Self-Esteem In this edited collection, a distinguished set of contributors present a broad overview of psychological research on self-esteem Each chapter is written by leading experts in the field, and surveys current research on a particular issue concerning self-esteem Together, the chapters provide a comprehensive overview of one of the most popular topics in psychology Each chapter presents an in-depth review of particular issues concerning self- esteem, such as the connection that self-esteem has with the self-concept and psychological adjustment A number of further topics are covered in the book, including: • • • • • • How individuals pursue self-esteem The connection that self-esteem has with the self-concept and psychological adjustment The developmental changes in feelings of self-worth over the life span The existence of multiple forms of high self-esteem The role that self-esteem plays as an interpersonal signal The protective properties associated with the possession of high self-esteem This collection will be of great interest to researchers and academics, and also to graduate and advanced undergraduate students of social psychology Virgil Zeigler-Hill is a social-personality psychologist at Oakland University, USA He conducts research concerning self-esteem, narcissism, the structure of the self-concept, and interpersonal relationships Current Issues in Social Psychology Series Editor: Arjan E R Bos Current Issues in Social Psychology is a series of edited books that reflect the state-of-the-art of current and emerging topics of interest in basic and applied social psychology Each volume is tightly focused on a particular topic and consists of seven to ten chapters contributed by international experts The editors of individual volumes are leading figures in their areas and provide an introductory overview Example topics include: self-esteem, evolutionary social psychology, minority groups, social neuroscience, cyberbullying, and social stigma Self-Esteem Edited by Virgil Zeigler-Hill Self-Esteem Edited by Virgil Zeigler-Hill First published 2013 by Psychology Press 27 Church Road, Hove, East Sussex BN3 2FA Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Psychology Press 711 Third Avenue, New York NY 10017 Psychology Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2013 Psychology Press The right of the editor to be identified as the author of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data A catalog record for this book has been requested ISBN: 978-1-84872-098-5 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-84872-144-9 (pbk) ISBN: 978-0-203-58787-4 (ebk) Typeset in Times by Wearset Ltd, Boldon, Tyne and Wear This book is dedicated to Jennifer and my family for all of their love and support over the years Contents List of contributors ix The importance of self-esteem V ir g i l Z ei g l er - H i l l Self-structure: The social and emotional contexts of self-esteem 21 C hrist o p her P D itzfe l d and C ar o l in J S h o w ers Pursuing self-esteem: Implications for self-regulation and relationships 43 L o E Par k and J ennifer C r o c k er Development of self-esteem 60 Ka l i H T rzesnie w s k i , M B rent D o nne l l an , and R ichard W R o bins Fragile self-esteem: The perils and pitfalls of (some) high self-esteem 80 C hristian H J o rdan and V ir g i l Z ei g l er - H i l l The development of explicit and implicit self-esteem and their role in psychological adjustment 99 T racy D e H art , R eyna Pe ñ a , and H o w ard T ennen An existential perspective on the need for self-esteem 124 T o m Pyszczyns k i and Pe l in Kesebir Badge of honor or mark of shame: Self-esteem as an interpersonal signal J essica C amer o n , J ennifer M acGre g o r , and T racy K w an g 145 viii Contents Changing self-esteem through competence and worthiness training: A positive therapy 163 C hrist o p her J M ru k and E d w ard J O ’ B rien Index 180 Contributors Jessica Cameron, Department of Psychology, University of Manitoba Jennifer Crocker, Department of Psychology, Ohio State University Tracy DeHart, Department of Psychology, Loyola University Chicago Christopher P Ditzfeld, Department of Psychology, University of Oklahoma M Brent Donnellan, Department of Psychology, Michigan State University Christian H Jordan, Department of Psychology, Wilfrid Lauried University Pelin Kesebir, Pyschology Department, University of Colorado at Colorado Springs Tracy Kwang, Department of Psychology, University of Texas at Austin Jennifer MacGregor, Department of Psychology, University of Waterloo Christopher J Mruk, Department of Psychology, Bowling Green State University Edward J O’Brien, Department of Psychology and Counseling, Marywood University Lora E Park, Department of Psychology, The State University of New York at Buffalo Reyna Peña, Department of Psychology, Loyola University Chicago Tom Pyszczynski, Psychology Department, University of Colorado at Colorado Springs Richard W Robins, Department of Psychology, University of California Carolin J Showers, Department of Psychology, University of Oklahoma Howard Tennen, Department of Community Medicine and Health Care, University of Connecticut Health Center Kali H Trzesniewski, Department of Human Development, University of California Virgil Zeigler-Hill, Department of Psychology, Oakland University 176 C J Mruk and E J O’Brien early in the program but it can also be employed at its end, meaning that setting up a pre- and post-test design is a straightforward process that can be readily employed by researchers Consequently, the program has been used in a number of community mental health and college counseling center settings, some of which have also been researched with published results (Hunt, 2010) For example, CWT was initially evaluated in a community mental health setting by Hakim-Larson and Mruk (1997) Mruk ran the program with several clinical groups suffering from anxiety or depression, as well as with a non-clinical group as a control Hakim-Larson independently analyzed the data generated by pre- and post-testing with the MSEI In another study, CWT was offered in a community mental health setting, a college counseling setting, and also included a control group (Bartoletti & O’Brien, 2003) More recently, a larger-scale study that applied CWT to healthy populations to assess its power as a form of positive psychology has been conducted in conjunction with the Institute of Positive Psychology in Denmark (Haringsma, 2011) All three studies found positive change in the expected direction – an increase in self-esteem – as indicated by the MSEI Moreover, the size effect for the clinical groups was large While smaller for the “normal” group, the increase was still moderate which is as it should be if clinical groups suffer greater problems with self-esteem than non-clinical or normal populations Finally, there is good reason to believe that CWT may be regarded as a “positive therapy.” Positive therapy is an applied dimension of the new positive psychology that emerged at the end of the twentieth century Although clearly preceded by humanistic psychology, the goals of positive psychology focus on researching and facilitating positive or healthy experiences, positive or admir able characteristics, and positive or prosocial behavior (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000) Thus, positive therapy is distinguished by focusing on such things as expanding periods of well-being in a person’s life and increasing individual strengths rather than concentrating on problems or weakness, though those are dealt with as well However, unlike humanistic therapies, positive therapy also insists upon traditional empirical evidence (Seligman, Steen, Park, & Peterson, 2005) Thus, most positive therapies are also systematic, time- limited, often manualized, and always evidence-based CWT appears to meet these criteria Instead of focusing on negative self- esteem moments, for example, the self-esteem journal asks participants to describe positive ones Rather than talking about failures, the program aims at successfully dealing with life’s challenges Similarly, CWT emphasizes self- esteem strengths as well as weaknesses In addition, the program is standardized, time-limited, and accompanied by enough independent empirical research to stand as evidence based In short, CWT is an existentially based form of positive therapy that has been shown to enhance self-esteem in both clinical and general- population settings Thus it is hoped that the approach continues to receive research attention in the future For example, new areas of research could include investigating whether or not CWT can be modified for clinical populations Changing self-esteem through CWT 177 beyond those that involve depression and anxiety, such as for those who suffer from schizophrenic or bipolar disorders Similarly, some educators expressed interest in this model and its psychoeducational approach (Jindal-Snape & Miller, 2008), prompting questions concerning the possibility of modifying it for use with children, adolescents, and adults in educational settings References Ackerman, R A., Witt, E A., Donnellan, M B., Trzesniewski, K H., Robins, R 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underachievement 1, 43 acceptance 36–7, 81–2, 105, 130, 152, 167, 175; perceived 47, 102; self 61, 88, 172; social 5, 9, 24, 52, 61, 146 accessibility 23, 29; death-thought 127–30 accomplishments 2, 60, 73, 104, 113, 165 achievement 67, 87, 125, 135, 137; failure 5; major 172; negative feedback Ackerman, R.A 62, 169 actualities-potentialities ratio 61, 163 adolescence 3, 13, 46, 63–6, 71, 111, 133 adolescents 64, 66, 69–73, 111–12, 133, 166, 168, 177; depression scores 170; female 88 affect intensity 23, 33 affect valuation 30 affective cores 30, 38 affective qualities 23, 28 affective reactivity 22–3, 30, 32–3, 36, 38 affective response 22, 28–9, 108–9, 127 African Americans 4, 63 agentic traits 87, 114 alcohol 134; abuse 8, 43 Allport, G.W 5, 21 American Psychiatric Association 105, 109, 112 anorexia nervosa and bulimia 8, 109–12 anxiety 8, 126; buffering 127, 130, 133–4, 136; death 127, 129–30, 133–4; disorder 132–3; existential 7, 126, 128–31, 133–4; reducing 135; social 132 Arndt, J 6–7, 127–9, 133, 135–6 aspirations 60, 125, 128 attachment style 46–8; dismissing-avoidant 46; secure 46–7, 135 attractiveness 52–4, 90, 114, 129, 155; physical 51, 68 authentic self 24, 36, 91, 137, 153, 163, 166, 169–70, 172–3; inauthentic 24, 37, 151, 153 Baldwin, M.W 9, 48, 69, 71, 101, 158n1 Bandura, A 21, 105, 164 Bartholomew, K 47–8, 101–2 Bartoletti, M 8, 132, 169–70, 176 Baumeister, R.F 1–3, 6–7, 9–10, 12, 21, 34, 36, 43, 48–9, 61–2, 80, 89–90, 110, 132, 137, 145–6, 152, 154, 165, 169 Beck, A.T 8, 105, 115; Depression Inventory II (BDI-II) 109 Becker, E 125, 130, 133 behaviors 13, 69, 83, 125–6, 132, 155, 163, 172–3; antisocial 66; controlling 104–5; defensive 114; eating 109–12; goal-directed 124–6; interpersonal 89; regulating 81, 91; self-destructive 99; self-expansive 135; self-protective 150; social 126 Bellavia, G.M 5, 9, 48, 150, 155 belongingness 3638, 54 benefits 5, 80, 148–9; for children 72; health 9; limited 43; potential 35, 61; psychological 88, 132; relational 151–3 bias 28, 136, 147, 168; attentional 71; ingroup 86; self-presentational 127, 167; self-serving 4849, 80, 127, 131 bipolar disorders 31, 132, 177 Black individuals 4, 10 Blackhart, G.C 6, Blaine, B 48–9, 80 Boden, J.M 1, 61–2, 80, 145, 165 Index 181 body appearance 167, 174; body weight 44, 110; overweight 4, 112 Bosson, J.K 43, 46–7, 85–7, 100–1, 103, 113–14, 132 Bowlby, J 46–7, 101–2, 135 Branden, N 125, 130, 137 Brennan, K.A 46–7 Brown, J.D 2, 4, 67, 34, 49, 60, 88, 100, 145 Buhrmester, M.D 85, 127 Bushman, B.J 5, 89 Buss, D.M 70–1, 89 Cai, H 4, California Task Force to Promote SelfEsteem and Personal and Social Responsibility Cambron, M.J 44, 82 Cameron, J.J 6, 146–50, 152–3, 155–7 Campbell, J.D 2, 6, 24, 43, 48, 61, 80, 132, 169 Campbell, W.K 34, 43, 65, 89, 114, 133 Canevello, A 21, 36, 82, 90 card-sorting task 26, 32 cardiovascular 8; reactivity 9, 12 caregivers 46–7, 102, 135 Carver, C.S 21, 32, 34, 125–6 Caspi, A 10, 62–3, 66, 68, 70, 80, 132, 174 Caucasian 4, 63 Chang, C.S 150, 154 Chatard, A 132, 134 childhood 3, 37–8, 46, 62; caregivers 102; experiences 103–4; self-esteem 3, 63, 65–6, 73 children 66–7, 69, 71–3, 86, 102–4, 130–2, 135, 177; girl and boy close others 46, 52–4, 89, 105, 130–1, 153 cognitive-affective 21–2; self 28, 32; selfprocessing 32, 38 Collins, N.L 46–7, 49, 60, 71 commitment 46, 48, 90, 130, 152 compartmentalization 22–3, 25–6, 28–32, 38; negative 33, 35–6; positive 35, 37; reactive 34 consistency 37–8, 60, 68; self-consistency 34, 36; of self-esteem 62–4, 149; of selfviews 72 contingencies of self-worth 36, 46, 48, 50–2, 84, 90; model 44–5, 49 contingent domains 82, 84 Cooley, C.H 69, 101, 146 Cooper, M.L 44, 46, 82 Coopersmith, S 85, 145, 164 core self 21, 24–5, 35 corresponsive principle 70–1 Cox, C.R 127, 129–31, 133 crime 7, 43; criminal behavior 10, 13 Crocker, J 2, 4–5, 21, 24, 36, 43–6, 48–52, 74n1, 80, 82–4, 87–91, 101, 133, 149, 164, 169 cross-cultural comparisons 4, 156 Csikszentmihalyi, M 115, 135, 176 culture 3–4, 126–8, 135–6, 156 Damon, W 1, 173 Dandeneau, S.D 9, 69, 71 dating 22, 151; challenged 24; contexts 158n1; partners 153 death 7, 128, 137; anxiety 127, 129–30, 133–4; inevitability 126 Deci, E.L 24, 36, 38, 81–2, 91 defensive 85–6, 104, 110, 113; behavior 114, 150; distortions 127, 133; maneuvers 129; needs 136; ostracism 49; reactions 83; self-enhancement 167; selfesteem 164, 166, 172; self-evaluation 168strategies 35; tendencies 88 defensiveness 81–4, 91, 101, 130, 135–6, 167–8; self-protective 103; verbal 83, 85–6, 114 depression 8, 13, 88, 99, 103, 105–9, 111, 115, 132, 136, 167, 169–70, 173, 176–7; depressive symptoms 45, 49, 80 diagnostic 8; criteria 110, 132 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 7, 105, 109, 132 diary 115, 167; entries 25 Diener, E 7, 23, 33, 80 differential importance 24–6, 27 discrimination 4, 80, 86, 149–50, 152 Ditzfeld, C.P 22, 25, 29–30, 31, 35–6, 38 Dodgson, P.G 48–9 domain-specific 82; self-evaluations 60; self-worth 11, 72 Donnellan, M.B 3, 10, 62–3, 65–6, 68, 80, 84, 132 Downey, G 4, 9, 152 drug use and abuse 1, 43, 132, 134, 168, 170 dysphoria 25 educators 80, 177 Elliot, A.J 5, 48, 70, 135 emotional event 28, 32 emotional granularity 31 emotional reactions 30, 50; strong 22, 29, 32, 38 182 Index emotional reactivity 29, 32, 34, 103 emotional response 2830 emotionality 33, 35; negative 155; positive 37 emotions 23, 28, 33, 137; granularity 31; negative 34; positive 35, 132, 135; regulation 23, 29, 32–3, 38, 46; selfconscious 106 environment 33, 54, 66, 68, 70–1, 172; external 47; social 5–6, 13, 70, 146; transformative 175 environmental 63, 67–8; concern 128; construal 70; mastery 88; selection 71 Epstein, S 85–6, 101, 103, 125, 132, 164, 166–7, 170 Erol, R.Y 3, 64 event-related brain potentials 12 evolutionary adaptation 5, 106, 156 failure 2, 5–6, 8, 10, 27, 49–52, 74n1, 80, 82–3, 87–8, 110, 131, 154, 163–4, 168, 174, 176 family support 36, 47, 82, 84, 90 Farnham, S.D 85–6, 100 feeling defeated 35, 37 feeling despair 35, 37 feelings of self-worth 2–9, 43, 51, 74n1, 80–3, 90, 99; context-specific 84; feeling good 11, 35, 81, 156, 165, 173; implicit 108; inflated 1112, 61, 80, 86, 101, 165 Feeney, J.A 46–7 Feldman, S.I 9, 152 Feldman Barrett, L 31, 83 Florian, V 127–8, 130 Ford, M.B 8, 60, 71 Forest, A.L 150, 154 Foster, J.D 4, 80, 87, 89, 91 fragile 50, 131; core self 35; markers of fragility 11; self-respect 137; selfstructure 114 fragile self-esteem 24, 43, 62, 85–8, 90; high 4, 11–12, 80–1, 83–4, 89, 133 Fredrickson, B.L 91, 135 friendships 44, 82, 150 Funder, D.C 12, 88, 150, 155 Furr, R.M 150, 155 Gawronski, B 85, 101 Gecas, V 124, 166 gender 45, 63, 148, 163; difference 3, 112 gene 125; genetic factors 12, 67; receptors 68 goals 2, 10, 21, 44–5, 60, 72–3, 81, 113, 125–6, 135, 137, 166, 168, 170–1; personal 113; self-image 90; selfpresentation 50–1; self-protection 49; social 34 Goldenberg, J.L 6, 82, 128–9, 133 Greenberg, J 7, 82, 125–8, 130–1, 133, 135 Greenier, K.G 84, 88 Greenwald, A.G 85, 99100 Gregg, A.P 7, 87–8, 100–1, 110, 114 Griffin, D.W 5, 69, 150, 155 Gross, J.J 28, 33 guilt 89, 106–7, 132 Gunn, G.R 84, 86 Gyurak, A 9, 12 Halberstadt, J.B 2930 Haney, P 72, 133 happiness 7, 88, 124–5, 132, 137 Harmon-Jones, E 48, 127 Harter, S 3, 24, 34, 52, 66–7, 80, 88, 102, 130, 174 Hayes, J 1, 8, 128 Hazan, C 46 Heimpel, S.A 48–9, 70, 153 Heine, S.J 3, 156 Helson, R 67 Heppner, W.L 83, 91, 114 Higgins, E.T 21, 132 high self-esteem 2–3, 5–10, 12, 34, 36–7, 43–4, 48, 60–2, 70, 72–3, 82–8, 90–1, 101, 103, 113, 127, 131–5, 145, 147–57, 158n2; secure 11, 80–1, 89, 114 high-arousal trait affect 30, 31, 32, 35 Hill, P.L 62, 68, 88, 90 Holmes, J.G 9, 48–9, 69–71, 146, 149–51, 155–6 Huang, C 65–6 Hubbard, D.J 10, 155 if-then contingencies 212, 55, 115 incompetent 27, 69, 81, 137 insecure 23, 27; attachment style 46 instability 24, 136, 168; emotional 113; self-esteem 11, 38, 62, 8384, 114 integration 23, 25–6, 28–30, 36, 38, 170; evaluative 22, 24; identity 167; minimal 136; negative 37; positive 35, 37; reactive 34 internalization 4, 45, 47, 69, 81, 101–2, 104, 111–13, 131, 146 interpersonal experiences 9, 102 interpersonal relationships 9, 44, 51, 89, 101, 113 introject 136; introjected standards 81 Index 183 James, W 2, 9, 44, 60–1, 69, 124, 163–4, 167 Jordan, C.H., 11, 43, 80, 84–7, 89, 100–1, 103, 113–14 Josephs, R.A 2, 49 Judge, T.A 70, 134, 169 Karpinski, A 44–5, 82, 84–5, 109 Kenny, D.A 63, 106, 155 Kernberg, O.F 87, 104, 112–14 Kernis, M.H 2, 11, 21, 24, 35, 43, 49, 62, 80–9, 91, 103, 106, 113–14, 166, 168 Kesebir, P 7, 127, 134 Kling, K.C 3, 25, 35 Knee, C.R 44, 82, 88 Kohut, H 87, 113–14 Koole, S.L 85, 99, 101, 115 Kwang, T 6, 72, 154 Lakey, C.E 83, 87, 91, 114 Landau, M.J 1, 127 Leary, M.R 5, 9, 12, 21, 34, 36, 48, 61–2, 91, 101–2, 105–6, 124–6, 131–2, 137, 146, 152 Lerner, R.M 70, 170 Levy, K.N 46–7 Li, H 9, 12, 170 life outcomes 125, 133; important 1, 7, 1013 life span 3, 62–5, 67–8, 71, 73; early adulthood 63, 65, 112; middle adulthood 3, 65; old age 3, 63–5, 67 likability 50–1, 61, 167, 174 limitations 61, 66, 165, 173 Limke, A 25, 37 low self-esteem 2–4, 6–10, 12–13, 34, 37, 44, 48, 64, 68–72, 80, 82, 88, 99, 101, 106, 110–11, 115, 131–5, 137, 145–58, 164, 169, 172; implicit 11, 43, 81, 85–7, 89, 101, 103, 107, 109, 112–14 low-arousal trait affect 30, 31, 32, 35 Lucas, R.E 62–3 Major, B 34, 101, 105, 149 Marsh, H.W 66, 72 maturity 66; psychological 67 McGregor, I 48, 86 Mead, G.H 34, 101 Mecca, A 43, 156 men 3, 89–90, 112, 148, 157; testosterone levels 12 mental health 13, 66, 88, 105, 125, 131–2, 134; community 176 mental illness 4, 99 Mikulincer, M 46, 127–8, 130, 135 Mischel, W 21–2 Mitchell, V 67 model of the self 22, 47 Moffitt, T.E 10, 62, 66, 80, 132 mood 26, 49, 63; depressed 105–6; negative 108–10, 115, 147; positive 48; sad 25, 29 Morf, C.C 87, 113 mortality 127–8; reminders 130, 133; salience 129, 136 Mruk, C.J 124–5, 130–2, 164–6, 171, 173, 176 Multidimensional Self-Esteem Inventory (MSEI) 166–8, 171–2, 174–6 Murray, S.L 5, 9, 48–9, 69, 150, 155 Myers, E.M 3–4, 6, 11, 70, 80, 87, 146, 148–50, 157, 158n2 narcissism 43, 62, 80–1, 86–90, 101, 103–5, 112–14, 133, 165, 168–9 narcissistic 4, 43, 148; entitlement 62; individuals 11, 87, 104, 113–14; personality disorder 87, 99, 105, 112, 169; self-evaluation 168; traits 113 Narcissistic Personality Inventory 87, 169 nature of the self 9, 146 negative experiences 2, 49, 13, 106 negative feedback 7, 37, 48, 50–3, 72, 83, 86, 106, 108, 112 Neiss, M.B 12, 67 Niedenthal, P.M 2930 Nuttin, J.M 85, 100 O’Brien, E.J 8, 132, 164, 166–7, 169–70, 176 obsessive compulsive disorder 8, 133 Olson, M.A 85, 101 O’Mara, A.J 72–3 Orth, U 1, 3, 7–8, 13, 60, 64–5, 67, 80 others’ approval 36, 44, 46–7, 49–51, 82, 86, 89–90 overweight 4, 112 parents 3, 46, 67–9, 80, 83, 102–5, 113, 130–1, 152; father 23, 104; grandparents 64; mother 102–3, 110, 130 Park, L.E 2, 43–6, 48, 50–3, 82–3, 89–91, 133, 164, 169, 176 partners 46, 48–9, 51–3, 67, 69, 106; attractive 158n1; interaction 71, 83; potential 71; relationship 48, 68, 70, 150; romantic 49, 64, 72, 127, 129–30, 151–6, 158n2; self-esteem 150–151 184 Index peers 64, 67–9, 168; group influence 170; victimization 70 Pelham, B.W 24, 26, 34, 85, 100–1, 105, 108, 115 personality 21, 60, 128; Big Five personality domains 63; development 66, 70; profile 86; psychology 12, 163; theories 33; traits 63–4, 67, 73, 133, 155; variable 87 personality disorder 8, 99; narcissistic 87, 105, 112, 169 Peterson, C 170, 176 physical health 8, 10, 68, 105, 132; benefits 9, 132; declining 64, 67; maintenance 129; poorer 88, 114 Pickard, J.D 4, 87 post-traumatic stress disorder 134 predictions 32, 4950, 53 prejudice 4, 13; victimization 70 psychological adjustment 8, 11, 99, 170 psychopathology 4, 78, 99, 111, 134 Pyszczynski, T 7, 82, 125–8, 133–5 race 10, 45; differences Raskin, R 87, 169 reassurance 8, 47, 53–4, 106 recidivism 10 reflected appraisals 69, 113, 130, 146 rejection 2, 5–6, 8, 21–2, 37, 47–9, 53–5, 82, 106–7, 150, 152, 154; interpersonal 71, 101; peer 69; self 61 relationship 24, 27, 36, 48; close 49, 53–4, 70, 89, 150–2; interpersonal 9, 44, 51, 89, 101, 113; intimate 64, 71; personal 125; romantic 12, 44, 82, 130; satisfaction 13, 89–90, 151–2 Rhodewalt, F 35, 87, 103, 113, 163 Rholes, S.W 46–7 risk 2, 47, 49, 106, 153, 168; avoidance 70; for depression 107, 109; factor 8, 110, 132; of failure 174; high 150; interpersonal 51–4; risk-rejection 71–2, 154; taking 48, 113, 129 Roberts, B.W 8, 62–3, 67–8, 80, 88, 174 Roberts, J.E 84, 88, 99, 106, 108 Robins, R.W 1, 3, 8, 10, 43, 60–4, 66, 80, 84, 88, 90, 132, 150, 156, 174 Robinson, K.J 150, 156 Rogers, C.R 21, 80–1, 91, 135 Rosenberg, M 36, 61–2, 81, 84–5, 100, 104, 165, 168 Routledge, C 133–4, 136 Rudman, L.A 3, 101, 103 Ryan, R.M 24, 34, 36, 38, 81–2, 91 Sandstrom, M.J 86, 89 satisfaction 46, 91, 124; appearance 110–12; decreased 134; life 7, 66, 80, 88, 169–70; relationship 13, 89–90, 151–2; self 61 Scarr, S 70–1 Schimel, J 1, 7, 127–8 schizophrenic disorders 8, 177 Schmeichel, B.J 127, 133 Schröder-Abé, M 88–9, 100, 114 Sedikides, C 7, 12, 43, 67, 87–9, 100–1, 113–14 Seery, M.D 9, 12 self-affirmation 53–4 self-beliefs 21, 24, 34, 36; negative 22–3, 25–6, 27, 28–30, 37–8; positive 22–3, 29 self-clarity 24, 48, 84, 137 self-confidence 48; lacking 149 self-control 23, 33, 167, 174 self-enhancement 2, 21, 24, 49, 61–2, 81, 84, 86, 101, 127, 167 self-esteem 6, 146, 150, 154; change in 65, 68, 72, 170; contingent 11, 35, 74n1, 81–4, 86–9, 164, 169; damaged 54; dark side 62, 72, 133, 148, 165, 168–9; fluctuations 24–5, 84, 99; global 11, 22–5, 44, 49, 60–1, 66, 72, 132, 167–70; healthy 80, 90–1, 131, 163–6; instability 11, 38, 62, 83–4, 114; instrument 3, 11–12; mean-level changes 64–6; movement 1–2, 43, 72, 165; pursuit of 43–4, 50, 133; stability 21–2, 38, 91; state 13, 23–5, 34, 36, 38, 44–5, 50, 82–4, 86, 103, 146; trait 13, 21, 23–5, 48, 52, 103 self-esteem scales 36, 63, 66; global 167–8; MSEI 166, 171–2, 174–6; Rosenberg 81, 85, 100, 103 self-evaluations 34, 36, 48, 60–1, 66, 72, 85, 125, 167; explicit 100, 114; global 44, 81; implicit 99, 101, 108, 115; negative 103–4, 110, 114; positive 168; subjective 11, 60 self-focus 32, 50 self-organization 22, 38; compartmentalized 23, 27, 32; evaluative 24–5, 28, 35; integrative 23, 27 self-perception 4, 69 self-protection 2, 4, 49, 102 self-reflection 68–9 self-regard 43, 55, 72; negative 35; positive Index 185 self-regulation 25, 44, 47, 49, 91, 137; failure 154; poor 32, 110 self-report 10, 31, 100; feel about themselves 11, 84–5; instruments 11, 85; measures 12, 165 self-structure 28; compartmentalized 33; evaluative 31, 33; vulnerable 104, 113–14 self-threats 21, 35, 44–5, 48–50, 54, 86, 115 self-verification 21, 71–2, 153 Seligman, M.E.P 1, 170, 176 sensitivity 33, 36, 102; to criticism 113, 172; to failure 164; to rejection 9, 21, 48 sex 128, 132, 150; opposite-sex 52, 148; same-sex 50; sexism shame 81, 90, 106–7, 126, 132, 156; ashamed 49 Shaver, P.R 46 Shaw, B.A 3, 65 Sheldon, K.M 5, 24, 36, 135–6 Shiner, R.L 63, 68 Showers, C.J 3, 22–6, 29–30, 31, 34–8 Shrauger, S 69, 106 Simpson, J.A 46–7 smoking 8, 129, 132 social acceptance 5, 9, 24, 36–7, 52, 61, 146 social contexts 21, 23, 36, 38, 68, 157 social problems 1, 164–5 social rejection 5–6, 9, 12, 153; computerized task 25 socioeconomic status 45, 67; economic prospects 13 Solomon, S 7, 125–8, 133, 145 Somerville, L.H 9, 12 Sommer, K.L 9, 49 Spencer, S.J 13, 43, 49, 80, 85–7, 100 status 5, 89, 152; low 149; signaling 6, 146–7, 149, 153; signals 153; social 156; socioeconomic 45, 67; tracking 56, 146 Steele, C.M 2, 24, 49, 149 stigma 4, 149, 157; stigmatized groups 4, 13, 148 Stinson, D.A 8, 146, 150 stress 6, 8, 29, 46, 66, 68, 71, 111; posttraumatic stress disorder 134 stressful experiences 8, 25, 83, 99, 107–9, 115 students 12, 25, 45, 72, 154, 170; college 104, 108, 126 suicide 132; ideation 107–9, 111; impulses 80 Swann, W.B 1–2, 5, 11, 21, 24, 26, 34, 43, 60, 71–2, 80, 85–6, 100–1, 103, 124, 132–3, 150, 153–5, 165 Tafarodi, R.W 2, 34, 124, 165 Tangney, J.P 61–2 Taylor, S.E 68, 88 teachers 3, 86, 175 terror 7, 126; management health model 129; theory 127–8, 130–1, 133–5, 137 Tesser, A 21, 24 Tice, D.M 2, 48 Tracy, J.L 3, 43, 64 Trzesniewski, K.H 1, 3, 7–8, 10, 13, 60, 62–6, 72, 80, 84, 90, 125, 132– 3, 174 Tsai, J.L 30–1 Twenge, J.M 34, 43, 65, 80, 133, 145 valenced 22–3, 26, 28–9, 31–2, 38 validation 46–7, 81, 90, 169 Vazire, S 113, 154–5 ventral cingulate cortex 12 violence 1, 10, 80, 132 virtue 36, 44–5, 80, 82, 84, 124, 147, 156, 168, 172 Vohs, K.D 1, 12, 43, 45, 61, 80, 90, 99, 132, 154, 169 vulnerability 37, 99; cognitive 107, 109; denying 127; factors 105–6, 115; model 6, Waschull, S.B 83, 88, 103 Watson, D 132, 155 Western society 43, 152 White individuals 4, 10 Williams, K.D 25, 49, 146 women 3, 45, 89, 110–12, 151, 157, 158n2 Wood, J.V 48–9, 70–1, 150, 152–4 working self-concept 26, 28 World Health Organization 105 worldview 127–8; cultural 126, 131, 136; defense 130, 134 Zeigler-Hill, V 3–4, 6, 8–9, 11–12, 25–6, 34–8, 43, 70, 85–7, 89–90, 101, 114, 146–50, 153, 155–7, 158n2 Taylor & Francis - F O R LIBRARIES Over 23,000 eBook titles i n the Humanities, Social Sciences, STM and Law from some o f the world's leading imprints Choose from a range of subject packages or create your own! ) COUNTER-compliant usage statistics ) Flexible purchase and pricing options ) Off-site, anytime access via Athens or referring L ) Print or copy pages or chapt ers ) Full content search ) Bookmark, highlif;ht and an1notate text to thousanids of page of quality research lick of a b~ltton more inforrnation, pric ing enquiri~ es or to ord :e trial, con,tact your 101 cal online s;ales team UK and Rest of World: onli~ US, Canada and Latin Ame rica: e-reference@taylorandfrancis.com ... of self- esteem In S De Wals & K Meszaros (eds .), Handbook on psychology of self- esteem (pp 211–22 6) Hauppauge, NY: Nova Zeigler- Hill, V., Besser, A., & King, K (201 1) Contingent self- esteem. .. Zeigler- Hill Zeigler- Hill, V., & Myers, E M (in press) A review of gender differences in self- esteem In S P McGeown (ed. ), Psychology of Gender Differences Hauppauge, NY: Nova Zeigler- Hill, ... neuroscience, cyberbullying, and social stigma Self- Esteem Edited by Virgil Zeigler- Hill Self- Esteem Edited by Virgil Zeigler- Hill First published 2013 by Psychology Press 27 Church Road, Hove,