 494 Environmental problems addressing, 479 air pollution, 484, 501 applied research and, 478–481, 493 carbon dioxide emissions, 476, 484 global warming, 408–409, 476–478, 493 greenhouse gases, 476 littering, 482–484, 494 natural resource depletion, 476, 486, 493 plastic materials, 487, 488 population growth, 477–478, 485 smog-infested areas, 501 social psychology and, 39–40, 478–479 trash vortex areas, oceans, 477 world hunger, 477 Epinephrine, 507 Equity theory, 355–357 Essay on Criticism, 527 Ethical issues, 65–67 Ethical principles, American Psychological Association, 65–67 Ethnography, 48, 68 Evaluation apprehension, 298, 299, 300, 301 Evolutionary approach to mate selection, 336–339 Evolutionary psychology See also Genes defined, 64, 68–69, 336 mate selection and, 336–339 natural selection, 366–367, 392 prosocial behavior and, 366–368 Evolutionary theory aggression, 386–387 Darwin and, 63–64, 366 defined, 63 natural selection, 63, 69, 336, 361 Exchange relationships, 356, 362 Experimental method improve people’s lives, 479–481, 493 research methodology, 47, 68 Explicit attitudes, 213–214 Exposure, mere exposure effect, 327–328 The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (Darwin), 107 External attributions, 118 External-internal locus of control, 503 External justification, 191, 196 External validity, 58, 68 Extrinsic motivation, 151–152 Eye contact, 111 Eyewitness testimony See also Bystander effect; Memory accuracy studies, 523–526 Randall Adams case, 517–518, 520, 521–522, 524, 529, 532 recovered memory debate, 526–528 F Facebook, 324, 342, 402 Facial expressions attractive faces, 331–332 decoding, 109–110 of emotion, 107–110 encoding, 107 evolution and, 107–109 Facilitated communication, 94–95 False confessions, 531 False memory syndrome, 527–528 Familiarity, 327–328, 334 See also Exposure, mere exposure effect Fear, stereotype threat, 451–453, 472 Fear-arousing communications, 225–227 Feedback, after an identification, 525–526 Feeling in charge, 502–506, 513–514 Feelings See also Emotions; Moods; Stress catharsis, 421–423, 479–480 “telling more than you can know” studies, 52 Female suicide bombers, 402 Field experiments, 59–60 Fight-or-flight response, 507 Financial crisis of 2007, 307 First impressions belief perseverance, 115 lingering influence, 114–115 nonverbal communication, 115–116 persistance of, 113 primacy effect, 115 thin-slicing, 113 Fischer, Andrew, 209 Fixed mindset, 154 Folk wisdom, 25, 328, 509 Fonda, Henry, 532 Foot-in-the-door technique, 274 Forecasting, affective, 492–493 Forer, Bertram, 89 Franks, Tommy, 290 Free will, 93–95 Freud, Sigmund, 313, 421 Fromm, Erich, 353 Frustration aggression and, 408–409 scapegoating and, 463, 472 Frustration-aggression theory, 408–409 Fulbright, J William, 316 Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), 64, 352 Fundamental attribution error cultural differences, 131–133 defined, 30, 41, 122 people as personality psychologists, 121–123 perceptual salience, 123–125 Rosa Parks Day, 121 two-person game, 30 two-step attribution process, 125–126 Furnham, Adrian, 134 G Gandhi, Mohandas, 249 Garbage dumps, oceans and, 477 Gaze, 111 Gender differences aggression, 401–403, 429 leadership, 310–312 prosocial behavior, 375 relational interdependence, 300 sex differences, 337 social loafing, 299–300 stress management, 507, 514 Gender roles, 236 Gender stereotypes, 236–238 Geneen, Harold, 310 Genes See also Evolutionary psychology aggression, 397–398, 428 facial attractiveness, 333 instincts and, 366–368 prosocial behavior, 366–368 Genovese, Kitty, 46, 54, 58, 68, 381, 382, 388 Gestalt psychology, 32 Gide, Andrew, 455 Girl, Interrupted (Kaysen), 77 Gladwell, Malcolm, 114 Glick, Jeremy, 365 Global warming, 407, 476–477, 493 Goal pursuit, automatic, 82–83 Golden Rule, 377 Gorbachev, Mikhail, 316 Gore, Al, 232 Gorilla, prosocial behavior, 371 Great person theory, 309, 321 Greenhouse gases, 476 Group cohesiveness, 293, 305–307, 321 Group conflict theory, 461 Group polarization, 307–309 Groups, 289–319 See also Conformity; ­­In-groups; Out-groups benefits of, 290–291 collectivistic culture, 266–268 composition of, 291–295 conflict, 313–319 contact hypothesis, 463–465, 473 cooperation, 313–319 decisions, 303–312, 321 defined, 290 deindividuation, 301–302, 321 functions of, 291–295 groupthink, 321 individual behavior in, 295–302 interdependence, 465, 473 jury deliberations, 529–533 leadership in, 309–312 minimal, 457 minority influence, 268 normative conformity, 454–456, 472 process loss, 303–312, 321 reasons for joining, 290–291 roles, 292–293, 321 scapegoating and, 463, 472 social dilemmas, 313–316, 321, 487 social facilitation, 296–298, 300, 321 612  Subject Index Groups (Continued) social loafing, 299–300, 321 social norms, 257 transactive memory, 305 Group selection, prosocial behavior and, 368, 392 Groupthink, 305–307, 321 Growth, of world population, 477–478, 485 Growth mindset, 154 H Hale-Bopp Comet, 178 Hamm, Mia, 154 Hand gestures, 111 “Hand-purse” gesture, 111 Happiness causes of, 489–492 enjoying activities and, 490 money and, 490–491 relationships and, 489–490 sustainable lifestyle and, 489–493 Harris, David, 517 Harris, Eric, 396, 402, 414, 426–427 See also Columbine High School massacre Hazing, 22, 36–37 Head gestures, 111 Head nodding, 111 Health feeling in charge, 502–506 fight-or-flight response, 507 Joanne Hill case, 497, 498, 501–502, 503 nursing homes, 503–505 preventing illness, 511–513, 514 reframing traumatic events, 509–511 resilience and, 480, 498–499 social support, 507–509 stress impacts, 497–506 stress management, 506–511 tend-and-befriend response, 507 Heaven’s Gate massacre, 201–202, 249 Hemingway, Ernest, 509 Heuristics availability, 85–87 judgmental, 85 representativeness, 88–89 in social cognition, 85 Heuristic–systematic model of persuasion, 227 Hikikomori, 258 Hill, Joanne, 497, 498, 501–502, 503 Hinde, Robert, 337 Hindsight bias, 44 Hitler, Adolf, 274–275, 434 HIV virus, 512 Holistic thinking style, 91–92, 130–131 Holmes, Oliver Wendall, 440 Holocaust, 276, 510 Homeless people, 304, 426, 458 Homogeneity, out-group, 457–458 Homosexuality communal relationships, 357, 361 contact hypothesis, 463 investment model of commitment, 354–355 Justification-Suppression Model of Prejudice, 459 lesbians, 354, 357, 435, 447, 455, 460, 463 microaggressions, 442 prejudice, 435 religion and, 460 same-sex marriage, 435, 455 sexual scripts, 412 similarity and, 328 Honor, cultures of, 400–401, 429 Hostile aggression, 397, 428 Hunger, world, 477 Hurons, 399 Hussein, Saddam, 202 Hybrid cars, SUVs and, 484 Hypocrisy induction, 196–197, 485–487, 494 Hypotheses See also Theories contact hypothesis, 463–465, 473 empathy-altruism hypothesis, 369–372, 392 research methodology, 26, 44–47, 68 theories and, 26, 44–47, 68 urban overload, 379–380 I Idiosyncrasy credits, 265 Immoral decision, 186–187 Impact bias, 181 Implausible arguments, 181 Implementation intentions, 488, 494 Implicit Association Test (IAT), 448–449, 472 Implicit attitudes, 213–214 Implicit prejudices, 448–449, 472 Impression management, 144 culture in, 169 definition, 167 description of, 166–167 ingratiation, 167 self-handicapping, 168–169 Improve people’s lives, applied research, 478–481, 493 Increasing prosocial behavior, 388–391 Independent variables, 54–56, 68 Independent view of the self, 142 Individual behavior, in groups, 296–298 Individual differences, 26, 40–41 Individualistic cultures love, 347–348 passionate love, 345–346 perceived control and disease, 505–506 social loafing, 300 Industrial Revolution, 209 Inflicted insight, 284 Informational social influence, 383 ambiguous situations, 255 autokinetic effect, 251 being accurate, importance of, 253–254 conformity, 254–255 contagion effect, 254 crisis situations, 255 definition, 251 obedience, 280–281 private acceptance, 252 public compliance, 252 Informed consent, 66, 69, 283 Ingram, Paul, 527 Ingratiation, 167 In-groups defined, 375 in-group versus out-group concept, 456–457 prosocial behavior, 375–376, 392 Injunctive norms, 270–272, 482–484, 494 Innocence Project, 518 Instincts, prosocial behavior and, 366–368 Institutional discrimination, 454–456, 472 Institutionalized racism, 454–456, 472 Institutionalized sexism, 455 Institutional review board (IRB), 66–67, 69 Instrumental aggression, 397, 428 Insufficient punishment, 194 Integrative solution, 319, 321 Interdependence, 465, 473 jigsaw classroom, 467–470, 473 Interdependent view of self, 142–143, 300 Interjudge reliability, 48 Internal attributions, 117 Internal-external locus of control, 503 Internal justification, 191, 196 Internal validity, 56, 68 Internet cyberbullying, 403 dating, 324, 325, 335, 338, 339, 343–344 deindividuation on, 302 mate preference in online era, 341–343 pornography and, 44 Internment camps, 462 Interpersonal attraction, 323–363 anxious/ambivalent attachment style, 349–351 attachment styles, 349–352, 362 avoidant attachment style, 349–351 brain research and, 351–352 comparison level, 352–354, 362 evolutionary approach to mate selection, 336–339 familiarity, 327–328, 329, 334, 362 Internet dating, 324, 325, 335, 338–339, 343–344, 361 mere exposure effect, 327–328 opposites attract, 26, 324, 328 physical attractiveness, 331–336 prediction of, 325–339 propinquity effect, 326–328, 331, 334, 361 reciprocal liking, 330–331, 334 relationship satisfaction theories, 352–357 secure attachment style, 349–351 sex differences, 337–339 social exchange theory, 352–355, 362 speed dating, 338–339 Interpreting event as emergency, bystander intervention process, 384, 385–386 Interventions, trauma and, 479–481 Intimate relationships, 345–357 arranged marriages, 347, 348 attachment styles, 349–352, 362 communal relationships, 357, 361 comparison level, 352–354, 361, 362 comparison level for alternatives, 352–354, 362 ending, 358–360 equity theory, 355–357, 362 exchange relationships, 356, 362 investment model, 353, 362 relationship satisfaction theories, 352–357 Intrinsic motivation, 151–152 Introspection causal theories, 148 consequences of, 148–149 definition, 145 reasons-generated attitude change, 149 self-awareness theory, 145–147 Subject Index 613 Investment model of commitment, 352–357, 362 Invisible support, 509 Iraq Abu Ghraib prison abuse, 293 U.S invasion of, 290 Iroquois, 399 Irrevocability of decision, 185–186 J James, LeBron, 257 James, Williams, 81 Japan conformity and, 266–268 hikikomori, 258 Jennings, Ken, 72 Jeter, Derek, 154 Jigsaw classroom, 467–470, 473 Jobs, Steve, 310 Jones, Jim, 22, 25, 26–27, 30 Jonestown massacre, 22, 25, 26–27, 30 Judgmental heuristics, 85 Jung concept, 348 Jury deliberations, 529–533 Justification of kindness, 197–199 overjustification effect, 152–153, 390 self-esteem approach and, 36–37, 41 Justification of effort (self-justification) cruelty, 199–201 description of, 189–191 external, 191, 196 good deeds, 197–199 internal, 191, 196 obedience, 282 punishment, 193–194 Justification-Suppression Model of Prejudice, 459 Just-world belief, 127 K Kallgren, Carl, 270 Kapista, Peter L., 54 Karma, 349 See also Just-world belief Kasparov, Gary, 72 Kaysen, Susanna, 77 Kelly’s Covariation Model, 119 Kennedy, John F., 305, 306, 307 King, Martin Luther, Jr, 309 King, Stephen, 310, 313 Kin selection, 366–367 Kipling, Rudyard, 266, 268 Kitty Genovese murder, 46, 54, 58, 68, 381, 382, 388 Klebold, Dylan, 396, 414, 426–427 Knowing how to help, bystander intervention process, 386 Korsakov’s syndrome, 74 Ku Klux Klan, 166, 301 L Lady Gaga, 257 Landon, Alf, 51 Larry Mayes case, 204 Law, 517–533 See also Eyewitness testimony jury deliberations, 529–533 polygraphs, 447 Randall Adams case, 517–518, 520, 521–522, 524, 529, 532 Lawrence, D H., 351 Leadership, 309–312, 321 Learning aggression, 403–405, 429 cooperative, 428, 470, 473 jigsaw classroom, 467–470, 473 Lee, Harper, 265, 268, 529 Lepchas, 399 Lesbians, 354, 357, 435, 447, 455, 460, 463 Lie detector test, 447 Life events, negative, 499 Liking physical attractiveness and, 331–336, 337 reciprocal, 330–331, 334 Lincoln, Abraham, 370–371 Lineups See also Eyewitness testimony accuracy studies, 523–526 recommendations for conducting, 523 Literary Digest poll, 51–52 Littering, 482–484, 494 Loafing, social, 299–300, 320 Locus of control, internal-external, 503 Locust years, 507 Long-lasting attitude change, 225 Lootah, Wedad, 436 Loss of personal responsibility, 282–283 Love, 345–351 See also Interpersonal attraction; Intimate relationships arranged marriages, 347, 348 brain and, 347 chocolate and, 352 companionate, 345–346 defining, 345–346 passionate, 346, 349, 361 Lowballing, 185–186 Lucky Charms, Quaker granola and, 38 Lynchings, 267, 301, 454 M Machiavelli, Niccolò, 309 Magnetic resonance imaging, functional, 64, 352 Malthus, Thomas, 477 Marriages arranged, 347, 348 same-sex, 435, 455 Marshall, Thurgood, 454 Marx, Karl, 296 Massacres See also Holocaust Columbine High School, 396, 426–428 Heaven’s Gate, 201–202 Jim Jones, 22, 25, 26–27, 30 My Lai, 250, 277 Materialism, happiness and, 491 McDonald’s incident, 247–248 Measuring implicit prejudices, 448–449, 472 Media See also Video games prosocial behavior and, 386–387 Memory acquisition process, 518–520 false memory syndrome, 527–528 reconstructive, 521 recovered, 526–528 retrieval process, 518, 519, 522 source monitoring, 522 storage process, 518, 519, 520–522 transactive, 305 Mencken, H L., 358 Mental shortcuts, 85–89 Mental strategies, 85–89 Mere exposure effect, 327–328, 334 Meta-analysis, 60–61 Microaggressions, 442 Miller, Robert, 517 Mind control See Subliminal advertising Mindsets fixed, 154 growth, 154 motivations and, 154 Minimal groups, 457 Minority influence, 268 Misattribution of arousal, 157–159 Mobro 4000 barge, 476–477 Modeling nonaggressive behavior, 424 Modern racism, 448–449 Money, happiness and, 490–491 Moods negative, 501 prosocial behavior and, 377–378, 392 “telling more than you can know” studies, 52 Morrison, Toni, 346 Mortality, perceived control and, 505 Motivation extrinsic, 151–152 intrinsic, 151–152 mindsets and, 154 Music lyrics, prosocial behavior and, 386–387 Muslims, 199, 201, 436 My Lai massacre, 250, 277 N Naive realism, 33 Narcissism, 171–173 Natural resources, depletion, 476, 486, 493 Natural selection, 63, 69, 336, 366–367 The Nature of Prejudice (Allport), 440 Nazi regime anti-Semitism, 33, 440 Gestalt psychologists and, 32 Hitler and, 434 Holocaust, 510 propaganda, 274–275 Negative life events, 499, 513 Negative moods, 501 Negotiation, 314–315, 318–319, 321 Neuroscience See Social neuroscience Neurotransmitters, 28, 352 New York Stock Exchange, 91 New York Times, 105 Nonaggressive behavior, modeling, 424 Nonrenewable natural resource depletion, 476, 493 Nonverbal communication culture and the channels of, 110–112 definition, 106 facial-expressions, 107–110 first impressions, 113–116 importance of, 107 Normative conformity, 454–456, 472 614  Subject Index Normative social influence Asch line-judgment studies, 258–261 being accurate, importance of, 261–263 collectivistic group culture, 266–268 consequences of resisting, 263–264 definition, 258 idiosyncrasy credits, 265 minority influence, 268 obedience, 279–280 social impact theory, 264–265 social norms, 257 Norms to change behavior, 272–273 descriptive, 482–484, 494 environmentally responsible behavior and, 482–484, 494 injunctive, 482–484 littering and, 482–484, 494 prejudice and, 454–456, 472 reciprocity, 367, 392 North Tower, 365 See also September 11th terrorist attacks Noticing an event, bystander intervention, 384–385 Nursing homes, perceived control in, 503–505 O Obama, Barack, 52, 109, 447 Obedience aggression, 285 conformity, 276–285 informational social influence, 280–281 loss of personal responsibility, 282–283 normative social influence, 279–280 reasons for, 281–283 research studies, 283–285 self-justification, 282 Observational method, 47, 48–49, 68 Oil, water, coal depletion, 476 “OK” sign, 111 Online dating, promise and pitfalls in, 343–344 Operant conditioning, 211–212 Opinions, similarity and, 328 “Opposites attract,”, 26, 324, 328 Orestes, 334 Oscar case, 22, 36–37 Out-groups defined, 375 groupthink, 306 homogeneity, 457–458 vs in-group, 456 prosocial behavior, 375 Overcoming dissonance, 203–204 Overconfidence barrier, 97–99 Overjustification effect, 152–153, 390 Owada, Masako, 142 Own-race bias, 520 P Pacific Ocean, garbage dump, 477 Palin, Sarah, 311 Panera Cares restaurant chain, 314 Parks, Rosa, 121 Passionate love, 345–346, 349, 361 Passionate Love Scale, 347, 351 Peer pressure, 240–241 Pentagon attacks, 463 See also September 11th terrorist attacks Peoples Temple massacre, 22 Perceived behavioral control, 218 Perceived control, 502–506 Perceived similarity, 63, 330 Perceptual salience definition, 123 effects of, 124 manipulating, 124 Performance-contingent rewards, 153 Peripheral route to persuasion, 220–222 Personality altruistic, 374–375, 392 individual differences, 26, 41 leadership and, 309 similarity and, 328 Personality psychology defined, 26 social psychology compared to, 26–29 Personality tests, representativeness heuristics and, 89 Personal observations, hypotheses and, 46–47 Personal qualities, prosocial behavior, 373–378, 392 Personal space, 111 Persuasion ability to pay attention, 224–225 central route to, 220–222 confidence effects, 229 elaboration likelihood model, 221, 223 heuristic–systematic model of, 227 ingratiation, 167 long-lasting attitude change, 225 motivation to pay attention, 222–224 peer pressure, 240–241 peripheral route to, 220–222 reactance theory, 241–242 self-persuasion, 194–195 strategies for, 239–242 Philosophy, social psychology and, 24–26 Physical aggression, 396, 401–403, 428 Physical attractiveness See also Beauty liking and, 331–336 Physiological influences, on aggression, 405–408, 429 Pipeline, bogus, 447–448, 472 Planned behavior, theory of, 216–217 The Plant (King, S.), 313 Plastic materials, 477, 487, 488 Plato, 92 Plausible arguments, 181 Pluralistic ignorance, 383–385 Polarization, group, 307–309 Polar plunges, 256–257 Poole, Bobby, 524 Pope, Alexander, 527 Population growth, 477–478 Pornography defining, 49 Internet and, 44 violence and, 44, 49, 50, 53, 57, 61, 418, 430 Porteus, Belby, 345 Positive psychology, 391, 392 Postdecision dissonance, 184 Post-identification feedback, 525–526 Post-traumatic stress disorder, 479, 480 Power of social situation, 29–35, 41 Predicting behaviors, attitudes, 216–218 Prejudice, 433–473 activating implicit prejudices, 443–446 affective component, 440–441, 471 African Americans, 445 behavioral component, 441–446, 471 blaming the victim, 458–459, 472 causes of, 454–462 cognitive component, 435–439 components, 435–439, 471 conformity and, 454–456, 472 cooperative learning, 470, 473 defined, 435–436 discrimination and, 441–446, 471 economic competition and, 460–461 effects on victim, 450–453 emotions and, 440–441 examples, 434 homosexuality, 435 implicit, 448–449, 472 institutional discrimination, 454–456, 472 jigsaw classroom, 467–470, 473 Justification-Suppression Model of Prejudice, 459 measuring implicit prejudices, 448–449, 472 microaggressions, 442 modern racism, 448–449 The Nature of Prejudice, 440 normative conformity and, 454–456, 472 out-group homogeneity, 457–458, 472–473 realistic conflict theory, 460–462, 472 reduction strategies, 463, 472 religion and, 460 scapegoating, 463, 472 self-fulfilling prophecies and, 450–453, 472 sexism, 439, 446, 450 social categorization, 456–457 stereotypes and, 435–436, 471, 478 Preserving natural resources, 486 Prevention, health and, 511–513, 514 Pride, 109 Primacy effect, 115 Priming effects body and mind, metaphors of, 83–84 definition, 77–78 Prisoner’s dilemma, 30–31, 314–315 Prisons Abu Ghraib prison abuse, 293 Zimbardo study, 293 Probability level (r-value), 56 Process loss, 303–312, 321 Product placement, 239–240 Propaganda, 274–275 Propinquity effect, 326–328, 331, 334 Prosocial behavior, 364–394 See also Altruism; Bystander effect; Empathy bystander effect, 381–387 cities study, 376 cultural differences, 375–377 defined, 365–366 early hominid, 369 empathy-altruism hypothesis, 369–372, 392 environment and, 379–380 evolutionary psychology and, 366–368 gender differences, 375 genes, 366–368, 392 Golden Rule, 377 Subject Index 615 gorilla, 371 group selection, 368, 392 increasing, 388–389 in-groups, 375–376, 392 instincts, 366–368 kin selection, 366–367, 392 media and, 386–387 moods and, 377–378, 392 music lyrics and, 386–387 out-groups, 375–376, 392 personal qualities, 373–378, 392 positive psychology, 391, 392 reciprocity norm, 367, 392 religion and, 377, 382, 384, 392 self-interest, 348–352, 392 September 11th terrorist attacks, 365, 369, 374, 381, 388 situational determinants of, 379–387 social exchange theory, 368–369, 392 video games, 386–387, 393 volunteerism, 390 Prosocial video games, 386–387, 393, 416 Proximity, 326 See also Propinquity effect Psychological distress, 284 Psychological intervention techniques, trauma and, 479–481 Psychological realism, 58 Psychology Gestalt, 32 personality, 26–29 positive, 391, 392 Punishment aggression reduction through, 419–420 forbidden toy experiment, 195 insufficient, 194 in justification, 193–194 tangible rewards, 195–196 Pygmies, 399 Q Quaker granola, Lucky Charms and, 38 R Racism institutionalized, 454–456, 472 modern, 448–449 Randall Adams case, 517–518, 520, 521–522, 524, 529, 532 Random assignment to condition, 56 Random selection, 51 Rape Amadou Diallo case, 443 blame the victim, 458–459, 472 in To Kill a Mockingbird, 268 motivations for, 411 pornography and, 44, 53, 57 reframing event, 509 Ten Commandments film and, 415 Rats, cat and, 398 Reactance theory, 241–242 Reagan, Ronald, 316 Realism, psychological, 58 Realistic conflict theory, 460–462, 472 Reasons-generated attitude change, 149 Reciprocation, 330–331, 334 Reciprocity norm, 367, 392 Reconstructive memory, 521 Recovered memories, 526–528 Recycling, 487–488, 494 Reduction strategies aggression, 419–428 anger, 423–426 bullying, 427–428 Reframing traumatic events, 509–511, 514 Rejection-rage cycle, disrupting, 426–428 Relational aggression, 402–403, 429 Relational interdependence, 300 Relationship-oriented leadership, 310, 311 Relationships See also Intimate relationships attachment styles, 349–351, 362 communal, 357, 361 comparison level, 352–354, 361 comparison level for alternatives, 352–354, 361 equity theory, 355–357, 362 exchange, 356, 362 happiness and, 489–490 investment model, 352–357, 361 Relationship satisfaction theories, 352–357 Religion See also Christianity; September 11th terrorist attacks Bible and, 460 Buddhism, 349 Golden Rule, 377 Muslims, 436 Peoples Temple massacre, 22 prejudice and, 460 prosocial behavior and, 377, 382, 392 Renewable energy sources, 478 Reno, Raymond, 270 Replications, 60–61, 68 Reported self-handicapping, 168 Representativeness heuristics base rate information, 88 definition, 88 personality tests and, 89 Research empirical science and, 24–25, 40–41, 44–47 new frontiers, 62–65, 68–69 Research methodology correlational method, 47, 50–54, 68 experimental method, 47, 54–62, 68 hypotheses, 26, 44–47, 68 research quiz, 45 summary of methods, 47 theories, 26, 44–47, 68 Resilience, 480, 498–499, 513 Responsibility, diffusion of, 46, 384, 385–386 Retrieval process, 518, 519, 522 Rewards performance-contingent, 153 task-contingent, 153 Richter, John Paul, 379 Riots, 406, 407, 419 Road rage, 408 Roles (social roles) defined, 292–293 groups, 292–293, 320 violating, 292 Roosevelt, Eleanor, 468 Roosevelt, Franklin, 51, 167 Roosevelt, Teddy, 316 Ruskin, John, 299 Rutter, Brad, 72 S Sacks, Oliver, 74 Same-sex marriage, 435, 455 Scanzoni, Letha, 460 Scapegoating, 463, 472 Schemas accessibility, 76–77 automatic thinking with, 74–76 cultural determinants, 90–91 definition, 74 priming effects, 77–78 Schlesinger, Arthur, 306 Science, social psychology and, 25–26 Secure attachment style, 349–351 Self executive function of, 164–166 functions of, 144 independent view of the, 142 interdependent view of, 300 interdependent view of the, 142–143 key attributes of, 141–142 Self-affirmation, 180 Self-awareness theory, 145–147 venting versus, 421, 430 Self-concept cultural influences, 142–144 definition, 141 development of, 140–142 dissonance and, 182–183 Self-control, 144 executive function of the self, 164–166 thought suppression, 164–165 Self-enhancement, 169 Self-esteem, 144 African American children, 183 approach, 36–37, 41 definition, 170 jigsaw classroom, 467–470, 473 pros and cons of, 170–173 terror management theory, 170 Self-focus, 146 Self-focused attention, 146 Self-fulfilling prophecies, 38 beauty and competence, 335 defined, 79, 450 first and second graders percentages, 80 jigsaw classroom and, 467–470, 473 prejudice and, 450–453, 472 Self-perpetuating cycle of, 78–79 Self-handicapping behavioral, 168 definition, 168 reported, 168 Self-interest altruism versus, 368–372, 392 prosocial behavior, 368–372, 392 relationship satisfaction, 352–355, 361 Self-justification See Justification of effort (self-justification) 616  Subject Index Self-knowledge, 144 Self-perception theory, 150–151 Self-persuasion definition, 195 lasting effects, 194–195 Self-serving attributions, 126–128 September 11th terrorist attacks Pentagon attacks, 463 prosocial behavior, 369, 374, 381 psychological debriefing, 480 Rescorla and, 365 resilience and, 498 United Airlines Flight, 365 World Trade Center towers, 365, 369, 463 Zelmanowitz and, 365, 369, 388 Sex differences, 337 See also Gender differences Sexism, 439, 446, 450 Sexual abuse, childhood, 528 Sexual assault, 411–413 Sexual scripts, 412, 430 and the problem of consent, 412–413 Shaich, Ronald, 314 Shakespeare, William, 144, 311, 332, 345, 490 “Shooting people” video game experiment, 445 Similarity, 63, 328 Situational determinants, of prosocial behavior, 379–387 Smog-infested areas, 501 Social categorization, 456–457 Social cognition controlled, 93–99 cultural differences, 90–92 defined, 37–38 definition, 72–73 kinds of, 73 Social cognition approach, 37–40, 41 Social comparison theory, 160–161, 308, 485 Social competence, 334, 335 Social dilemmas, 313–316, 321, 487 Social distance, 442, 471 Social exchange theory prosocial behavior, 368–372, 392 relationship satisfaction, 352–354, 362 Social facilitation, 296–298, 300, 320 Social impact theory, 264–265 Social influence defined, 23, 40 descriptive norms, 270–272 door-in-the-face technique, 274 foot-in-the-door technique, 274 informational, 250–255, 383 injunctive norms, 270–272 normative, 256–268 obedience, 276–285 propaganda, 274–275 strategies for, 269–275 tactics of, 273–275 Social intervention techniques, trauma and, 479–481 Social learning theory, aggression and, 403–405, 429 Social loafing, 299–300, 320 Social neuroscience holistic and analytical thinking styles, 131 new frontiers, 64, 69 Social norms, 257 Social perception attributions and, 117–129 cultural differences, 129–135 definition, 106 nonverbal communication, 106–116 Social problems, social psychology and, 38–40, 41, 478–479 Social psychology common sense compared to, 24–26 cultural differences and, 28, 63, 68 defined, 23, 40 as empirical science, 24–25, 40, 44–47 environmental problems and, 39–40 goal of, 28 introduction, 21–42 personality psychology compared to, 26–29 philosophy and, 24 science and, 25–26 social problems and, 38–40, 41 sociology compared to, 26–29 Social situations aggression and, 407–413, 429 power of, 29–32, 40 Social support, 507–509, 514 Social tuning, 161–163 Sociology, social psychology and, 26–29 Sodomy, 455 Source monitoring, 522 South, culture of honor in, 400 South Korea beauty stereotype, 335 jung concept, 348, 349 South Tower, 365 See also September 11th terrorist attacks Speed dating, 338–339 Spencer, Herbert, 435 Spinoza, Benedict, 24 Split cable market tests, 231 Spontaneous predicting behaviors, 216 Sports aggression and, 421–422 stereotype threat and, 451–453, 472 STDs (sexually transmitted diseases), 52 Stereotypes See also Prejudice beauty, 334–335 prejudice and, 435–436, 471, 478 sexism, 439, 446, 450 Stereotype threat, 451–453, 472 Storage process, 518, 519, 520–522 Story model, 529–530 Story order, 530 Stress College Life Stress Inventory, 500–501 coping styles, 506–507 coping with, 506–511 Critical Incident Stress Debriefing, 479–481 defined, 501 fight-or-flight response, 507 health and, 497–506 post-traumatic stress disorder, 479, 480 psychological intervention techniques, 479–481 reframing traumatic events, 509–511 resilience and, 480, 498–499 Selye on, 499 social support, 507–509 tend-and-befriend response, 507 Subjective norms, 218 Subliminal advertising debunking the claims, 233–234 form of mind control, 232–234 laboratory evidence, 234 Subliminal messages, 233 Sugar, Lucky Charms-Quaker granola study, 38 Suicide Abraham Biggs case, 22, 25 Jim Jones massacre, 22, 25, 26–27, 30 Suicide bombers, 30, 402, 409 See also September 11th terrorist attacks Summers, Donna Jean, 247–248 Supercomputer, Watson, 72 Support, social, 507–509 Supreme Court decisions, 303, 414, 420, 463 Surveys, 50–52 Sustainable lifestyle, happiness and, 489–493 SUVs, hybrid cars and, 484 T Taguba, Antonio, 293 Taliban regime, 63 Taoism, 92, 130 Task-contingent rewards, 153 Task-oriented leadership, 310 Technology, making connections in age, 340–344 Teduray people, 399 Television advertising, 236 “Telling more than you can know” studies, 52 Ten Commandments film, rape incident and, 415 Tend-and-befriend response, 507 Terrorism See also September 11th terrorist suicide bombers, 30, 402, 409 Terror management theory, 170 Testosterone levels, 397, 398, 400, 401 Theories attribution theory, 117 causal theories, 148 equity theory, 355–356, 362 frustration-aggression theory, 408–409 great person theory, 309 group conflict theory, 460–462, 472 Kelley’s theory, 119 Lewin on, 61, 479 planned behavior, 216–218 reactance theory, 241–242 realistic conflict theory, 460–462, 472 relationship satisfaction theories, 352–357 research methodology, 26, 44–47, 68 self-awareness theory, 145–147 self-perception theory, 150–151 social comparison theory, 308, 485 social exchange theory, 352–357, 362, 368–372, 392 social impact theory, 264–265 social learning theory, 403–405, 429 terror management theory, 170 “There is nothing so practical as a good theory,”, 479 two-factor theory, 154–157 Subject Index 617 Theory of planned behavior, 216–218 “There is nothing so practical as a good theory,”, 61 The Thin Blue Line, 517 Thinking analytic thinking style, 91–92, 130–131 automatic, 73–84 controlled, 72, 93–99 groupthink, 305–307, 321 holistic thinking style, 91–92, 130–131 Thompson, Jennifer, 523, 524 Thought suppression, 164–165 Threat, stereotype, 451–453, 472 Thumbs-up gesture, 111 Tit-for-tat strategy, 316, 356 To Kill a Mockingbird, 268, 529 Torture Abu Ghraib prison abuse, 293 deindividuation and, 268 Touching, 111 Tracy, Jessica, 109 Transactive memory, 305 Transformational leadership, 309, 321 Trash littering, 482–484 recycling, 487–488 trash vortex areas, oceans, 477 Trauma Critical Incident Stress Debriefing, 479–481 reframing traumatic events, 509–511 social intervention techniques, 479–481 Trucking game, 317–318 Turn the other cheek, 409 Twelve Angry Men, 532 Twilight saga, 346 2-year-old Chinese girl, death, 381 Two-factor theory of emotion, 154–157 Two-step attribution process, 125–126 United States (U.S.) See also Individualistic cultures; Iraq; September 11th terrorist attacks Bush, George W and, 36, 290, 307 internment camps, 462 Obama and, 36, 52, 447 Upward social comparison, 160–161 Urban overload hypothesis, 379–380 U.S Food and Drug Administration, 225 Ustinov, Peter, 327 U W Unconscious thinking, 91 United Airlines Flight, 365 V Values, 23 Variables dependent, 54–56, 68 independent, 54–56, 68 Venting, self-awareness versus, 421, 430 Vicary, James, 233 Video games prosocial, 386–387, 393, 416 “shooting people” video game experiment, 445 violent, 63, 386–387, 393, 396, 403, 445 Vietnam War, 192, 199, 255 prolonging of, 36 Violating roles, 292 Violence See also Aggression; Massacres; Nazi regime; Rape; September 11th terrorist attacks in media, 414–418, 430 pornography and, 44, 49, 50, 53, 57, 61, 418, 430 religion and, 414 riots, 406, 407, 419 road rage, 408 video games, 63, 386–387, 393, 396, 403, 414–418, 430, 445 Vioxx, 479 Volunteerism, prosocial behavior, 390 Vonnegut, Kurt, 456 Wall Street or Community game, 30–31, 315 See also Prisoner’s dilemma Warner, Charles Dudley, 371 Washington, Kerry, 257 Water conservation, 487, 494 natural resource depletion, 476, 494 trash vortex areas, oceans, 477 Watson supercomputer, 72 Weapons, as aggressive cues, 410–411 Weapons of mass destruction, 202–203 Wegner, Daniel, 94 Weiner, Anthony, 167 Welles, Orson, 254 Wells, H G., 254 Western cultures analytic thinking style, 91 personality psychologists, 133 Westgate West Building study, 326 What God Has Joined Together: The Christian Case for Gay Marriage (Myers & Scanzoni), 460 Wik, William, 365 Wilde, Oscar, 332 Witness order, 530 Women See also Beauty; Gender differences head-to-toe covering, 63 lesbians, 354, 357, 447, 455, 460, 463 sexism, 439, 446, 450 suicide bombers, 402, 409 Wood, Robert, 517 World hunger, 477 World Trade Center attacks, 365, 369, 374, 381 See also September 11th terrorist attacks World War II, 462, 510 See also Nazi regime Wozniak, Stephen, 310 Y Yale Attitude Change approach, 220–221 Z Zelmanowitz, Abe, 365, 369, 388 Zimbardo study, 293 This page intentionally left blank Answer Key CHAPTER Answers to Review Questions on p 29: b a c a c Answers to Review Questions on p. 34: a b d c and d a Answers to Review Questions on p. 39: b a b and c Test Yourself on p 41: c a a d d b c b and c b, d 10 e CHAPTER Answers to Review Questions on p. 47: c b and c b Answers to Review Questions on p. 62: a a and d c c b a d c Answers to Review Questions on p. 65: a c c Answers to Review Questions on p. 67: c c a and c Test Yourself on p 69: c d c and d c c c 10 d a, b, and d a and d c Answers to Try It! on p 45: In studies conducted by ­Stanley Milgram (1974), up to 65% of ­participants administered what they thought were near-lethal shocks to another subject (In fact, no real shocks were administered; see Chapter 8.) (c) Rewarding people for doing something they enjoy will typically make them like that activity less in the future (see Chapter 5) (b) False; groups often make worse decisions than individuals (see Chapter 9) (a) Under most circumstances, ­repeated exposure increases liking for a stimulus (see Chapter 10) (a) More (see Chapter 6) (b) People who are in good moods or bad moods are more likely to help others than people in neutral moods, though for different reasons (see Chapter 11) (a) Research has found that when women think there are sex differences on a test, they worse, because of the added threat of confirming a stereotype about their gender When women were told that there were no gender differences in performance on the test, they did as well as men (see Chapter 13) (b) There is no evidence that subliminal messages in advertising have any effect; considerable evidence shows that normal advertising is quite effective (see Chapter 7) (a) ( Playing violent video games increases the likelihood that people will act aggressively (see Chapter 12) 10 (b) People given the heavy clipboard thought that student opinion should be weighed the most (see Chapter 3) Answers to Try It! on p 53: There could be a third factor—­ increased daily exercise due to walking the dog While pets may help reduce blood pressure and reduce depression and loneliness, other factors such as taking more frequent walks outside might actually be responsible Not necessarily Though it seems obvious that Instagram distracts them from their studies, there might be other factors involved For example, students who spend less time studying may be more interested in spending time on social media Alternately, those who are good at taking photographs that others admire may have weaker skills in more traditional academic subjects Probably not—it’s just that ­people who are more extroverted are more likely to post more pictures of themselves than people who are introverted Not necessarily There is likely a third factor involved, which is the presence of a school psychologist, who is more likely to notice and diagnose these learning disabilities In other words, children in public schools may be equally likely to have a learning disability but less likely to have it identified by school staff It is also possible that this correlation is actually something else: that people who own guns are more likely to use one web browser over another People who own guns may be more anxious about security and privacy and thus choose a web browser that offers better privacy People who own guns are more likely to commit murder due to the availability of a weapon Not likely There is likely a third variable at play A study found that optimists tend to be more successful in their careers They also tend to think they have more time left to complete a task (like travel to work) than they really Additionally, people with Type B personalities have been shown to be less accurate in assessing time They also tend be more optimistic and to be more creative Can certain Eastern religious beliefs stave off heart attacks? Not necessarily, but switching to a vegetarian diet would drastically reduce most peoples’ risk of heart attack There may be other factors that coincide which could explain the relationship, such as stress reduction due to meditation or certain outlooks on life It is very unlikely that one has to with the other; this may be a simple random convergence in math Due to sociopolitical factors, the number of pirates began to steadily decrease around the time of the Industrial Revolution The increasing human population and lifestyle changes that followed this same period are thought by most experts to be responsible for the increase in global temperatures It is possible that playing this game makes people more likely to act ­aggressively However, it is also likely 619 620  Answer Key that young people who are aggressive are more drawn to violent video games In addition, it is difficult to pin the blame on one particular game when the shooters were likely exposed to graphic violence in other games as well as from TV and movies 10 Probably not—people who are more intelligent tend to have a larger vocabulary Contrary to popular belief, people who swear more often have a bigger vocabulary than people who purposefully try to limit their swearing As for the neatness of one’s desk, people who are more intelligent may just focus on their work rather than on keeping their space tidy Note: For more examples on correlation and causation, see http://jfmueller faculty.noctrl.edu/100/correlation_ or_-causation.htm CHAPTER Answers to Review Questions on p. 81: c d b a a Answers to Review Questions on p. 90: b a a c d Answers to Review Questions on p. 92: b b c a d Answers to Review Questions on p. 100: b c d b a Test Yourself on p 102: d a c d a c a b d 10 b Answers to Try It! on p 89: The correct answer is (b), the third letter Tversky and Kahneman (1974) found that most people thought that the answer was (a), the first letter Why people make this mistake? Because, say Tversky and Kahneman, they find it easier to think of examples of words that begin with r By using the availability heuristic, they assume that the ease with which they can bring examples to mind means that such words are more common The correct answer is (b) Slovic, Fischhoff, and Lichtenstein (1976) found that most people think that (a) is correct (accidents) Why people make this error? Again, it’s the availability heuristic: Accidental deaths are more likely to be reported by the media, so people find it easier to bring to mind examples of such deaths than deaths from strokes The correct answer is (c) Both outcomes are equally likely, given that the outcomes of coin flips are random events Tversky and ­Kahneman (1974) argue that, due to the representativeness heuristic, people expect a sequence of random events to “look” random That is, they expect events to be representative of their conception of randomness Many people, therefore, choose HTTHTH because this sequence is more representative of people’s idea of randomness than HHHTTT In fact, the chance that either sequence will occur is out of 26 times, or in 64 As another illustration of this point, if you were to buy a lottery ticket with four numbers, would you rather have the number 6957 or 1111? Many people prefer the former number because it seems more “random” and thus more likely to be picked In fact, both numbers have a in 1,000 chance of being picked The correct answer is (b) Many people choose (c) because they think that after five tails in a row, heads is more likely “to even things out.” This is called the gambler’s fallacy, which is the belief that prior random events (e.g., five tails in a row) have an influence on subsequent random events Assuming that the coin is fair, prior tosses have no influence on future ones Tversky and Kahneman (1974) suggest that the gambler’s fallacy is due in part to the representativeness heuristic: Five tails and one head seems more representative of a chance outcome than six tails in a row themselves, they circled “both are possible” 52% of the time, whereas when they answered the ­questions about a friend, they circled “both are possible” only 36% of the time In other words, the students seemed to think their friends’ actions were more predetermined than were their own Answers to Try It! on p 96: These questions are based on ones used by Pronin and Kugler (2010), who found that people tend to believe that they have more free will than other people In their study, they asked Princeton undergraduates to predict what would happen in the year after graduation, either to them or to a friend of their choosing When the students answered the questions about Answers to Review Questions on p. 116: d a b c d Answers to Try It! on p 98: (a) This question assesses methodological reasoning, the recognition that there are several reasons why crime has gone down other than actions taken by the police chief and that a better test of the mayor’s claim is to compare the crime rate in Middleopolis with other, similar cities The other answers might be true, but they don’t involve sound methodological reasoning (a) This question assesses statistical reasoning, the recognition that large samples of information are more likely to reflect true scores and abilities than small samples of information For example, if you flip a fair coin four times, it is not unusual to get all heads or all tails, but if you flip the coin a thousand times, it is extremely unlikely that you will get all heads or all tails Applied to this example, this statistical principle says that when baseball players have a small number of at-bats, it is not unusual to see very high (or very low) averages just by chance By the end of the season, however, when baseball players have hundreds of at-bats, it is highly u ­ nlikely that they will have a very high average just by luck The other answers might also be true, but they don’t reflect sound statistical reasoning CHAPTER Answers to Review Questions on p. 112: d a c a c Answers to Review Questions on p. 129: b c d a d Answer Key 621 Answers to Review Questions on p. 135: b b c d a Test Yourself on p 137: a a c b 10 c c a a c b CHAPTER Answers to Review Questions on p. 144: c b a a Answers to Review Questions on p. 150: a d c Answers to Review Questions on p. 159: b c b b Answers to Review Questions on p. 164: c c c Answers to Review Questions on p. 166: d d a Answers to Review Questions on p. 169: a b c Answers to Review Questions on p. 173: c d b Test Yourself on p 175: a d a d 10 c a b d d c Answers to Try It! on p 143: To estimate your degree of interdependence, take the average of your answers to questions 1–5 To estimate your degree of independence, take the average of your answers to questions 6–10 On which measure did you come out higher? Singelis (1994) found that Asian Americans agreed more with the interdependence than the independence items, whereas Caucasian Americans agreed more with the independence than the interdependence items Answers to Try It! on p 147: Reverse your answers to questions and If you answered to these ­questions, change it to a 5; if you answered 2, change it to a 4; and so on Then add your ratings for all 10 questions The higher your score, the more likely you are to focus your attention on yourself Fenigstein, Scheier, and Buss (1975) found that the average score was 26 in a sample of college students CHAPTER Answers to Review Questions on p. 189: d a c a b Answers to Review Questions on p. 242: b b a b d Test Yourself on p 244: b b a d b b d c b 10 b CHAPTER Answers to Review Questions on p. 250: c d c Answers to Review Questions on p. 256: a b c d c Answers to Review Questions on p. 269: b c c a a d Answers to Review Questions on p. 204: d c d a c d Answers to Review Questions on p. 276: d a c c b Test Yourself on p 206: e d a b d a c b Answers to Review Questions on p. 285: c b a b d d 10 c CHAPTER Answers to Review Questions on p. 214: c c a b c Answers to Review Questions on p. 218: b b a b d Test Yourself on p 288: c c b d c b d a b 10 d CHAPTER Answers to Review Questions on p. 295: d a b b b Answers to Review Questions on p. 230: d a c c c d Answers to Review Questions on p. 303: b c d b b Answers to Review Questions on p. 238: c b c b a Answers to Review Questions on p. 312: a b c d a 622  Answer Key Answers to Review Questions on p. 320: b c b c b Test Yourself on p 321: a c a c 10 d a c b a d CHAPTER 10 Answers to Review Questions on p. 339: c b b c c d d Answers to Review Questions on p. 344: c b a a Answers to Review Questions on p. 357: c b c a b c Answers to Review Questions on p. 360: b a b Test Yourself on p 362: c a a d 10 b c a d b a CHAPTER 11 Answers to Review Questions on p. 373: c b a d Answers to Review Questions on p. 379: a d c a Answers to Review Questions on p. 388: c c a b Answers to Review Questions on p. 391: c a d Test Yourself on p 393 a a c c 10 d c a b a d CHAPTER 12 Answers to Review Questions on p. 407: b d b b b Answers to Review Questions on p. 413: c c a d a c b Answers to Review Questions on p. 419: b b b d d Answers to Review Questions on p. 428: a c b d c Test Yourself on p 431: a c c e 10 a d a a c b CHAPTER 13 Answers to Review Questions on p. 446: a b b a c Answers to Review Questions on p. 449: c c a e a Answers to Review Questions on p. 453: b b d b b Answers to Review Questions on p. 462: d b b a d Answers to Review Questions on p. 471: b a c d b Test Yourself on p 473: a d b d 10 b d b c c a SPA Answers to Review Questions on p. 481: b c d Answers to Review Questions on p. 488: d a c Answers to Review Questions on p. 493: b a c Test Yourself on p 494: d b b a c a c d SPA Answers to Review Questions on p. 506: b a d b Answers to Try It! on p 508: You get point each time you answered true (T) to questions 1, 4, 5, 6, and 10 and point for each time you answered false (F) to questions 2, 3, 7, 8, and This scale was developed to measure what the researchers call appraisal social support, or “the perceived availability of someone to talk to about one’s problems” (Cohen et al., 1985, pp. 75–76) One of the findings was that when people were not under Answer Key 623 stress, those low in social support had no more physical symptoms than people high in social support did When people were under stress, however, those low in social support had more physical symptoms than did people high in social support Another finding was that women scored reliably higher on the social support scale than men did If you scored lower than you would like, you might want to consider reaching out to others more when you are under stress Answers to Review Questions on p. 511: c a c Answers to Review Questions on p. 513: c d Answers to Review Questions on p. 533: d d c Test Yourself on p 514: c b b b Test Yourself on p 534: d a c c 10 c b a a d SPA Answers to Review Questions on p. 528: c b c b a c d a b d ... Cures  395 433 Social Psychology in Action  sing Social Psychology to Achieve a U Sustainable and Happy Future  475 Social Psychology in Action Social Psychology and Health  496 Social Psychology. .. reflect these updates • Social Psychology in Action chapters—“Using Social Psychology to Achieve a Sustainable and Happy Future,” Social Psychology and Health,” and Social Psychology and the Law”—have... Introducing Social Psychology Chapter Outline and Learning Objectives Defining Social Psychology 1.1 What is social psychology, and how is it different from other disciplines? Social Psychology,