Virus Infections and Hosts

RESEARCH Open Access Aflatoxin levels, plasma vitamins A and E concentrations, and their association with HIV and hepatitis B virus infections in Ghanaians: a cross-sectional study Francis A Obuseh 1 , Pauline E Jolly 2* , Andrzej Kulczycki 1 , John Ehiri 3 , John Waterbor 2 , Renee A Desmond 4 , Peter O Preko 5 , Yi Jiang 2 and Chandrika J Piyathilake 6 Abstract Background: Micronutrient deficiencies occur commonly in people infected with the human immunodeficiency virus. Since aflatoxin exposure also results in reduced levels of several micronutrients, HIV and aflatoxin may work synergistically to increase micronutrient deficiencies. However, there has been no report on the association between aflatoxin exposure and micronutrient deficiencies in HIV-infected people. We measured aflatoxin B 1 albumin (AF-ALB) adduct levels and vitamins A and E concentrations in the plasma of HIV-positive and HIV- negative Ghanaians and examined the association of vitamins A and E with HIV status, aflatoxin levels and hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted in which participants completed a demographic survey and gave a 20 mL blood sample for analysis of AF-ALB levels, vitamins A and E concentrations, CD4 counts, HIV viral load and HBV infection. Results: HIV-infected participants had significantly higher AF-ALB levels (median for HIV-positive and HIV-negative participants was 0.93 and 0.80 pmol/mg albumin, respectively; p <0.01) and significantly lower levels of vitamin A (-16.94 μg/dL; p <0.0001) and vitamin E (-0.22 mg/dL; p <0.001). For the total study group, higher AF-ALB was associated with significantly lower vitamin A (-4.83 μg/dL for every 0.1 pmol/mg increase in AF-ALB). HBV- infected people had significantly lower vitamin A (-5.66 μg/dL; p = 0.01). Vitamins A and E levels were inversely associated with HIV viral load (p = 0.02 for each), and low vitamin E was associated with lower CD4 counts (p = 0.004). Conclusions: Our finding of the significant decrease in vitamin A associated with AF-ALB suggests that aflatoxin exposure significantly compromises the micronutrient status of people who are already facing overwhelming health problems, including HIV infection. Background Sub-Saharan Africa accounts for approximately two- thirds of all persons infected by HIV, and approximately 70% of new cases of HIV infection worldwide [1]. Although the estimated adult H IV seroprevalence rate in Ghana in 2007 was 1.9% [2], the HIV sentinel surv ey indicates that the seroprevalence rate in the country var- ies by region from 0.8 to 8.4% [2]. Sub-Saharan Africa is disproportionately burdened by malnutrition and deficiencies of nutrients, such as vita- mins A, B, C, D and E, which have been implicated in HIV transmission and progression [3-5]. These and other studies have shown that deficiencies of vitamins A and E are positively associated with HIV transmission, disease progression and mortality [3-7]. Micronutrient malnutrition further impairs the immune system by sup- pressing immune function necessary for survival [8]. * Correspondence: jollyp@uab.edu 2 Department of Epidemiology, School of Virus Infections and Hosts Virus Infections and Hosts Bởi: OpenStaxCollege Viruses can be seen as obligate, intracellular parasites A virus must attach to a living cell, be taken inside, manufacture its proteins and copy its genome, and find a way to escape the cell so that the virus can infect other cells Viruses can infect only certain species of hosts and only certain cells within that host Cells that a virus may use to replicate are called permissive For most viruses, the molecular basis for this specificity is that a particular surface molecule known as the viral receptor must be found on the host cell surface for the virus to attach Also, metabolic and host cell immune response differences seen in different cell types based on differential gene expression are a likely factor in which cells a virus may target for replication The permissive cell must make the substances that the virus needs or the virus will not be able to replicate there Steps of Virus Infections A virus must use cell processes to replicate The viral replication cycle can produce dramatic biochemical and structural changes in the host cell, which may cause cell damage These changes, called cytopathic (causing cell damage) effects, can change cell functions or even destroy the cell Some infected cells, such as those infected by the common cold virus known as rhinovirus, die through lysis (bursting) or apoptosis (programmed cell death or “cell suicide”), releasing all progeny virions at once The symptoms of viral diseases result from the immune response to the virus, which attempts to control and eliminate the virus from the body, and from cell damage caused by the virus Many animal viruses, such as HIV (human immunodeficiency virus), leave the infected cells of the immune system by a process known as budding, where virions leave the cell individually During the budding process, the cell does not undergo lysis and is not immediately killed However, the damage to the cells that the virus infects may make it impossible for the cells to function normally, even though the cells remain alive for a period of time Most productive viral infections follow similar steps in the virus replication cycle: attachment, penetration, uncoating, replication, assembly, and release ([link]) Attachment A virus attaches to a specific receptor site on the host cell membrane through attachment proteins in the capsid or via glycoproteins embedded in the viral envelope The 1/12 Virus Infections and Hosts specificity of this interaction determines the host—and the cells within the host—that can be infected by a particular virus This can be illustrated by thinking of several keys and several locks, where each key will fit only one specific lock Link to Learning This video explains how influenza attacks the body Entry The nucleic acid of bacteriophages enters the host cell naked, leaving the capsid outside the cell Plant and animal viruses can enter through endocytosis, in which the cell membrane surrounds and engulfs the entire virus Some enveloped viruses enter the cell when the viral envelope fuses directly with the cell membrane Once inside the cell, the viral capsid is degraded, and the viral nucleic acid is released, which then becomes available for replication and transcription Replication and Assembly The replication mechanism depends on the viral genome DNA viruses usually use host cell proteins and enzymes to make additional DNA that is transcribed to messenger RNA (mRNA), which is then used to direct protein synthesis RNA viruses usually use the RNA core as a template for synthesis of viral genomic RNA and mRNA The viral mRNA directs the host cell to synthesize viral enzymes and capsid proteins, and assemble new virions Of course, there are exceptions to this pattern If a host cell does not provide the enzymes necessary for viral replication, viral genes supply the information to direct synthesis of the missing proteins Retroviruses, such as HIV, have an RNA genome that must be reverse transcribed into DNA, which then is incorporated into the host cell genome They are within group VI of the Baltimore classification scheme To convert RNA into DNA, retroviruses must contain genes that encode the virus-specific enzyme reverse transcriptase that transcribes an RNA template to DNA Reverse transcription never occurs in uninfected host cells—the needed enzyme reverse transcriptase is only derived from the expression of viral genes within the infected host cells The fact that HIV produces some of its own enzymes not found in the host has allowed researchers to develop drugs that inhibit these enzymes These drugs, including the reverse transcriptase inhibitor AZT, inhibit HIV replication by reducing the activity of the enzyme without affecting the host’s metabolism This approach has led to the 2/12 Virus Infections and Hosts development of a variety of drugs used to treat HIV and has been effective at reducing the number of infectious virions (copies of viral RNA) ...SHORT COMMU N I C A TION Open Access Simultaneous detection of Human Immunodeficiency Virus 1 and Hepatitis B virus infections using a dual-label time-resolved fluorometric assay Tiina Myyryläinen 1† , Sheikh M Talha 2† , Sathyamangalam Swaminathan 2 , Raija Vainionpää 3 , Tero Soukka 1 , Navin Khanna 2 , Kim Pettersson 1* Abstract A highly specific and novel dual-label time-resolved immunofluorometric assay was developed exploiting the unique emission wavelengths of the intrinsically fluorescent terbium (Tb 3+ ) and europium (Eu 3+ ) tracers for the simultaneous detection of human immunodeficiency virus 1 (HIV-1) and hepatitis B virus (HBV) infections, respec- tively. HIV-1 infection was detected using a double antigen sandwich format wherein anti-HIV-1 antibodies were captured using an in vivo biotinylated version of a chimeric HIV-1 antigen and revealed using the same antigen labeled with Tb 3+ chelate. Hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg), which served as the mark er of HBV infection, was detected in a double antibody sandwich using two monoclonal antibodies (mAbs), one chemically biotinylated to capture, and the other labeled with Eu 3+ nanoparticles, to reveal. The performance of the assay was evaluated using a collection (n = 60) of in-house and commercially available human sera panels. This evaluation showed the dual-label assay to possess high degrees of specificity and sensitivity, comparable to those of commercially avail- able, single analyte-specific kits for the detection of HBsAg antigen and anti-HIV antibodies. This work demonstrates the feasibility of developing a potentially time- and resource-saving multiplex assay for screening serum samples for multiple infections in a blood bank setting. Findings The World Health Organization recommends screening for infect ions by human immunodefic iency virus (HIV), hepatitis B virus (HBV), hepatitis C virus (HCV) and Treponema pallidum (syphilis) for the provision of a safe blood supply [1]. Currently these infections are detected using independent tests. In a step towards a multiplex assay for blood bank screening, we have explored the feasibility of developing an integrated dual- label assay designed to identify infections by HIV and HBV. We have exploited the inherent fluorescence of lanthanide chelates to develop a screening assay for the simultaneous detection of HIV and HBV infections based on time resolved fluorometry (TRF) of terbium (Tb 3+ )andeuropium(Eu 3+ ) labels. TRF technology using lanthanide chelates with high fluorescence inten- sity coupled to very low background signals, made possi- ble by the temporal separation of long-lived emission signals, has the potential for achieving very high levels of sensitivity [2-5]. Consequently, lanthanide chelate- based TRF assays are available commercially for the detection of hormones, tumor markers, celiac disease markers and for neonatal screening. A recombinant HIV-1 env (r-HIV-1env) antigen and two HBsAg speci- fic monoclonal antibodies (mAbs), 21B and 5 S, were created first (unpublished data). The principle of the dual-label TRF assay is depicted pictorially in Figure 1A. Serum analytes were captured efficiently using specific biotinylated binders immobilizedathighdensityon streptavidin (SA)-coated plates. We used an in vivo biotinylated version of the r-HIV-1 env protein (r-Bio- * Correspondence: kim.pettersson@utu.fi † Contributed equally 1 Department of Biotechnology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland Full list of author information is available at the end of the article Myyryläinen et al. Journal of Nanobiotechnology 2010, 8:27 http://www.jnanobiotechnology.com/content/8/1/27 © 2010 Myyryläinen et al; licensee BioM ed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://cre ativeco mmons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted us e, distribu tion, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. BioMed Central Page 1 of 9 (page number not for citation purposes) Harm Reduction Journal Open Access Research HIV and hepatitis C virus infections among hanka injection drug users in central Ukraine: a cross-sectional survey Kostyantyn V Dumchev 1 , Ruslan Soldyshev 2 , Han-Zhu Qian 3 , Olexandr O Zezyulin 1 , Susan D Chandler 4 , Pavel Slobodyanyuk 1 , Larisa Moroz 5 and Joseph E Schumacher* 4 Address: 1 Vinnitsya Regional Narcological Dispensary, Vinnitsya, Ukraine, 2 University Hospital, Columbia, Missouri, USA, 3 Department of Health Services Research, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA, 4 Division of Preventive Medicine, Department of Medicine, The University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA and 5 Vinnitsya National Medical University – Pirogov, Vinnitsya, Ukraine Email: Kostyantyn V Dumchev - k.dumchev@gmail.com; Ruslan Soldyshev - solrus@gmail.com; Han-Zhu Qian - han- zhu.qian@Vanderbilt.Edu; Olexandr O Zezyulin - zoos77@hotmail.com; Susan D Chandler - schandler@dopm.uab.edu; Pavel Slobodyanyuk - k.dumchev@gmail.com; Larisa Moroz - larisa652002@yahoo.com; Joseph E Schumacher* - jschum@uab.edu * Corresponding author Abstract Background: Ukraine has experienced an increase in injection drug use since the 1990s. An increase in HIV and hepatitis C virus infections has followed, but not measures of prevalence and risk factors. The purposes of this study are to estimate the prevalence of HIV, HCV, and co- infection among injection drug users (IDUs) in central Ukraine and to describe risk factors for HIV and HCV. Methods: A sample of 315 IDUs was recruited using snowball sampling for a structured risk interview and HIV/HCV testing (81.9% male, 42% single, average age 28.9 years [range = 18 to 55]). Results: HIV and HCV antibodies were detected in 14.0% and 73.0%, respectively, and 12.1% were seropositive for both infections. The most commonly used drug was hanka, home-made from poppy straw and often mixed with other substances including dimedrol, diazepines, and hypnotics. The average period of injecting was 8.5 years; 62.5% reported past-year sharing needles or injection equipment, and 8.0% shared with a known HIV-positive person. More than half (51.1%) reported multiple sexual partners, 12.9% buying or selling sex, and 10.5% exchanging sex and drugs in the past year. Those who shared with HIV positive partners were 3.4 times more likely to be HIV positive than those who did not. Those who front- or back-loaded were 4 times more likely to be HCV positive than those who did not. Conclusion: Harm reduction, addiction treatment and HIV prevention programs should address risk factors to stop further spread of both HIV and HCV among IDUs and to the general population in central Ukraine. Background Ukraine is the second largest country in Eastern Europe, with an estimated population of about 48 million. Politi- cal independence in Ukraine and surrounding Eastern European countries in the early 1990s has been associated with a rapid increase in the supply, use, and negative pub- Published: 23 August 2009 Harm Reduction Journal 2009, 6:23 doi:10.1186/1477-7517-6-23 Received: 22 May 2009 Accepted: 23 August 2009 This article is available from: http://www.harmreductionjournal.com/content/6/1/23 © 2009 Dumchev et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0 ), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Harm Reduction Journal 2009, 6:23 http://www.harmreductionjournal.com/content/6/1/23 Page 2 of 9 (page number not for citation purposes) lic health consequences of illicit drugs [1]. The number of persons officially registered at psychiatric/narcological facilities as drug-dependent patients increased from 51,484 in 1996 to 80,145 in 2008 [2]. The increased prev- alence of 1 FACULTY OF HEALTH SCIENCES DEPARTMENT OF CLINICAL MEDICINE Safe Blood Transfusion: Screening for Hepatitis B and Hepatitis C Virus Infections in Potential Blood Donors in Rural Southeast Asia LE VIET A dissertation for the degree of Philosophiae Doctor June 2013 2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The present work has been carried out in Quang Tri Preventive Medicine Centre, Vietnam in parallel with my PhD training in Norway during the period between 2009 and 2013. The Plasma Fraction Foundation in Norway and Tromsoe Mine Victim Resource Centre, University Hospital North Norway sponsored the study. First of all, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my main supervisor Hans Husum for introducing me to research - his constant support, his valuable feedbacks; and his encouragement to me all the way are highly appreciated. I am also grateful to my co-supervisors Anne Husebekk, Stig Larsen, and Eystein Skjerve. Anne, your elaborate critical discussions and comments are always well worth listening to and also your help on the thesis is highly appreciated. Stig Larsen, thank you very much for your convincing me to be a PhD student in Norway. My basic statistics gets better thanks to your interesting lecturing. Eystein Skjerve, I highly appreciate your design on Monte Carlo modelling for risk assessment as well as valuable discussion during my PhD study in Norway. I appreciate Tore J. Gutteberg for his convincing comments and feedbacks on the articles. I am grateful to Björn Björkvoll and Hedda Hoel who has been with me from the beginning of the project. Thanks for your kindness and hospitality during my stay in Norway. Thanks my colleagues at Laboratory Department in Quang Tri Preventive Medicine Centre, Vietnam, for their dedicated jobs in fieldwork as well as in laboratory. I would like to thank the authorities, health workers and the civil organizations in Trieu Trach and Cam Thuy for their commitment. I acknowledge cooperation and logistic support from Quang Tri Provincial People’s Committee, Dr Tran Kim Phung at Quang Tri Health Service, and Project RENEW Quang Tri, Vietnam. I am grateful for the professional cooperation with the research teams at Trauma Care Foundation Cambodia and the University Hospital North Norway. This work is also as a gift for my dedicated wife and two lovely sons for their encouragement and support during my study at home and in Norway as well. I truly appreciate the contributions from all of you to my present work. Without your supports and enthusiasm this work would not have been performed. This work brings us together. Life is good! Vietnam June 2013 Le Viet 3 ABBREVIATIONS ADV Adefovir ALT Alanine aminotransferase Anti-HBc Antibodies to Hepatitis B core antigen Anti-HBc IgG IgG antibody to hepatitis B core antigen Anti-HBc IgM IgM antibody to hepatitis B core antigen Anti-HBe Antibodies to Hepatitis B envelope antigen Anti-HBs Antibodies to Hepatitis B surface antigen Anti-HCV Antibodies to Hepatitis C BCP Basal Core Promoter cccDNA Covalently Closed Circular DNA CHC Chronic hepatitis C CMIA Chemiluminescent Microparticle Immunoassay EIA Enzyme Immunoassay ETV Entecavir FDA Food and Drug Administration HBcAg Hepatitis B Core Antigen HBeAg Hepatitis B Envelope antigen HBIG Hepatitis B Immunoglobulin HBsAg Hepatitis B surface antigen 4 HBV Hepatitis B virus HBV DNA Hepatitis B virus DNA HCC Hepato-cellular carcinoma HCV Hepatitis C virus HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus ICBS International Consortium for Blood Safety IFN-α Interferon-alpha IRES Internal Ribosome Entry Journal of Medical Virology 54:243–248 (1998) Prevalence of Hepatitis B, Hepatitis C, and GB Virus C/Hepatitis G Virus Infections in Liver Disease Patients and Inhabitants in Ho Chi Minh, Vietnam Shinichi Kakumu,1* Katsuhiko Sato,2 Takayuki Morishita,2 Trinh Kim Anh,3 Nguyen Huu Binh,3 Banh Vu Dien,3 Do Huu Chinh,4 Nguyen Huu Phuc,4 Nguyen Van Thinh,4 Le Tuyet Trinh,4 Naohiko Yamamoto,5 Haruhisa Nakao,6 and Shin Isomura5 First Department of Internal Medicine, Aichi Medical University, Aichi, Japan Aichi Prefectural Institute of Public Health, Nagoya, Japan Department of Infectious Disease, Cho Ray Hospital, Ho Chi Minh, Japan Center for Preventive Medicine of Lamdong Province, Dalat, Japan Department of Medical Zoology, Nagoya University School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan First Department of Internal Medicine, Nagoya City University Medical School, Nagoya, Japan The prevalence of hepatitis B virus (HBV), hepatitis C virus (HCV), and GB virus C or hepatitis G virus (GBV-C/HGV) infections was determined in 289 patients with liver disease in Ho Chi Minh City and 890 healthy inhabitants of its rural area, Dalat City, Vietnam, respectively Serum HCV RNA and GBV-C/HGV RNA were detected by reverse transcription–polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) HBsAg, HCV antibodies, and GBV-C/ HGV RNA were detected in 139 (47%), 69 (23%), and ten (3%) subjects, respectively, often accompanied by elevated serum levels of alanine aminotransferase HBsAg and HCV antibodies or HCV antibodies and GBV-C/HGV RNA were detectable simultaneously in 8% and 2% of the patients, respectively In the inhabitants, HBsAg, HCV antibodies, and GBV-C/HGV RNA were found in 51 (5.7%), nine (1.0%), and 11 (1.2%) subjects, respectively Thus, the prevalence of HBsAg, HCV antibodies, and GBV-C/HGV RNA was significantly higher in liver disease patients than those in the general population In the samples from 69 patients and nine inhabitants who were seropositive for HCV antibodies, HCV RNA was detectable in 42 (61%) and (44%), respectively In patients with liver disease, ten belonged to HCV genotype 1a, ten to HCV 1b, three to HCV 2a, four to HCV 2b, and two to HCV 3a by PCR with genotype-specific primers Nine patients had mixed genotypes, and the remaining four were not classified Of the GBV-C/HGV RNA-positive individuals, two patients and two inhabitants were positive for HBsAg, while none of the residents had HCV antibodies, although six HCV antibodies (60%) and four HCV RNA (40%) were found in patients When a phyloge© 1998 WILEY-LISS, INC netic tree of GBV-C/HGV was constructed based on the nucleotide sequences, the 21 isolates were classified into at least two genotypes; four isolates belonged to G2, and 17 to G3 The results indicate that in Ho Chi Minh HCV infection prevails with broad distribution of genotypes together with HBV infection among patients with liver disease This study suggests that GBV-C/ HGV infection occurs independently in the two different districts in association with HCV infection J Med Virol 54:243–248, 1998 © 1998 Wiley-Liss, Inc KEY WORDS: epidemiology; Southeast Asia; hepatitis INTRODUCTION Infection with hepatitis viruses is prevalent in many parts of Asia ... tutorial on viruses, identifying structures, modes of transmission, replication, and more Different Hosts and Their Viruses As you’ve learned, viruses are often very specific as to which hosts and which... initiate the lysogenic cycle 5/12 Virus Infections and Hosts Cell lysis only occurs in the lytic cycle Animal Viruses Animal viruses, unlike the viruses of plants and bacteria, not have to penetrate... common mosaic virus, and cucumber mosaic virus In plants used for landscaping, two of the most common viruses are peony ring spot and rose mosaic virus There are far too many plant viruses to discuss