Dark Matter and Closure

Journal of Water and Environment Technology, Vol. 7, No. 1, 2009 - 9 - Removal of Nutrients, Organic Matter and Heavy Metals from Paddy Field Drainage by Charcoal Asa Miura*, Eisaku Shiratani*, Koji Hamada*, Tadayoshi Hitomi*, Ikuo Yoshinaga** and Tomijiro Kubota* *Laboratory of Water Environment Conservation, National Institute for Rural Engineering, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization (NARO) 2-1-6 Kan’nondai, Tsukuba City, Ibaraki 305-8609, Japan **Research Team for Subtropical Farming, National Agricultural Research Center for Kyushu Okinawa Region, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization (NARO) Koshi, Kumamoto 861-1192, Japan ABSTRACT This study examined the ability of charcoal to remove organic matter, nutrients and heavy metals from agricultural drainage. Water treatment equipment containing wood charcoal was installed in a test paddy field. Concentrations of total organic carbon (TOC), total nitrogen (TN), total phosphorus (TP) and heavy metals (Cr, Fe, Zn and Pb) in water samples taken before and after passing through the equipment were analyzed. The equipment was installed simply at the outlet in the test field and removed environmental load substances during a contact time of more than one hour. The reduction rates of TOC and TN ranged from 20 % to 40 %. The reduction rate of TP ranged from 20 % to 90 %. The reduction rates of metals (Cr, Fe, Pb) ranged from 23 % to 62 %. These results suggest that charcoal can be used in water treatment equipment to treat paddy field drainage water. Keywords: charcoal; contact time; paddy drainage, water treatment equipment INTRODUCTION There is concern over the deterioration of water quality due to environmental load substances discharged from agricultural areas. The drainage water from farmland contains dissolved organic matter (DOM) and nutrients. In particular, the agricultural discharge water partly includes recalcitrant organic matter derived from the leaves and stems of plants, which is known to increase chemical oxygen demand (COD) in lakes. The average biochemical oxygen demand concentration (BOD) of total river designated types in Japan in 2007 was 1.5 mg/L, and the average COD of total lakes 3.3 mg/L (Ministry of the Environment, 2008). The percentage achievement was 90.3% for rivers and 50.3% for lakes in 2007 (Ministry of the Environment, 2008). Shiratani et al. (2004) reported that the average nitrogen concentration was calculated at 5.5 mg/L in drainage water from upland fields with fertilizer based on literature data. The DOM tends to combine with heavy metals in the soil or water (Evans, 1989; Kaschl et al., 2002; Wada, 2003), forming complex substances that could contaminate water bodies. Therefore, to conserve the environment of watersheds, such runoff loads from farmland should be removed before they flow out and diffuse into drainage canals. In this study we focused on wood charcoal as an adsorbent to remove these Corresponding author: Email: miura_asa@yahoo.co.jp Received November 21, 2008, Accepted February 3, 2009. Journal of Water and Environment Technology, Vol. 7, No. 1, 2009 - 10 - environmental loads since it has recently been attracting attention as a water treatment material. Wood charcoal has a large specific surface area and contains a large number of pores, and so is able to absorb a large amount of substances. Several studies Dark Matter and Closure Dark Matter and Closure Bởi: OpenStaxCollege One of the most exciting problems in physics today is the fact that there is far more matter in the universe than we can see The motion of stars in galaxies and the motion of galaxies in clusters imply that there is about 10 times as much mass as in the luminous objects we can see The indirectly observed non-luminous matter is called dark matter Why is dark matter a problem? For one thing, we not know what it is It may well be 90% of all matter in the universe, yet there is a possibility that it is of a completely unknown form—a stunning discovery if verified Dark matter has implications for particle physics It may be possible that neutrinos actually have small masses or that there are completely unknown types of particles Dark matter also has implications for cosmology, since there may be enough dark matter to stop the expansion of the universe That is another problem related to dark matter—we not know how much there is We keep finding evidence for more matter in the universe, and we have an idea of how much it would take to eventually stop the expansion of the universe, but whether there is enough is still unknown Evidence The first clues that there is more matter than meets the eye came from the Swiss-born American astronomer Fritz Zwicky in the 1930s; some initial work was also done by the American astronomer Vera Rubin Zwicky measured the velocities of stars orbiting the galaxy, using the relativistic Doppler shift of their spectra (see [link](a)) He found that velocity varied with distance from the center of the galaxy, as graphed in [link](b) If the mass of the galaxy was concentrated in its center, as are its luminous stars, the velocities should decrease as the square root of the distance from the center Instead, the velocity curve is almost flat, implying that there is a tremendous amount of matter in the galactic halo Although not immediately recognized for its significance, such measurements have now been made for many galaxies, with similar results Further, studies of galactic clusters have also indicated that galaxies have a mass distribution greater than that obtained from their brightness (proportional to the number of stars), which also extends into large halos surrounding the luminous parts of galaxies Observations of other EM wavelengths, such as radio waves and X rays, have similarly confirmed the existence of dark matter Take, for example, X rays in the relatively dark space between galaxies, which indicates the presence of previously unobserved hot, ionized gas (see [link](c)) 1/8 Dark Matter and Closure Theoretical Yearnings for Closure Is the universe open or closed? That is, will the universe expand forever or will it stop, perhaps to contract? This, until recently, was a question of whether there is enough gravitation to stop the expansion of the universe In the past few years, it has become a question of the combination of gravitation and what is called the cosmological constant The cosmological constant was invented by Einstein to prohibit the expansion or contraction of the universe At the time he developed general relativity, Einstein considered that an illogical possibility The cosmological constant was discarded after Hubble discovered the expansion, but has been re-invoked in recent years Gravitational attraction between galaxies is slowing the expansion of the universe, but the amount of slowing down is not known directly In fact, the cosmological constant can counteract gravity’s effect As recent measurements indicate, the universe is expanding faster now than in the past—perhaps a “modern inflationary era” in which the dark energy is thought to be causing the expansion of the present-day universe to accelerate If the expansion rate were affected by gravity alone, we should be able to see that the expansion rate between distant galaxies was once greater than it is now However, measurements show it was less than now We can, however, calculate the amount of slowing based on the average density of matter we observe directly Here we have a definite answer—there is far less visible matter than needed to stop expansion The critical density ρc is defined to be the density needed to just halt universal expansion in a universe with no cosmological constant It is estimated to be about ρc ≈ 10 −26 kg/m3 However, this estimate of ρc is only good to about a factor of two, due to uncertainties in the expansion rate of the universe The critical density is equivalent to an average of only a few nucleons per cubic meter, remarkably small and indicative of how truly empty intergalactic space is Luminous matter seems to account for roughly 0.5% to 2% of the critical density, far less than that needed for closure Taking into account the amount of dark matter we detect indirectly and all other types of indirectly observed normal matter, there is only 10% to 40% of what is needed for closure If we are able to refine the ... 1 FACT SHEET The Cross-State Air Pollution Rule: Reducing the Interstate Transport of Fine Particulate Matter and Ozone ACTION On July 6, 2011, the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) finalized a rule that protects the health of millions of Americans by helping states reduce air pollution and meet Clean Air Act standards. This final rule replaces EPA’s 2005 Clean Air Interstate Rule (CAIR). A December 2008 court decision found flaws in CAIR, but kept CAIR requirements in place temporarily while directing EPA to issue a replacement rule. In order to replace CAIR as quickly as possible, addressing the problem of air pollution that is transported across state boundaries, EPA is adopting federal implementation plans, or FIPs, for each of the states covered by this rule. This final Cross-State Air Pollution Rule meets the Clean Air Act requirements and responds to the court’s concerns. The Cross-State Air Pollution Rule requires 27 states in the eastern half of the United States to significantly improve air quality by reducing power plant emissions that cross state lines and contribute to ground-level ozone and fine particle pollution in other states. This action builds on more than fifteen years of progress in implementing Clean Air Act reductions of sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ) and nitrogen oxides (NO X ). At the same time, the Agency also issued a supplemental proposal that would require six states — Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, Missouri, Oklahoma, and Wisconsin — to make summertime NO X reductions under the Cross-State Air Pollution Rule ozone-season control program. Five of those states are already covered in the final rule for interstate fine particle pollution (PM 2.5 ). Finalizing this supplemental proposal would bring the total number of covered states under the Cross-State Air Pollution Rule to 28. The $800 million spent annually on this rule in 2014, along with the roughly $1.6 billion per year in capital investments already under way as a result of CAIR, are improving air quality for over 240 million Americans and will result in $120 to $280 billion in annual benefits, including the value of avoiding 13,000 to 34,000 premature deaths each year. These estimates include the costs and benefits of the supplemental proposal. Moreover, states where investments in control technology are required also receive large benefits. This final rule requires significant reductions in SO 2 and NO X emissions from power plants in the eastern half of the United States. These pollutants react in the atmosphere to form PM 2.5 and ground-level ozone and are transported long distances, making it difficult for a number of states to meet the national clean air standards that Congress directed EPA to establish to protect public health. Emission reductions under the Cross-State Air Pollution Rule will begin to take effect quickly. The first phase of compliance begins January 1, 2012 for SO 2 and 2 annual NO X reductions and May 1, 2012 for ozone season NO X reductions. The second phase of SO 2 reductions begins January 1, 2014. By 2014, the Cross- State Air Pollution Rule and other final state and EPA actions will reduce power plant SO 2 emissions by 73 percent from 2005 levels. Power plant NO X emissions 9.1 The New Physics 9.2 Albert Einstein 9.3 The Relativity Principle 9.4 Constancy of the Speed of Light 9.5 Simultaneous Events 9.6 Relativity of Time 9.7 Time Dilation 9.8 Relativity of Length 9.9 Relativity of Mass 9.10 Mass and Energy 9.11 Confirming Relativity 9.12 Breaking with the Past 9.1 THE NEW PHYSICS Following Newton’s triumph, work expanded not only in mechanics but also in the other branches of physics, in particular, in electricity and mag- netism. This work culminated in the late nineteenth century in a new and successful theory of electricity and magnetism based upon the idea of elec- tric and magnetic fields. The Scottish scientist James Clerk Maxwell, who formulated the new electromagnetic field theory, showed that what we ob- serve as light can be understood as an electromagnetic wave. Newton’s physics and Maxwell’s theory account, to this day, for almost everything we observe in the everyday physical world around us. The motions of planets, cars, and projectiles, light and radio waves, colors, electric and magnetic 405 Einstein and Relativity Theory CHAPTER 9 9 effects, and currents all fit within the physics of Newton, Maxwell, and their contemporaries. In addition, their work made possible the many wonders of the new electric age that have spread throughout much of the world since the late nineteenth century. No wonder that by 1900 some distin- guished physicists believed that physics was nearly complete, needing only a few minor adjustments. No wonder they were so astonished when, just 5 years later, an unknown Swiss patent clerk, who had graduated from the Swiss Polytechnic Institute in Zurich in 1900, presented five major research papers that touched off a major transformation in physics that is still in progress. Two of these papers provided the long-sought definitive evidence for the existence of atoms and molecules; another initiated the develop- ment of the quantum theory of light; and the fourth and fifth papers in- troduced the theory of relativity. The young man’s name was Albert Ein- stein, and this chapter introduces his theory of relativity and some of its many consequences. Although relativity theory represented a break with the past, it was a gentle break. As Einstein himself put it: We have here no revolutionary act but the natural continuation of a line that can be traced through centuries. The abandonment of certain notions connected with space, time, and motion hitherto treated as fundamentals must not be regarded as arbitrary, but only as conditioned by the observed facts.* The “classical physics” of Newton and Maxwell is still intact today for events in the everyday world on the human scale—which is what we would expect, since physics was derived from and designed for the everyday world. However, when we get away from the everyday world, we need to use rel- ativity theory (for speeds close to the speed of light and for extremely high densities of matter, such as those found in neutron stars and black holes) or quantum theory (for events on the scale of atoms), or the combination of both sets of conditions (e.g., for high-speed events on the atomic scale). What makes these new theories so astounding, and initially difficult to grasp, is that our most familiar ideas and assumptions about such basic con- cepts as space, time, mass, and causality must be revised in unfamiliar, yet still understandable, ways. But such changes are part of the excitement of science—and it is even more exciting when we realize that much remains to be understood at the frontier of physics. A new world view is slowly emerging to replace the mechanical world view, but when it is fully revealed 406 9. EINSTEIN AND RELATIVITY THEORY * Ideas and Opinions, p. 246. 9.1 THE NEW PHYSICS 407 FIGURE 9.1 Albert Einstein (1879–1955). (a) in 1905; MATTER AND MOTION MATTER AND MOTION PART ONE This page intentionally left blank 1 Living Ideas 2 Our Place in Time and Space 3 First Things First 4 Aristotle’s Universe 1. LIVING IDEAS The purpose of this course is to explore the development and content of the major ideas that have led to our understanding of the physical universe. As in any science course you will learn about many of the important con- cepts, theories, and laws that make up the content of the science, physics in this case. But this course goes beyond that; it presents science as experi- ence, as an integrated and exciting intellectual adventure, as the product of humankind’s continual drive to know and to understand our world and our relationship to it. Not only will you learn about the many ideas and concepts that make up our understanding of the physical world today but, equally important, these ideas will come alive as we look back at how they arose, who the peo- ple were who arrived at these ideas in their struggle to understand nature, and how this struggle continues today. Our story has two sides to it: the ideas of physics and the people and atmosphere of the times in which these ideas emerged. As you watch the rise and fall of physical theories, you will gain an appreciation of the nature of science, where our current theories came from, the reasons why we accept them today, and the impact of these theories and ideas on the culture in which they arose. Finally, you will see how physics came to be thought of as it is today: as an organized body of experimentally tested ideas about the physical world. Infor- mation about this world is accumulating ever more rapidly as we reach out into space, into the interior of matter, and into the subatomic domain. The 3 Prologue to Part One great achievement of physics has been to find a fairly small number of ba- sic principles which help us to organize and to make sense of key parts of this flood of information. 2. OUR PLACE IN TIME AND SPACE Since the aim of this course is to understand the physical world in which we live, and the processes that led to that understanding, it will help to be- gin with some perspective on where we are in the vast ocean of time and space that is our Universe. In fact, the Universe is so vast that we need a new yardstick, the light year, to measure the distances involved. Light in empty space moves at the fastest speed possible, about 186,000 miles every second (about 300,000 kilometers every second). A light year is not a mea- sure of time but of distance. A light year is defined as the distance light travels in one year, which is about five trillion miles. The tables that fol- low provide an overview of our place on this planet in both space and time. Current Estimates of Our Place in Time and Space Time Years since start Age of the Universe about 15 billion years Age of our Sun and Earth 5 billion Beginning of life on Earth 3.5 billion Extinction of dinosaurs ( Jurassic Age) 65 million First humanoids 5 million First modern humans 100,000 Rise of civilization 30,000 End of the last Ice Age 12,000 Height of Hellenic Greece 2500 Rise of modern science 400 Distance (from the center of the Earth) Edge of the Universe about 15 billion light years Nearest spiral galaxy (Andromeda) 2.2 million light years Radius of our galaxy (Milky Way) 100,000 light years Nearest star (Alpha Centauri) 4.3 light years, or 25 trillion miles Distance to the Sun 93 million miles (150 million kilometers) Distance to the Moon 239,000 miles (384,000 kilometers) Radius of the Earth 3963 miles (6,370 kilometers) (about 1.5 times the distance between New York and Los Angeles) You may be amazed to see from these tables that, within this vast ocean of the Universe measuring billions of light years across, a frail species evolved 4 PROLOGUE TO PART ONE on a ball of This document is a prepublication version, signed by EPA Administrator Lisa P. Jackson on July 6, 2011. We have taken steps to ensure the accuracy of this version, but it is not the official version. Page 1 of 1323 6560-50-P ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY 40 CFR Parts 51, 52, 72, 78, and 97 [EPA-HQ-OAR-2009-0491; FRL-____] RIN 2060-AP50 Federal Implementation Plans to Reduce Interstate Transport of Fine Particulate Matter and Ozone in 27 States; Correction of SIP Approvals for 22 States AGENCY: Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). ACTION: Final rule. SUMMARY: In this action, EPA is limiting the interstate transport of emissions of nitrogen oxides (NO X ) and sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ) that contribute to harmful levels of fine particle matter (PM 2.5 ) and ozone in downwind states. EPA is identifying emissions within 27 states in the eastern United States that significantly affect the ability of downwind states to attain and maintain compliance with the 1997 and 2006 fine particulate matter national ambient air quality standards (NAAQS) and the 1997 ozone NAAQS. Also, EPA is limiting these emissions through Federal Implementation Plans (FIPs) that regulate electric generating units (EGUs) in the 27 states (Alabama, Arkansas, The EPA Administrator, Lisa P. Jackson, signed the following final rule on July 6, 2011, and EPA is submitting it for publication in the Federal Register (FR). While we have taken steps to ensure the accuracy of this Internet version of the rule, it is not the official version of the rule for purposes of compliance. Please refer to the official version in a forthcoming FR publication, which will appear on the Government Printing Office's FDSys website ( http://fdsys.gpo.gov/fdsys/search/home.action) and on Regulations.gov ( http://www.regulations.gov) {in Docket No. HQ-OAR-2009-0491}. Once the official version of this document is published in the FR, this version will be removed from the Internet and replaced with a link to the official version. This document is a prepublication version, signed by EPA Administrator Lisa P. Jackson on July 6, 2011. We have taken steps to ensure the accuracy of this version, but it is not the official version. Page 2 of 1323 Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Nebraska, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, West Virginia, and Wisconsin). This action will substantially reduce adverse air quality impacts in downwind states from emissions transported across state lines. In conjunction with other federal and state actions, it will help assure that all but a handful of areas in the eastern part of the country achieve compliance with the current ozone and PM 2.5 NAAQS by the deadlines established in the Clean Air Act (CAA or Act). The FIPs may not fully eliminate the prohibited emissions from certain states with respect to the 1997 ozone NAAQS for two remaining downwind areas and EPA is committed to identifying any additional required upwind emission reductions and taking any necessary action in a future rulemaking. In this action, EPA is also modifying its prior approvals of certain State ... existence 6/8 Dark Matter and Closure Section Summary • Dark matter is non-luminous matter detected in and around galaxies and galactic clusters • It may be 10 times the mass of the luminous matter. .. interact and coalesce into spirals, and so on, like normal matter (see [link]) 5/8 Dark Matter and Closure The Hubble Space Telescope is producing exciting data with its corrected optics and with... hole candidates, and collisions of comets with Jupiter (credit: NASA (crew of STS-125)) Dark matter may shepherd normal matter gravitationally in space, as this stream moves the leaves Dark matter