Making a living, making a difference gender and work in early modern european society

  Making a Living, Making a Difference     Making a Living, Making a Difference Gender and Work in Early Modern European Society EDITED BY M ARIA ÅGREN   Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and certain other countries Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press 198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America © Oxford University Press 2017 All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, by license, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reproduction rights organization Inquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above You must not circulate this work in any other form and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Ågren, Maria, editor Title: Making a living, making a difference : gender and work in early modern European society / edited by Maria Ågren Description: New York, NY : Oxford University Press, [2017] | Includes bibliographical references and index Identifiers: LCCN 2016021507 (print) | LCCN 2016033627 (ebook) | ISBN 9780190240615 (hardcover : alk paper) | ISBN 9780190240622 (pbk : alk.paper) | ISBN 9780190240639 (Updf) | ISBN 9780190240646 (Epub) Subjects: LCSH: Labor—Europe—History | Sexual division of labor—Europe—History | Women—Employment—Europe—History | Europe—History—1492– | Europe—Social conditions Classification: LCC HD4851 M343 2017 (print) | LCC HD4851 (ebook) | DDC 331.5/60940903—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016021507 1 3 5 7 9 8 6 4 2 Paperback printed by WebCom, Inc., Canada Hardback printed by Bridgeport National Bindery, Inc., United States of America   CONTENTS Acknowledgments  Contributors  ix vii Introduction: Making a Living, Making a Difference  Maria Ågren The Diversity of Work  24 Jonas Lindström, Rosemarie Fiebranz, and Göran Rydén Working Together  57 Dag Lindström, Rosemarie Fiebranz, Jonas Lindström, Jan Mispel aere, and Göran Rydén Marriage and Work: Intertwined Sources of Agency and Authority  80 S o f i a L i n g , K a r i n H a s s a n J a n s s o n , M a r i e L e n n e r s a n d, Christopher Pihl , and Maria Ågren Less Than Ideal? Making a Living before and outside Marriage  Hanna Östholm and Cristina Pry tz Constitutive Tasks: Performances of Hierarchy and Identity  K a r i n H a s s a n J a n s s o n, R o s e m a r i e F i e b r a n z , a n d A n n -​C at r i n   Ö s t m a n The Dark Side of the Ubiquity of Work: Vulnerability and Destitution among the Elderly  159 Erik Lindberg, Benny Jacobsson, and Sofia Ling 127 103   vi C o n t e n t s Gender, Work, and the Fiscal-​Military State  178 M a r i e L e n n e r s a n d, J a n M i s p e l a e r e , C h r i s t o p h e r P i h l , and Maria Ågren Conclusion  204 Maria Ågren Appendix  221 Bibliography  231 Index  253   ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This book is the result of a large research project in the humanities: Gender and Work in Early Modern Sweden The project grappled with one of the eternal questions in history—​what ordinary people did and thought in the past—​and, thanks to modern technology and “big data,” this book offers new answers The book makes a contribution to the early modern history of work, but equally important, it proposes new methodology and models what we can with a large, complex dataset The project has been very generously funded by the Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation, and the Swedish Research Council has provided additional funding to make the Gender and Work database a reality As the leader of the project, I wish to express my sincere thanks not only to these providers of funding but also to project members, colleagues, and friends in Uppsala, Sweden, and around the world Deeply felt thanks go to Sheilagh Ogilvie, Margaret Hunt, and Martin Naylor, who have all given the project group invaluable support, inspiration, and well-​ earned criticism We would never have dared to embark upon this project had it not been for the model that Sheilagh’s work set for us, and her enthusiastic but always candid feedback helped us sharpen our arguments We would never have completed the book had it not been for Margaret, who started out as an external adviser and ended up as our colleague Margaret, thanks for your meticulous reading and sound advice And, Martin, this book would have been so much less readable if you had not been at our side, never sparing your own time to help us improve our English Equally warm thanks go to the people at the Demographic Database, Umeå University, who tailor-​made the GaW database for us Maria Larsson, Jimmy Ljungberg, Pär Vikström, Lars-​Göran Carlsson, Bo Persson and Sören Edvinsson were always eager to help us; we have shared both sorrow and (more often) joy since we first started to work together If all human collaboration were as smooth as ours, the world would be a better place The database has had an advisory vii   viii A c k n o w l e d gments group of its own: thanks go to John Rogers, Per-​Anders Edin, Bo Danielsson, Thorleif Pettersson, Sören Edvinsson, Linda Oja, Joakim Nivre, Anki Mattisson, Bengt Dahlqvist, and last but not least Ingrid Almqvist, who coined the term “verb-​oriented method.” With Eva Pettersson, Joakim Nivre, and Beáta Megyesi we have run an exciting side project with the purpose of finding a way of automatically identifying relevant verb phrases in early modern texts Over the years, the GaW project has benefited from the advice of Christina Florin, Jan Lindegren, Leif Runefelt, Karin Sennefelt, Johan Söderberg, Rolf Torstendahl, Kirsi Vainio-​Korhonen, and Eva Österberg Thank you for many good ideas and a very good time together In 2013, the advisory group was extended to include Amy L.  Erickson, Alexandra Shepard, Judith Bennett, and Margaret Hunt Thanks for helping us at a critical moment of our work We also wish to extend our thanks to the scholars who have visited us as guest researchers over the years: Amy Erickson, Kirsi Vainio-​Korhonen, Sheilagh Ogilvie, and Julie Hardwick Thank you for enriching our academic milieu The home of the project has been the History Department at Uppsala University We thank former vice chancellor Anders Hallberg, former vice rector Margaretha Fahlgren, and former dean Jan Lindegren for proposing the project to the Wallenberg Foundation We also thank former head of department Lars M. Andersson for his unstinting support and Elisabeth Brandberg for managing the money Elisabeth, you are a pearl! Linda Oja and Elisabeth Gräslund Berg were members of the project at an early stage, and even if they not stand as authors of this book, their contributions are integral parts of the message that we want the book to convey Jessica Karlsson assisted with transcription of documents The maps were made by Matilda Svahn, Josefine Andersson, Fanny Reuterskiưld, Jaqueline Ưsterberg, Jesper Runfors, and Ellen Andersson, students at Uppsala University We are lucky to have Susan Ferber as our editor Thank you, Susan, for believing in this book: not every editor would enthuse at the idea of a multiauthored monograph about a small country in northern Europe, based on new methodology Thank you also for being such a warm and generous person We are also lucky to have Maya Bringe and Susan Ecklund at our side; Maya coordinated the production process in a calm and good-​humored way and Susan copyedited the manuscript beautifully Thank you! Maria Ågren   CO N T R I B U TO R S Maria Ågren  is professor of history at Uppsala University Her work focuses on the intersection of economic, social, legal, and gender history She is the author of Domestic Secrets: Women and Property in Sweden, 1600–​1857 and The State as Master: Gender, State Formation and Commercialization in Urban Sweden, 1650–​ 1780 She is the leader of the Gender and Work research project and the GaW infrastructure project Rosemarie Fiebranz  is senior lecturer in history at Uppsala University Her work focuses on gender, property, and work in early modern and nineteenth-​ century society She has a strong interest in microhistory and historical methodology She is the author of Jord, linne eller träkol? Genusordning och hushållsstrategier:  Bjuråker 1750–​1850 (2002) She is coordinator of the GaW database Benny Jacobsson  holds a PhD in the history of science and ideas from Stockholm University He is the author of Den sjunde världsdelen: Västgötar och Västergötland 1646–​1771: En identitetshistoria His many interests include the history of education He is a research assistant within the Gender and Work projects Karin Hassan Jansson  is senior lecturer and docent in history at Uppsala University Her work focuses on gender, sexuality, service, and political debate in early modern society She is the author of Kvinnofrid: Synen på våldtäkt och konstruktionen av kön i Sverige 1600–​1800 (2002) She is the lead author of ­chapter 5 in this book Marie Lennersand  is docent in history and senior archivist at the Swedish National Archives Her work focuses on early modern state formation, as well as on social and legal history She is the author of Rättvisans och allmogens beskyddare: Den absoluta staten, kommissionerna och tjänstemännen, ca 1680–​ 1730 (1999) and, with Linda Oja, Livet går vidare: Älvdalen och Rättvik efter de ix   244 B i b l i o graphy McIntosh, Marjorie Keniston Working Women in English Society, 1300–​ 1620 Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005 Medick, Hans “The Proto-​industrial Family Economy:  The Structural Function of Household and Family during the Transition from Peasant Society to Industrial Capitalism.” Social History (1976): 291–​315 Medick, Hans “The Proto-​industrial Family Economy.” In Peter Kriedte, Hans Medick, and Jürgen Schlumbohm, Industrialization before Industrialization: Rural Industry and the Genesis of Capitalism, 38–​73 Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981 Meldrum, Tim Domestic Service and Gender, 1660–​1750: Life and Work in the London Household Harlow: Longman, 2000 Merians, Linda Evi, ed The Secret Malady:  Venereal Disease in Eighteenth-​Century Britain and France Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1996 Mispelaere, Jan Guldmynt eller äpple:  Straffrättsligt ansvar för barn och ungdomar i Sverige och Nederländerna 1590–​1800 Uppsala: Uppsala universitet, 2009 Mispelaere, Jan “Har vi råd med allt detta? 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(2006): 193–​209 Zanden, Jan Luiten van The Long Road to the Industrial Revolution: The European Economy in a Global Perspective Leiden: Brill, 2009     INDEX 181–╉182t, 207, 208 See also elderly, access to old-╉age care carrying See transport, work category Certeau, Michel de, 6, 12, 36 Charles XI, King, 179 Charles XII, King, 186, 192 childbirth, 139, 198, 199 See also midwives childcare, 66, 73, 92, 136–╉137, 161, 207 children of civil servants, 184–╉185 court treatment of, 165 as servants, 105, 105t, 109, 214 transport work and, 134 civil servants See also administration and justice, work category gender differences, 99 two-╉supporter model and, 73, 83, 183–╉187 Clark, Alice, 60, 74 closed household concept, 7, 59–╉61 Collegium Medicum, 198–╉199 constitutive tasks, hierarchy and identity, 127–╉158 constitutive working practices, 147–╉151 examination and inspection activities, 148–149, 149t intersections and practices, 128 intersections of caring practices, 135–╉140, 135t, 156n41, 156n59 managerial work, 140–╉146, 142–╉144t, 157n82, 157n84, 157nn77–╉78 transport work, 128–╉135, 129t, 133f, 139, 154 unmarried vs ever-╉married people, 142–╉143, 143t work creates sameness, 151–╉155 construction See crafts and construction, work category court/╉court-╉like records, 14–╉17 crafts and construction, work category, 11, 17, 30–╉32t, 50t, 69–╉70, 74, 98, 107t, 176n32, 178, 181–╉182t, 190 accounts, 14 administration and justice, work category, 18–╉19, 29, 30–╉32t, 50t, 72, 89–╉90t, 106–╉107t, 107, 108, 111, 122, 181–╉182t, 206–╉207, 210–╉211, 213 age structured work patterns, 211 Ågren, Maria, 73, 143 agriculture and forestry, work category, 30–╉32t, 33–╉34, 49, 50t, 89–╉90t, 95, 106–╉107, 106–107t, 181–╉182t, 206, 207–╉208, 212, 213 Amussen, Susan, 6–╉7 appendices, 221–╉230 General Description of the GaW Dataset and GaW Database, 221–╉223, 222t Grouping of Verb Phrases, 223–╉224 Searches Made in the GaW 1.0 Dataset for This Publication, Described in SQL, 225–╉228 Source Material Used in the GaW Dataset, 229–╉230 artisan households, 69 asking for help See managerial, work category assigning See managerial, work category authority See managerial, work category Battle of Landskrona, The (painting), 194f begging See elderly, access to old-╉age care Bennett, Judith, 209 Berch, Christer (case), 36–╉41 Berg, Malin (case), 147–╉148 big data See Gender and Work (GaW) dataset bruk (industrial community/╉landed estate), 38 See also ironworks Brunner, Otto, 59, 212 Cambridge Group, 59 care/╉caring, work category, 19, 30–╉32t, 50t, 66, 82, 86, 89–╉90t, 92–╉93, 106–╉107t, 135–╉140, 135t, 156n41, 156n59, 174–╉175, 175n6, 253   254 I n d e credit, work category, 30–​32t, 50t, 89–​90t, 95, 106–​107t, 181–​182, 181–​182t, 185–​186, 195, 210–​211 customs practices and officials, 183–​186, 193f, 202n13 Dahlberg, Erik (case), 25 das ganze Haus concept (Brunner), 59, 212 De Geer, Charles (case), 57 De Geer, Louis (case), 35, 37–​38, 39, 40 Denmark early modern legal authority of married women, De Vries, Jan, 5, 60 diaries, 14–​16 differential pay, 26 disabled people, 151–​152 diversity of work, 24–​56 gender differences in work activities, 29–​34, 30–​32t Leufsta ironworks estate (case), 36–​41, 57, 58f multiple employments at individual level, 41–​52 Öster Malma manor (case), 24–​29, 25f, 35 verbs, occupational labels, and multiple employments, 34–​36, 35t divorce, 92–​93, 114 doctors, 139 Drakenhielm, Wilhelm (case), 25, 27, 51 dräng See young unmarried people (piga/​dräng) driving See transport, work category Dübeck, Inger, Eibach, Joachim, 7, 59–​61, 212 elderly, access to old-​age care, 12, 159–​177, 175n6, 214 cash and liquid asset transfers for care, 168–​170 cohabitation in poverty, 165–​167 cottager retirement contracts, 168 forms of old-​age care, 164–​165 nuclear hardship hypothesis and old-​age care, 161–​162 peasant retirement contracts, 172 poor relief and begging, 162–​164 property as determinant of wealth/​health, 173–​175 smallholdings as security for old-​age care, 170–​172 England early modern legal authority of married women, 8, Mrs., use of term, 97 poor relief system, 160, 162, 163, 174, 175n17 requirement of unmarried soldiers, 189 Statute of Artificers (1563), 214 entitlement relations (Sen), 160 See also elderly, access to old-​age care x Erichsdotter, Elin (case), 115–​116, 120 Erickson, Amy L., 88, 143 Eriksdotter, Anna (case), 44, 47, 48 European Marriage Pattern (EMP), 109, 161 ever-​married women, 142–​143, 143t, 210–​211 See also marriage and work; single people and work examination and inspection activities, 148–​149, 149t executioners, 149–​150 Feif, Casten, 186 fetching See transport, work category Finland as earlier part of Sweden, 27 infant mortality rate, 199 fiscal-​military state See gender, work, and fiscal-​military state; military, work category food and accommodation, work category, 30–32t, 50–​51, 50t, 89–​90t, 106–​107t, 107, 112, 125n47, 181–​182t forestry See agriculture and forestry, work category France early modern legal authority of married women, hard work as spousal attribute, 87 freighting See transport, work category Gaunt, David, 168 GaW dataset See Gender and Work (GaW) dataset gender, work, and fiscal-​military state, 178–​203 civil servants, 179, 183–​187 large-​scale production units, 179, 193–​197 men with training/​women with skills, 195–​196 midwives, 180, 195, 197–​201 soldiers, 178, 187–​192 trade and commerce expansion, 180–​182, 181–​182t wives of civil servants as deputy husband, 183–​185 wives of soldiers, 188–​192 women’s work and, 179–​180 work during wartime, 191–​192 Gender and Work (GaW) dataset, 165, 168 See also verb-​oriented methodology; specific work categories overview, 2, 13–​19, 26, 58, 62, 75, 90, 94, 99, 104 distribution of verb activities, geographical and chronological, 14f ever-​married women’s work, 197 General Description of the GaW Dataset and GaW Database (Appendix), 221–​223, 222t   Index geographic sources, 15f occupational titles/​quasi-​occupational titles, 35–​36, 35t rural women’s work, 182, 182t Searches Made in the GaW 1.0 Dataset for This Publication, Described in SQL (Appendix), 225–​228 Source Material Used in the GaW Dataset (Appendix), 229–​230 urban vs rural work data, 17 urban women’s work, 181–​182, 181t, 201nn9–​10 work categories, 29 gender and work, introduction, 1–​23 See also specific work categories chapter overview, 19–​21 context of households, 6–​8 impact of change processes on working lives, 11–​12 impact of marriage, 8–​10 methodology, 13–​19 nature of women’s/​men’s work, 3–​6 role of social difference/​sameness, 10–​11 gender and work, summary conclusion, 204–220 See also specific work categories evaluation of verb-​oriented method, 205–​208 household as open house, 212–​213 lack of one-​gender work, 208–​210 marriage as privilege, 213–​215 two-​supporter model and early modern state, 216–​217 unmarried vs married persons in governing others, 210–​212 work as obligation, 213–​215 work as performance of difference/​sameness, 218–​219 Germany marriage requirement in craft guilds, 98 Gimo ironworks estate (case), 40, 71, 74 governing See managerial, work category guilds See crafts and construction, work category Gustav II Adolf, King, 179 Håkansdotter, Ingeborg (case), 1–​2, 5–​6, 7, 20–​21, 219 Hansdotter, Karin (case), 116, 121 Hardwick, Julie, health care See care/​caring, work category Helena, servant (case), 103, 104, 109, 120, 122 Hiärne, Christina Charlotta (case), 42–​43, 114 Hiärne, Erland (case), 41, 42–​43 hierarchical relationships See constitutive tasks, hierarchy and identity household as open house, 7–​8, 76, 212–​213 See also work organization household position, 139–​140, 143, 144t, 154, 211 Humphries, Jane, 255 hunger theft See theft and misappropriation hunting and fishing, work category, 17, 30–​32t, 50t, 89–​90t, 106–​107t, 108, 181–​182t hustru (wife), as functional title, 96–​97 illegal activities, 115–​116, 185, 207 See also theft and misappropriation industrial community/​landed estate See bruk (industrial community/​landed estate) inheritance practices, 9, 84, 109, 120, 167, 170–172 See also elderly, access to old-​age care intersectional approach See constitutive tasks, hierarchy and identity ironworks, 38, 39–​40, 74, 75, 176n32, 179, 193–197 See also Gimo ironworks estate (case); Leufsta ironworks estate (case) Jacobsen, Grethe, Jars, Gabriel, 40 Jonsson, Elias (case), 42, 44–​49, 46f, 50–​52, 50t, 62–​63, 65–​66 Kryger, Johan Fredric, 147, 148 large-​scale production units See ironworks; royal demesnes Laslett, Peter, 59, 60, 161–​162 Latour, Bruno, 205 legal traditions, in early modern states, 5–​6 Lemke, Johann Philip, 194f Leufsta Bruk from the Lower Millpond (painting), 58f, 65, 70 Leufsta ironworks estate (case), 36–​41, 57, 58f life-​cycle service, 108–​110, 114–​115 Life Guards (Livgardet), 86, 178, 188–​192 looking after See care/​caring, work category Luther, Martin, 7, 217 Magalotti, Lorenzo, 133f, 150f Mahmood, Saba, 215 male-​breadwinner model, 3, 81, 97, 216 Malthus, Thomas Robert, 159–​160, 162, 174 managerial, work category, 19, 30–​32t, 36, 50t, 52, 65, 89–​90t, 90, 95, 106–​107t, 107, 108, 122, 140–​146, 142–​144t, 157n82, 157n84, 157nn77–​78, 181–​182t, 194, 200, 208–212, 217 marital guardianship, 8, 9, 94–​95, 98, 211 marital status See Gender and Work (GaW) dataset; marriage and work; single people and work Markkola, Pirjo, 91 marriage and work, 80–​102 economic agency of, 8–​10 marital status of women in legal contexts, 94–​95, 94t   256 I n d e marriage and work (Cont.) remarriage, 97–​98 sources of agency/​authority, 91–​99 two-​supporter model, 80, 81–​88, 98–​99 unmarried vs ever-​married women, 85, 88–91, 89–​90t, 94–​95 married women, early modern legal authority of, 3–​5, 8–​9 Martin, Elias, 57, 58f, 65, 70 Medick, Hans, 60 methodology See also Gender and Work (GaW) dataset; verb-​oriented methodology overview, 13–​19, 14f comparison to time allocation studies, 13, 205 types of documents, 14–​15 microhistorical data See methodology middle class, emergence of female respectability and, 84–​85 midwives, 96, 180, 195, 197–​201 military, work category, 30–​32t, 35–​36, 35t, 45–​46, 50t, 62, 75, 85–​86, 89–​90t, 96, 106–107t, 188–​189, 208 See also gender, work, and fiscal-​military state military allotment system (indelningsverket), 85–​86, 188–​189 Mitterauer, Michael, 59, 60 mobility of single people See single people and work Mrs., use of term, 96–​97, 143 multiple employments concept, 34–​36, 35t, 41–52, 51t, 187, 209 networks and contacts, 110–​111, 118, 120–​121, 165, 167, 212, 213, 216 nobility, 26–​29, 84, 173–​174 Norway early modern legal authority of married women, life-​cycle service and mobility, 110 nuclear hardship hypothesis (Laslett), 161–​162 nursing See care/​caring, work category occupational titles/​quasi-​occupational titles, 26, 96, 101n70, 140, 195 See also specific work categories Ogilvie, Sheilagh, 4, 11, 209 Oja, Linda, 66, 73, 92, 136–​137 old-​age care, defined, 175n6 See also elderly, access to old-​age care ordering See managerial, work category Österberg, Eva, Öster Malma manor (case), 24–​29, 25f, 35 other specified, work category, 30–​32t, 31–32, 36, 50t, 89–​90t, 95, 106–​107t, 111, 181–​182t Oxenstierna, Axel, 179 patriarchy, 9, 154–​155, 211 peasant retirement contracts See elderly, access to old-​age care x peasants, work performed by, 35, 35t penal labor, 150–​151, 150f Persdotter, Helena (case), 184f petitions, 14 piga See young unmarried people (piga/​dräng) Pihl, Christopher, 73, 75, 143 poorhouses See elderly, access to old-​age care poor relief systems See England; Sweden Posse, Knut, 192 property cases, 17 prostitution, 121–​122 Protestant religion, 3, 217 provision for See care/​caring, work category Prussia married soldiers in, 188–​189 rape cases, 16–​17, 148, 153, 198, 207–​208 remarriage, 97–​98, 189 retirement contracts See elderly, access to old-​age care Ribbing, Konrad, 192 Rosenhane, Schering, 84, 85, 91, 98 royal demesnes artisans and, 73–​74, 75 gender differences in work activities, 75 married couple co-​working on, 83–​84, 95 state support of, 179 women’s work opportunities within, 193–​197 Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, 151 Rudbeck, Christina Charlotta (case), 41–​44, 48, 50–​51, 50t, 123 Sabean, David Warren, 59, 60 Sandén, Annika, 114 Sandvik, Hilde, Sarasúa, Carmen, Scott, Joan W., 60, 74–​75 seasonal labor migration, 8, 109–​110 See also summer farms (fäbodar) Sen, Amartya, 12, 160 servant work, 218 sexual crimes, 16–​17 Shepard, Alexandra, 211 Sieder, Reinhard, 60 Simonton, Deborah, 112 single people and work, 103–​126 See also marriage and work authority to supervise, 65 governing others by, 210–​212 intersections of age, position, and marital status, 105–​108, 105–​108t managerial work, 143, 143t mobility of single people, 103, 108–​111 rural vs urban settings, 111–​115, 113f   Index theft and misappropriation, 111, 115–​119, 117f, 126n74 unmarried vs ever-​married persons, 104, 106–​107, 106–​108t, 112–​113, 125n47, 142–​143, 143t, 210–​212 vulnerability and agency of, 119–​123 Slack, Paul, 174, 175n17 the social (Latour), 205 social difference/​sameness, 10–​11, 151–​155, 218–​219 social dimension of work, 204-​205 social status See constitutive tasks, hierarchy and identity Sogner, Sølvi, 110 soldiers See military, work category; military allotment system (indelningsverket) sole providers (ensörjare/​ensörjande), 80–​81, 82, 87–​89, 87f, 91 Sonenscher, Michael, 60 spousal responsibilities See marriage and work state formation See also gender, work, and fiscal-​military state; two-​supporter model small-​scale commercialization and, 12, 29 women’s work opportunities due to, 154, 193–197, 209–​210 summer farms (fäbodar), 44, 47–​48, 63, 65, 114–115, 125n59 support See care/​caring, work category Svensson, Erik (case), 24–​26 Sweden Begging Ordinance (1642), 162–​164 Church Act (1686), 163–​164, 198 customs practices, 183–​186, 193f, 202n13 decline of nobility, 26–​29 Great Northern War, 186, 187, 191–​192 great-​power status and borders of, 27, 179 literacy and education, 119, 195, 217 map (1668), 28f passports and travel permissions, 110 Poor Law (1847), 164 poor relief system, 67, 96, 137, 160–​164, 166, 167, 174, 176n32 primary courts, 16–​17 Settlement Act (1788), 164 taxation practices, 7, 39, 179, 193 two-​breadwinner model, 81 Swedish army See military allotment system (indelningsverket) Swedish Diet, 10 Tadmor, Naomi, 59 tailors in towns, work performed by, 35t, 36 taking care of See care/​caring, work category teaching, work category, 30–​32t, 50t, 89–​90t, 106–​107t, 119, 181–​182t teams and teamwork, 64–​65, 212 See also work organization 257 tending the sick See care/​caring, work category theft and misappropriation, work category, 30–​32t, 50, 50t, 106–​107t, 108, 111, 115–​119, 117f, 122, 125n60, 126n74, 181–​182t, 185, 187 Tilly, Louise A., 60, 74–​75 time allocation studies, 13, 205 trade, work category, 12, 17, 27–​28, 30–​31, 30–​ 32t, 36, 50t, 51, 60, 63, 69, 89–​90t, 95, 96, 106–​107t, 107, 108, 111–​112, 122, 134, 179, 180–​182, 181–​182t, 185, 187, 195, 197, 208–​213, 215 trade in real estate, work category, 17, 29, 30–​32t, 43, 50t, 72, 88–​89, 89–​90t, 106–​107t, 181–​ 182t, 210–​211, 212 transport, work category, 3, 12, 30–​32t, 34, 39–​40, 44, 50t, 51, 54n76, 71, 74, 88–​89, 89–​90t, 95, 106, 106–​107t, 108, 122, 128–135, 129t, 139–​140, 154, 181–​182t, 208, 212, 213 two-​breadwinner model, 3, 81, 216–​217 two-​supporter model See also state formation in households of civil servants, 73, 83, 187 marriage and work, 80, 81–​88, 98–​99 summary conclusion, 2–​3, 216–​217 women’s work and fiscal-​military state, 179–180, 200 unmarried men See marriage and work; single people and work unmarried women, 9, 210–​211 See also marriage and work; single people and work unpaid work, lack of documentation for, unspecified, work category, 30–​32t, 31–​32, 50t, 89–​90t, 95, 106–​107t, 107, 108, 111, 122, 181–​182t, 210–​211 Värmland, Malthus study of, 159–​160, 162, 174 verb-​oriented methodology, 2, 3, 11, 204 See also Gender and Work (GaW) dataset; gender and work, summary conclusion; specific work categories overview, 13–​19, 24, 26, 29–​30 childcare, terms used, 207 distribution of verb activities, geographical and chronological, 14f diversity of work and multiple employments, 50–​51, 51t evaluation of, 204–​208 flexible and pragmatic use of workforce, 29–34, 30–​32t Grouping of Verb Phrases (Appendix), 223–​224 help/​helper, use of terms, 24–​25, 42, 44, 67 local administration and cooperation, 72 occupational labels and multiple employments, 34–​36, 35t work of ever-​married woman, 88–​91, 89–​90t work of unmarried people, 108t, 119   258 I n d e Wall, Richard, 76 war finance See gender, work, and fiscal-​military state weaving, 45, 46f Whittle, Jane, 75 widows/​widowers legal capacity of, 211 patriarchal structures and, remarriage, 98, 189 as sole providers, 80, 82, 87–​89, 87f work organization, 57–​79 cooperation across household boundaries, 62–​68 x dependencies and hierarchies, 72–​74 gender and, 74–​77 household organization of work, 58–​61 households and large-​scale organizations, 70–​72 household size/​structure variation, 61–​62 variation and flexibility within households, 68–​70 Wrightson, Keith, 76 Wunder, Heide, 216 young unmarried people (piga/​dräng), 105–​106, 122 ...  Making a Living, Making a Difference     Making a Living, Making a Difference Gender and Work in Early Modern European Society EDITED BY M ARIA ÅGREN   Oxford University Press is a department... Within agriculture, for example, women and men alike worked in arable farming, as well as in animal husbandry In trade, men and women both took part in buying and selling land and real estate, as... both sameness and difference On the one hand, both men and women took part in almost all forms of work in early modern Scandinavian society, and this may have nurtured ideas about sameness, particularly