Self theories their role in motivation, personality, and development (essays in social psychology) – carol dweck

SELF-THEORIES Essays in Social Psychology MILES HEWSTONE, UNIVERSITY OF CARDIFF, GENERAL EDITOR Essays in Social Psychology is designed to meet the need for rapid publication of brief volumes in social psychology Primary topics will include social cognition, interpersonal relationships, group processes, and intergroup relations, as well as applied issues Furthermore, the series seeks to define social psychology in its broadest sense, encompassing all topics either informed by, or informing, the study of individual behavior and thought in social situations Each volume in the series will make a conceptual contribution to the topic by reviewing and synthesizing the exisiting research literature, by advancing theory in the area, or by some combination of these missions The principal aim is that authors will provide an overview of their own highly successful research program in an area It is also expected that volumes will, to some extent, include an assessment of current knowledge and identification of possible future trends in research Each book will be a self-contained unit supplying the advanced reader with a well-structured review of the work described and evaluated Published titles Sorrentino and Roney—The Uncertain Mind Van der Vliert—Complex Interpersonal Conflict Behaviour Titles in preparation Bodenhausen and Macrae—Stereotype Use Carnevale—The Psychology of Agreement Gaertner and Dovidio—Reducing Intergroup Bias Kruglanski—The Psychology of Closed-Mindedness Mackie—Emotional Aspects of Intergroup Perception Semin and Fiedler—The Linguistic Category Model Turner—Social Identity and Self-Categorization Theory Tyler and Blader—Cooperation in Groups Self-Theories Their Role in Motivation, Personality, and Development Carol S Dweck Columbia University Essays In Social Psychology Psychology Press Taylor & Francis Group 711 Third Avenue 8th Floor New York, NY 10017 www.psypress.com Published in Great Britain by Psychology Press Taylor & Francis Group 27 Church Road Hove, East Sussex BN3 2FA © 2000 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Psychology Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-84169-024-7 (Softcover) Cover design by Fielding Rowinski Except as permitted by U.S Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Catalog record is available from the Library of Congress Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the Psychology Press Web site at http://www.psypress.com Contents About the Author Preface Introduction Chapter What Promotes Adaptive Motivation? Four Beliefs and Four Truths About Ability, Success, Praise, and Confidence Chapter When Failure Undermines and When Failure Motivates: Helpless and Mastery2 Oriented Responses Chapter Achievement Goals: Looking Smart Versus Learning Chapter Is Intelligence Fixed or Changeable? Students' Theories About Their Intelligence Foster Their Achievement Coals Chapter Theories of Intelligence Predict (and Create) Differences in Achievement Chapter Theories of Intelligence Create High and Low Effort Chapter Implicit Theories and Goals Predict Self-Esteem Loss and Depressive Reactions to Negative Events Chapter Why Confidence and Success Are Not Enough Chapter What is IQ and Does It Matter? Chapter Believing in Fixed Social Traits: Impact on Social Coping 10 Chapter Judging and Labeling Others: Another Effect of Implicit Theories 11 Chapter Belief in the Potential to Change 12 Chapter Holding and Forming Stereotypes 13 Chapter How Does It All Begin? Young Children's Theories About Goodness and Badness 14 Chapter Kinds of Praise and Criticism: The Origins of Vulnerability 15 Chapter Praising Intelligence: More Praise that Backfires 16 Chapter Misconceptions About Self-Esteem and About How to Foster It 17 Chapter Personality, Motivation, Development, and the Self: Theoretical Reflections 18 Chapter Final Thoughts on Controversial Issues 19 References Appendix: Measures of Implicit Theories, Confidence, and Goals Index About the Author Carol S Dweck is Professor of Psychology at Columbia University She is a leader in the fields of motivation, personality and developmental psychology and her research contributions have been widely recognized Her previous books include Personal Politics (with Ellen Langer) and Motivation and Self-Regulation Across the Life-Span (co-edited with Jutta Heckhausen) Preface I have always been deeply moved by outstanding achievement, especially in the face of adversity, and saddened by wasted potential I have devoted my career to understanding both For almost 30 years, I have done research on motivation and achievement This book presents the findings from my research, and, as you will see, many of these findings challenge conventional wisdom Because I am first and foremost a researcher, I have tried to convey to the reader my love of the research process—how research can address deep and real questions in a precise way, how exciting it is to learn something important you didn't know before, and how each study raises pressing new questions for the next study to explore Research lures you down uncharted paths, with each turn revealing something new Research is also extremely difficult The experiments must set up lifelike situations Each one requires a host of new measures, all of which have to be refined and tested There are countless details of experimental design that have to be observed for the results to be valid Our experiments often involve over 100 students, yielding masses of data for analysis The reader is spared these details, but the research buff can find them by consulting the research papers that are cited in each chapter A few details, however, are in order The reader should know that all of the results cited in this book are statistically significant ones, that is, ones shown by statistical tests to be reliable findings But keep in mind that almost no findings in psychological research are all or nothing Not every student in an experimental group did the same thing The results describe what the group as a whole, on average, did Many thousands of students have participated in our studies Who are these students? They range from preschool through college They come from all over the country—from rural towns as well as from large cities—and they represent many different ethnic groups So the findings are not limited to a narrow segment Df our society but have broad applicability It is also important to know that all of the students in our studies are there on a voluntary basis and are encouraged td discontinue their participation at any point along the way if they wish to Each session, in addition, ends with a highly positive experience, in which the students master difficult material When I talk about the research I will typically use "we." This is because almost ill of the research was carried out in collaboration with my graduate students and postdoctoral fellows One of the joys of a research career is working closely with extraordinary young scholars, and I have been particularly fortunate in this regard This work would not have been possible without them Much of this book is about how people make and sustain commitments to things they value I would like to dedicate the book to my husband, David, who taught me a great deal about this process Carol S Dweck New York, January, 1999 Development, 95-106, 142-144, 147-148 Diener, Carol, 2, 3, 5, Dinces, Naomi, 23 Dodge, K A., 28, 144 Downey, G., 136, 139 Duda, J L., 19 Dumas-Hines, F., 52 Dweck, Carol, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 11, 14, 15, 16, 17, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 28, 29, 30, 33, 35, 38, 39, 40, 41, 48, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 61, 62, 64, 65, 66, 67, 69, 73, 74, 75, 76, 78, 80, 81, 82, 83, 86, 87, 89, 90, 91, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 105, 106, 107, 108, 112, 115, 116, 117, 119, 123, 124, 125, 133, 134, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 146, 147, 151, 176, 181, 184 Dyck, M., 57 Dykman, Benjamin, 47-50, 115, 144, 146, 153 Easley, J., xii Eccles, J S., 13, 29, 124 Effort entity theory and, 40, 41, 145-146 intelligence and, 60-62 meaning of, 39-41 praise of, 120, 121 value of emphasis on, 149-150 Elliot, Andrew, 15, 19, 134 Elliott, Elaine, 3, 15, 16, 42, 66, 95, 134, 142, 184 Ellis, Albert, 144 Emmons, R A., 141 Enna, B., 123 Entity theory of intelligence See also implicit theories bright girls and, 123-124 college students and, 35, 36 confidence and, 51, 52, 57 depression and, 144 effort and, 40, 41, 145-146 elements of intelligence and, 60-62 explanation of, 2-3 failure responses and, 45, 46 feeling smart and, 42-43 influencing students theories, 24-26 judgment of self and others and, 73-80 performance goals and, 20-21, 26-28 potential for change and, 82-88 self-esteem and, 128, 129 students with views of, 20-21 transition to junior high school and, 29-35 vulnerability and, 44, 151 Environment traits and role of, 82-83 young children's views of, 83-84 Epstein, S., xi, 132, 138, 139 Erbaugh, J., 44 Erdley, C A., 28, 72 Erdley, Cynthia, 52, 65, 67, 76, 80, 84, 176 Erikson, E H., 106, 137, 138, 148 Eysenck, H J., 133, 135 Failure depression and, 44-47 fear of, 134 helpless responses to, 8-9, 11-12, 16-17, 31-33, 56-57 judging others' intelligence by, 74-76 praise for intelligence and responses to, 118-119 young children and, 95 Faria, L., 38 Farrell, Edwin, 16, 17, 29 Feider, H., xii Feldman, S., 139 Females depression in, 147 high-achieving, 123-125 intelligence praise for, 123-125 success and bright, 53-55 Fixed theory of intelligence, 2-3 See also Entity theory of intelligence Folkman, S., 146 Fowler, J W., 57 Fox, L., 55, 123 Freitas, A., 89, 91 Frese, M., 141 Freudian theory, 136-137 Fried, C., 36, 37, 123, 133 Fu, J H., 86, 150, 181 Garber, J., 140 Garcia, R., xii, 18 Geen, R G., 141 Gelman, Susan, xi, 28, 83 Gergen, K J., xi Gervey, B., 81, 87 Gifted students, 122-125 Gilham, J., 58 Gillis, M M., 144 Girgus, J S., 46 Goal measures explanation of, 184-185 questionnaire goal choice items, 185-186 task-choice, 185 Goal theories of personality, 141 Goals See also Achievement goals contributing to depression, 47-49 effects of praise on, 117-118 helpless and mastery-oriented responses and social, 64-67 student theories about personality and, 67-68 validation-seeking, 47-49 Gochberg, B., 55 Goetz, Therese, 64, 65, 147 Goldberg, L R., 133 Gollwitzer, R M., 138 Golon, S., 18 Goodness mastery-oriented responses and, 103, 104 praise for, 123-125 young children's notions of, 143 Gooanow, J J., xi, 28 Gordon, L V., 28 Gould, S J., 76 Graham, S., 18, 57 Gralinski, H., 1, 34, 38, 41, 123 Grant, H., 141 Gray, Pete, 60 Greenberg, L S., xi Greenwald, A G., 138, 139 Greulich, F., 55 Growth-seeking goals, 47-49 Hamilton, D L., xi, 94 Harackiewicz, J M., 15, 19 Harter, S., 50, 96, 115 Hayes, C J., 144 Hebert, Charlene, 96, 97-99, 115 Heckhausen, H., 96, 140 Heckhausen, J., 14 Heider, F., 139 Helpless responses bright girls and, 54-55, 123, 124 in classroom, 10-12 to criticism, 100-102 criticism and, 108-111 effects of, 12-13 goals and, 15-19 overview of, 5-7 to problem solving, 7-12 in social situations, 64-65 in young children, 95-106 Henderson, V., 2, 3, 29, 30, 35, 51, 52, 181 Henderson-MacGyvers, Valanne, 29, 30, 42 Heredity personality and, 135-136, 153-154 traits and role of, 82-83 young children's views of, 83-84 Herrnstein, R J., 28 Hewstone, M., 123 Heyman, Gail, 19, 28, 74, 83, 84, 96, 100, 101, 104, 105, 106, 108, 109, 115, 142 Hicks, L., 17 Higgins, E T., 139 High-achieving students college environment and, 122-123 female, 123-125 labeling of, 122-123 Higley, J., 134, 135 Hirschfeld, L A., xi, 83 Hoffman, M L., 1, 96 Hollon, S D., 144 Hong, Ying-Yi, 22, 25, 40, 51, 63, 73, 74, 75, 77, 79, 81, 86, 87, 176, 181 Horney, Karen, 114, 137, 138 Howard, J., 60, 84 Hsu, C C., 60 Hudley, C., 57 Hunt, J., 60, 136 Implicit theories actual relationships and, 70-72 intimate relationships and, 63-65 judging self and others and, 73-81 meaning of performance goals and, 26-28 stereotypes and, 81-85 theories of personality and, 62-63 Implicit theory measures explanation of, 175-176 of intelligence (adults), 178 of intelligence (children), 177 of "kind of person", 179-180 of morality, 180 of personality, 178-179 of world, 181 Incremental theory of intelligence See also Implicit theories college students and, 35, 36 confidence and, 51-52, 149, 150-151 effort and, 39-41, 149 elements of intelligence and, 60-62 explanation of, 3-4 failure responses and, 44—47 feeling smart and, 42, 43 influencing students and, 24-26 intelligence praise and, 125-126 judgment of others and, 74-81 narrowing achievement gap by teaching, 36-37 performance goals and, 20-22, 26-28, 145 potential for change and, 82-88, 154 self-esteem and, 128-130 stereotypes and, 89-94 students with views of, 21-23 transition to junior high school and, 29-32 Intelligence confidence in, effects of praising, 1-2, 116-126 effort and, 62-63 high achievers and, 122-125 low achievers and, 121-122 meaning of, 60-62 successes arid failures to judge, 74-76 when students feel, 42-43 Intelligence theories changing students', 23-26 effect of praise on, 119 effort and, 39-41 frameworks of, 37-38 held by students, 20-23 manipulating students', 24-26 as predictors of achievement differences, 29-38 student goals and, 23-24 types of, 2-4 Intimate relationships impact of implicit theories on, 70-72 views of, 70 IQ, 59-60 Jacobson, L., 84, 116 Janoff-Bulman, R., xi, 13, 46, 139 Jaycox, L., 58 Jennings, D L., 57 Jensen, A R., 28, 60 John, O P., 133 Jones, E E., 32, 41, 133, 139, 143 Jussim, L J., 138 Judgment beliefs regarding trait, 80-81 entity theories and, 77-78 implicit theories and, 79-80 of intelligence by successes and failures, 74-76 of personality and character from behavior, 76-77 of self vs others, 73-74 Jung, C G., 137 Junior high school transitions, 29-35 Juvonen, J., 32, 131 Kagan, J., 96, 107, 134, 135 Kamen, L P., 140 Kamins, Melissa, 1, 2, 3, 67, 69, 96, 106, 107, 108, 112, 115, 116, 133, 143, 151 Kane, P., 28 Kanouse, D E., 139 Kaplan, N., 143 Katkovsky, W., Kelly, George, 132, 139, 151 Kelley, H H., 139 Ketron, J., 28 Kieffer, S C., 41, 146 Kihlstrom, J F., 139 Kitamura, S., 60 Klinger, E., 141 Knee, C Raymond, 41, 70-71, 146 Kohut, H., 137, 138 Kowalski, P S., 17 Kruglanski, A W., xi, 151 Kukla, A., 6, 14, 140 Kunda, Z., 75 Labeling effects of positive or negative, 117-118 of high-achieving students, 122-123 of low-achieving students, 121-122 Lamb, S., 96 Langer, S K., xi Lazarus, R S., 139, 146 Learned helplessness, 139-141 Learned optimism, 139-141 Learning goals and, 17-19 mastery-oriented and helpless responses and, 10-12 self-regulation and, 152-153 Learning goals classroom learning ana, 17-19 confidence and, 51 conflict between performance and, 15-16, 151-152 depression and, 47-49 explanation of, 15-16 helpless vs mastery-oriented responses and, 16-17 intelligence theories ana, 20, 21 intimate relationships and, 69-70 rejection and, 65-67 standards for, 152 theories of personality and, 67-68 Lee, S., 60, 150 Leggett, Ellen, 1, 2, 3, 16, 21, 23, 39, 53-54, 123, 139, 184 Lehto, A T., 15 Lepper, M R., 117 Lerner, M J., xi, 139 LeVine, R A., xi Levy, Sheri, 78, 82, 83, 89-91, 93, 133, 176 Lewis, M., xi, 96, 134, 143 Licht, Barbara, 1, 11, 53, 54, 123, 124, 125 Lin, Derek, 2, 3, 22, 25, 38 Lin, Y., 60 Linden, T A., 53, 54 Little, B R., 141 Loeb, I., 86, 146-147 Loehlin, J C., 133, 134, 135 Loomis, C., 52 Low-achieving students, 121-122 Lowell, E., 134 Maccoby, E E., 124, 136 MacGyvers, V L., 52 Maehr, M 17, 34 Maier, S., Malleable intelligence theory See also incremental theory of intelligence, 3-4 Markus, H., 138, 139 Maslow, Abraham, 137, 138 Mastery-oriented responses beliefs about, 1-2 bright boys and, 125 in classroom, 10-12 criticism and, 108-111 goals and, 15-19 goodness and, 103, 104 persistence and, 13-14 to problem solving, 6-7, 9-10 in social situations, 64-65 success and, 53-55 Mayer, R., 60 McClelland, D C., 134 McClintic, S., 96 McCrae, R R., 133 McKeachie, W J., 60 Meaning systems explanation of, ix-x Piaget and, x social-cognitive theory and, 138-139 Medin, D L., xi Mendeison, M., 44 Mental health cognitive theories of, 144-146 coping theories of, 146-147 development and, 147-148 Metalsky, G I., 46, 140 Meyer, W U., 14, 43, 58, 146 Middleton, M J., 19 Midgley, C., 17, 18, 19, 29, 32, 34, 41 Miller, A T., 95 Miller, L C., 141 Mischel, W., 73, 133, 139, 153 Misovich, S J., 73 Moorehouse, A., 136 Morris, S M., 67, 69 Motivation development of, 142-144 intelligence and, 60-61 motives and, 134 social-cognitive theory and, 138-139 theories about self and, 138 Mueller, Claudia, 1, 2, 3, 16, 19, 22, 40, 44, 48, 61, 62, 107, 116, 117, 119, 133, 151, 184 Mumme, D L., 117 Murphy, G L., xi Murray C., 28 Murray, H A., 134 Negative focus, 19 Nelson, K., xi Nelson, S., 123 Nicholls, J., 95, 131 Nickerson, R S., 60 Niedenthal, P., 138 Nisbett, R E., 75, 139 Nolan-Hoeksema, S., 46, 124, 140, 144, 146, 147 Nurius, P., 138 Ogbu, J., 131 Omelich, C L., 32, 39 Oshima, T C., 53, 123 Overton, W F., xii Paley, V G., 97, 106 Palinscar, A S., 76 Pals, Jennifer, 35, 36, 144 Parkhurst, J T., 28 Parsons, J E., 95 Pascuale-Leone, J., xi Peers attitude toward, 130-131 response to rejection from, 64-68 Pen-pal club study, 64-67 Pepper, S C., xi Performance goals conflict between learning and, 16 depression and, 47-49 explanation of, 15-16 helpless vs mastery-oriented responses and, 16-17 implicit theories and, 26-28 intimate relationships and, 69-70 learning and, 17-19, 151-152 need for, 151-152 rejection and, 65-67 students' theories of intelligence and, 20, 21 theories of personality and, 67-68 Perkins, D N., 60 Persistence mastery-oriented approach and, 13-14 value of, 150 in young children, 97-99 Personality student theories about their, 67-68 using behavior to judge, 76-78 Personality theories biological, 135-136 built around goals, 141 Freudian, 136-137 growth-oriented, 137-138 self-oriented, 138 social-cognitive, 138-139 trait, 133-134 Pervin, L A., 133, 139, 141 Peterson, C., 46, 57, 140, 144 Piaget, Jean, ii, x, 142 Pintrich, P R., 18, 60 Plaks, J., 80 Pomerantz, E M., 55, 58, 124 Potential, 59-60 Praise of effort, 120, 121 helpless vs mastery-oriented responses to, 111-114 for intelligence, 1, 116-126 mastery-oriented qualities and, misuse of, 43, 51 studies of impact of, 107-108 Pratkanis, A R., 138 Preschool children See Young children Problem solving, 6-10 Punishment, 99-103 Purcell, L., 76 Pygmalion effect, 116 Quinn, D., 36 Rabinor, D L., 28 Read, S J., 141 Recchia, S., 96 Reivich, K., 58 Rejection, 64-65 Relationships See Intimate relationships Renshaw, P D., 72 Reppucci, N D., 5, 6, 9, 140 Resnik, I., 139 Resnick, L B., 59, 60 Rhodewalt, Frederick, 32, 41, 144 Roberts, T., 124 Robins, C J., 144 Robins, Richard, 35, 36 Rochat, P., 143 Rodriguez, M L., 153 Roeser, R W., 18 Rogers, Carl, 114, 137, 138 Rosenthal, R., 84, 116 Rothbaum, R, 14 Rotter, J B., 14, 139 Ruble, D N., 55, 58, 95, 124, 143, 147 Ruvolo, A., 139 Ryan, R M., 19, 117, 138 Saarni, C., xi Sabitii, J., 141 Scheier, M F., 71, 140, 146 Schulz, R., 14 Schunk, D H., 57, 153 Seegers, G., 123 Self-esteem attitudes toward peers and, 130-131 different views of, 3-4, 128-129 goals and, 47, 50 new approach to, 128-129 overview of, 127-128 in process terms, 138 theories of intelligence and, 2-3, 35-36 varying views of, 3-4 Self-handicapping, 41 Self Theories See also entity theory, implicit theories, incremental theory, intelligence theories Self-worth See Contingent self-worth Seligman, M E., 5, 46, 58, 127, 140, 144 Semin, G R., xi Sexton, M A., 53, 54 Shapiro, D., 145 Shapiro, S H., 1, 53, 54, 123, 125 Sherman, S J., xi, 94 Shoda, Y., 73, 133, 139, 153 Shweder, R A., xi Sinclair, L., 50, 115 Skinner, E A., 14 Smiley, P A., 96, 97, 98, 105 Snidman, N., 107, 134, 135 Snyder, S S., 14 Social goals, 65-67 Social situations, 64-65 Social-cognitive theory, 138-139 Sorich, Lisa, 1, 3, 16, 29, 33, 35, 41, 80 Spencer, Steven, 36 Steele, C., 36, 122-123 Stereotypes dangers related to, 93-94 entity theories and, 91-93 of females, 124, 125 formation of, 89-91 threat of, 36-37 Stern, R., 139 Sternberg, R J., 28, 59, 60 Stevenson, H W., 60, 150 Stigler, J W., 60, 150 Stipek, D J., 1, 17, 34, 38, 41, 95, 96, 123, 142 Stone, J., 3, 15, 16, 27, 141, 184 Strauss, N., 147 Stress, 71 Stroessner, S., 78, 176 Success bright girls and, 53-55 entity theory and, 56-57 IQ and, 60 judging others' intelligence by, 74-76 Success training, 55-58 Sullivan, M W., 96 Suomi, Steven, 134, 135 Surber, C., 39 Tangney, June, 153 Teacher-expectancy effect, 116 Teasdale, J D., 140 Temperament, 135-136 Tenney, Yvette, 23 Toddlers See Young children Tong, J Y., 86, 181 Traits See also specific traits children's views of heredity and environment regarding, 83-84 personality as set of, 132-133 potential for change and, 84-85 responses to wrongdoers and, 85-88 stereotypes and, 89 (See also Stereotypes) viewed as innate, 82-83 Uleman, J S., 139 Urdan, T C., 18 Validation-seeking goals, 47-50 Valins, S., 139 Vallacher, R R., xi Victimization, 86-88 Vulnerability bright girls and, 53-54, 123, 124 entity theory and, 44, 151 individual characteristics and, 144-146 praise for intelligence and, 118-119 young children and, 95, 96, 106, 142 Walker, E., 136 Ward, C H., 44 Webster, D M., 151 Wechsler, D., 60 Wegner, D M., xi Weiner, B., 6, 14, 139-140 Weinstein, C E., 60 Weintraub, J K., 71, 146 Weiss, B., 14 Weisz, J R., 14 Wellborn, J G., 14 Wellman, H M., xi Wentzel, K., 72 Whitehead, A N., xi Whiting, J M., 124 Whiting, B B., 124 Wicklund, R A., 138 Williams, W M., 60 Wilson, T D., 139 Wood, R E., 36 Yussen, S., 28 Young children helpless reactions in, 97-99 helpless responses to criticism and, 100-102 punishment expectations and, 102-103 self-ratings of badness in, 103-104 theories of badness and, 104-105 vulnerability and, 95-96, 106, 142 Zhao, W., 2, 44, 46, 48, 141, 144, 146, 153 Zimmerman, B J., 153 Zirkel, S., 139, 141 ... Self- Categorization Theory Tyler and Blader—Cooperation in Groups Self- Theories Their Role in Motivation, Personality, and Development Carol S Dweck Columbia University Essays In Social Psychology Psychology... to define social psychology in its broadest sense, encompassing all topics either informed by, or informing, the study of individual behavior and thought in social situations Each volume in the... raising self- esteem sets up maladaptive self- theories, goals, and coping patterns In the final chapters, I explore the implications of our findings for the concept of self- esteem, suggesting