Designing tito capital urban planing modernism and socialism in bellgrade

, DESIGNING TITO S CAPITAL CULTURE, POLITICS, AND THE BUILT ENVIRONM ENT Dianne Harris, Editor brig itte le norm and Urban Pl anning, Modernism, and Socialism UNIVERSIT Y OF PITTSBURGH PRESS Published by the University of Pittsburgh Press, Pittsburgh, Pa., 15260 Copyright © 2014, University of Pittsburgh Press All rights reserved Manufactured in the United States of America Printed on acid-free paper 10 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Le Normand, Brigitte Designing Tito’s Capital: Urban Planning, Modernism, and Socialism / Brigitte Le Normand pages cm — (Culture, Politics, and the Built Environment) Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-0-8229-6299-1 (paperback) City planning—Serbia—Belgrade Socialism— Serbia—Belgrade Socialism—Yugloslvia I Title HT169.S462B455 2014 307.1’216094971—dc23 2014008208 To my mother, L ayl a Le Nor mand, with love, in recognition of her accomplishments, her cour age through adversit y, and her tremendous generosit y of spirit New houses, roads, parks will be here And the life of man improved for one thousand years When we meet we shall not see the river, nor remember the marshes and coppices; our meetings will be novel from greeting to sunset, changed to the core by a socialist revolution But the foundations of this are ancient, very ancient Since times unknown, this triangle defined by two rivers and opened to infinity on the third side, the white town, invisible and always present Belgrade, inseparable from the town on the hill From now on, this will be the heart that vigorously pumps life far to the North and deep into the South, the center of the brotherly union of Yugoslav peoples Milorad Panić-Surep, quoted in Milvoje Kovačević et al., eds., Novi Beograd: New Town Contents Acknowledgments Introduction ix xi Modernist Functionalist Planning in Global Context A Blueprint for Modernity 25 The Lost Decade and the Dawn of a New Era 73 New Belgrade, Capital of Yugoslav Modernity 103 Planning Undone: “Wild” Construction and the Market Reforms 147 Modernism under Fire: The Changing Attitudes of Social Scientists and Urban Designers in 1960s Yugoslavia 189 Modernity Redefined: The 1972 Master Plan 213 Conclusion 243 Notes Bibliogr aphy Index 249 273 287 vii Acknowledgments This book has been many years in the making and owes a great deal to many people I wish to extend my deep gratitude first and foremost to all the urban planners who agreed to share their personal experiences with me: Aleksandra Banović, Milica Jakšić, Branislav Jovin, Ljubomir Lukić, Vladimir Macura, Vesna Matičević, Vera Paunović, Ružica Petrović, Ljubdrag Šimić, and Borislav Stojkov I am indebted to the Institut za noviju istoriju, in Belgrade, for hosting and assisting me during my stay I also wish to thank Marta Vukotić-Lazar, Antonije Antić, Miodrag Ferenček, Dragan Arbutin, Andrija Dodić, and other kind souls at the Urbanistički zavod Beograda for going beyond the call of duty I owe much thanks to Branko Bojović, Ksenija Petovar, Sreten Vujović, Ljubodrag Dimić, and Predrag Marković for their very valuable advice Darko Ćirić of the Muzej grada Beograda deserves a very special thank you for his assistance I extend my thanks also to Dubravka Pavlović and her colleagues at Juginus and to the helpful staff at the Istorijski arhiv grada Beograda, the Arhiv Jugoslavije, the Narodna biblioteka Srbije, the Narodna in univerzitetna knjižica in Slovenia, the Republički zavod za statistiku in Serbia, the Institut za arhitekturu i urbanizam Srbije, and the Canadian Centre for Architecture Finally, I would like to express my gratitude to Goran Antonić, Dušan Bajagić, Miloš Ković, Lana Marković, Slobodan Selinić, Igor Tchoukarine, and other friends who enriched the year I lived in Belgrade both personally and professionally ix BIBLIOGR APHY NAi Publishers, 2004 Wakeman, Rosemary Modernizing the Provincial City: Toulouse, 1945–1975 Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1997 Waley, Paul “From Modernist to Market Urbanism: the Transformation of New Belgrade.” Planning Perspectives 26, no (2011): 209–35 Wiebenson, Dora “Utopian Aspects of Tony Garnier’s Cite Industrielle.” Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 19, no (1960): 16–24 Willmott, Peter, and Michael Young Family and Kinship in East London London: Routledge and K Paul, 1957 Woodward, Susan L Socialist Unemployment: The Political Economy of Yugoslavia, 1945–1990 Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995 Wynn, Martin, ed Housing in Europe London: Croom Helm, 1984 ———, ed Planning and Urban Growth in Southern Europe, Studies in History, Planning, and the Environment London and New York: Mansell, 1984 “Zaključci prvog jugoslovenskog savjetovanja o stambenoj izgradnji i stanovanju u gradovima.” Urbanizam i arhitektura, nos 11–12 (1950): 4–13 “Zaključci prvog savjetovanja arhitekata FNRJ o pitanjima urbanizma i arhitekture, održanog u Dubrovniku od 23 Do 25 Novembra 1950.” Urbanizam i arhitektura, nos 11–12 (1950): 4–13 “Zaključci prvog savjetovanja studenata Arhitekture FNRJ.” Urbanizam i arhitektura nos 1–2 (1950): 58–60 Zarecor, Kimberly Elman Manufacturing a Socialist Modernity: Housing in Czechoslovakia, 1945–1960 Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2011 286 Index Note: Page numbers in italics refer to figures administration, 56, 137; Belgrade as seat of federal, 57; New Belgrade originally seen as center of, 63, 104, 106, 108; self-management concept and, 74, 104 See also government agriculture, 85; collectivization of, 25–26, 28; effects of droughts on, 75, 85; zones for, 56 air See hygiene ambiance (ambijent): efforts to create, 122, 210–11; importance of, 204, 205, 207, 209 American-Yugoslav Project in Regional and Urban Planning Studies, 219–22 Antonović, Savka, 44 apartment buildings, 99, 122, 128, 149; amenities needed around, 87–88; cost-effectiveness of, 172–73; criticisms of, 131, 132, 197; designs for, 125, 129; inappropriate uses of space in, 78; influences on heights of, 87–88, 106; preference for individual homes vs., 148, 170, 228; seen as best housing form for Belgrade, 58–61, 79, 186; self-management of, 89; services planned for ground floor of, 67, 129; squatting in public spaces of, 81–82 See also barracks; housing, collective; settlements apartments, 139, 166; call for minimal and maximum space for, 79, 87; competitions for designs of, 77–78, 92; costs of, 175, 183; cotenancy in, 152–54; criticisms of, 82–83; ideals in “A Dwelling for Our Conditions” exhibit, 89–94; increasing construction of, 261n44; luxury, 139–42, 141; in seven-year plan, 167; sizes of, 82–83, 122, 140, 143, 173, 258n25; space use in, 77–78, 92–94 See also housing architects, 14, 76, 250n2; aware of international trends, 86–87; losing faith in Athens Charter, 202–4; roles of, xvi, 18, 76, 88–89, 102, 105, 120; socialist realism and, 75; in urban planning, xii, 29, 37–38, 102, 105, 192, 203, 212; urged to focus on needs of population, 79, 88; values of, 20–21, 250n2 The Architects (Kahane film), 100 architectural heritage, Belgrade’s, 208–10, 212, 236–37 architecture, 4, 13; constructivist, 77; influences on Yugoslavia’s, 22; for socialism, 75–76; Soviet, 13–17, 76–77; urban planning’s relation to, 37, 101, 192, 214; Yugoslavia redefining itself through, 47 Arnstein, Sherry, 215 artificial lake, in New Belgrade, 106–7, 114 Association of Engineers and Technicians, 46 Ataturk, 11–12 287 INDEX Athens Charter, xvii, 4; abandonment of, 171, 181, 242; assumptions in approach, 10, 38, 70, 98, 164; best implemented under socialism, 54–55; on city pathologies, xv–xvi; declining support for, 11, 149, 188, 203–4, 212; development of, xv, 19–20; difficulties in implementation of, 70, 185–86; influence of, xv, 14, 53–54, 210; master plan as effort to implement, 63–65, 71; mission of, 146, 207, 212; modernist settlements in peripheral districts and, 143–45; monumental planning inspired by, 205, 210; planners’ continued commitment to, 85, 207, 242; reasons for adoption of, 8–10, 102, 146, 243–44; varying uses of, 7–8; weaknesses of model, 5, 189, 200, 213 automobiles: Brasilia designed for, 13; increasing ownership of, 217, 235; New Belgrade designed for, 128; noise from, 224; pedestrian traffic separated from, 203; results of increased use of, 226; traffic congestion in city center, 217 avant-garde, 20, 58, 77 Babin, Slobodan, 172 Bacon, Edmund, 206 Badiou, Raymond, 10 Bagojević, Ratomir, 114 banking sector, 104, 167–69 Banovo Brdo development, 211 Barber, Brian, 229 baroque designs, in urban planning, 16 barracks, 44, 83, 162, 171 Batajnica, as secondary center in master plan, 235 Bazan, Eugene, 229 Bežanija, 118, 120, 211 Belgrade: architectural innovation in, 20, 24; area of, 61, 231; as capital, 28, 32, 52–53, 110; conditions of first socialist plan for, 28–29; goals for, 25, 26; hinterlands and, 52, 231; history of, 26; maps of, 27, 33, 225; New Belgrade’s relation to, 32, 109, 112, 115–16, 132, 218; problems of, 48, 208–10, 212, 214; proposal to build alternative awaiting ideal, 45; proposal to build secondary centers of, 218, 222; reconstruction of, 29–30, 35, 73, 143 See also peripheral districts Belgrade center, 42; continued expansion of, 223–24; periphery vs., 26, 173; planning centers taking pressure off, 232, 234–35; problems of, 173, 218; reconstruction of, 143, 288 241–42; working groups’ opposing proposals for, 226–27 Belgrade Town Planning Institute, 35, 45, 162, 164; credibility of, 215, 219, 246–47; criticisms of, 100, 238; Dobrović’s resignation from, 36–37; Ðorđević as head of, 114–15; focus on “living with one’s means,” 187, 245; influence of, 127, 174; investors vs., 99–100; land use— transportation study for, 221–30; on locations of industry, 42–44; luxury apartments and, 139–42; 1950 master plan by, 46–47, 231, 246; 1972 master plan by, 213, 217, 219, 221–22, 228, 230–31, 235–40; New Belgrade as premier project of, 106, 127–28; obstacles to plans of, 40–42; plans for New Belgrade, 116–19; rejecting Belgrade as metropolis, 52–53; single-family homes and, 167, 173, 227–28; Somborski as head of, 36; token public consultation in planning by, 215–16; turf wars with other parties, 165–66; Urbanism Commission overseeing, 39–40; values of, 43, 228; weaknesses of, 168, 222 See also urban planning Belobrk, Momčilo, 20 Bendali, Linda, Berlin, 144–45, 263n89 Beyer, Elke, 222 Bjeličić, Sreten, 98, 100 Bjelikov, Vladimir, 99–101, 128, 192, 218, 241 Blagojević, Ljiljana, xii, 20, 32, 37, 114 block 3, of New Belgrade, 118 block 4, of New Belgrade, 118 block 21, of New Belgrade, 115, 118 block 22, of New Belgrade: competition for design of, 125–26; development into local community, 120–26; plans for, 123, 124 block 23, of New Belgrade, 126; designs for, 125–26, 126; development into local community, 120–26; site plans for, 123, 125 block 30, of New Belgrade, luxury apartments designed for, 139–43 blocks and 2, of New Belgrade, 115; community center for, 134, 135; as failure, 128–31; plans for, 118, 131 Böck, Erwin, 63 Bogdanović, Bogdan, 21, 141, 204–5 Bogojević, Rata, 45 Bozdogan, Sibel, 11, 12 Braće Jerković, 211 Brasilia, 6, 13 Brašovan, Dragiša, 20 INDEX Britain, 38 building-block system, in land use—transportation study, 223 building materials See construction materials Bulgaria, 169 Bureau for Communal and Housing Construction (Odeljenje za komunalne-stambene poslove), 129 businesses, 122, 214; in market socialism, 96, 104; in plans for New Belgrade, 67, 116–17, 137 See also services and amenities Camelot, Robert, 201 Čanak, Mihailo, 210–11 Candelis-Josić-Woods, 201 capitalism, 67, 96, 263n1; blamed for urban problems, 47–49, 154, 217, 218; influence on urban planning, 48–49, 51, 87; unable to implement Athens Charter, 54–55 Castillo, Greg, 21–22, 90 Central Committee of Communist Party building, 36, 130, 144 central planning, economic, 25, 28, 35, 40, 104, 247 Chalandon, Albin, 242 Chandigarh, Punjab, 12–13 Chicago School, 191 child care, through residential communities, 97–98 Chombart de Lauwe, Paul-Henry, 190–91 CIAM See International Congress for Modern Architecture (CIAM) cities, 199, 214; growth of, 195, 198, 229; heart of, 200–201, 206; problems of, 202, 218 “cities of the future,” UN conference on, 196–97 city planning See urban planning city plans See master plans class, social: housing finance help for lower, 168–69; housing for middle, 90–92, 168; inequality of housing among, 28, 48 class privilege, 142, 195–96 Cody, Jeffrey W., 220 Cohen, Jean-Louis, 250n34 Čojbašić, Vukajlo, 169–70 Cold War: competition over living conditions in, 21, 90; Nonaligned Movement in, 21, 23, 162; Yugoslavia in between East and West in, 21, 47 collectivization: of agriculture, 25–26, 28; of spaces, 77, 122 colonialism, influence on Brasilia design, 13 Cominform (Communist Information Bureau), 39 Committee on Housing and Communal Questions, 180 Communist Party, Yugoslav, 74, 85, 105; architects joining, 20–21; beliefs about planning, 37–38; consolidating power, 29, 73 communities, nested, 99 community, sense of: factors leading to lack of, 197; importance of planning to facilitate, 205–6; planners’ efforts to improve, 14, 193, 210–11; recognition of need for, 227, 242 community centers, 202; for blocks and 2, 134, 135; failure to develop, 132–34, 137–38, 246 competitions: for apartment designs, 77–78, 92; for design of New Belgrade blocks, 115, 117, 125–26, 136–37; for New Belgrade designs, 33–35, 125, 128 computer modeling, in urban planning, 215–16, 219–21, 228; effectiveness of, 228–29; in land use—transportation study, 223 Conceptual Plan for New Belgrade (Dobrović), 36 constitution, Yugoslav (1953), self-management in, 74, 75 construction: costs of, 89, 138–39, 168, 181; effects of squatters on, 161; experimentation in, 115, 129, 133; housing for workers in, 81, 83–84, 86, 171; industrialization of, 38, 128, 186, 202; inefficiencies in, 149, 181–82; introduction of competition in, 138–39, 168, 186, 196; limited technical expertise of, 12, 106; luxury apartments and, 139–42; marketing buildings to consumers, 139–40, 140; 1960s boom in, 127; not keeping up with demand, 148, 164, 181; poor quality of, 131; rate of, 169, 261n44; rationalization of, 87, 164; regulation of, 26, 119; rogue builders co-opted into, 164–65, 167; Soviet, 18, 169; at standstill, 75, 79–80; techniques in, 18, 79; technology in, 79, 127 See also housing, self-building; rogue construction construction, illegal, 84 construction materials, 7, 79, 89, 175, 180 constructivist architecture, 77 consumer goods, 105, 150; in changing economic priorities, 85, 145–46; postponed, 35, 73 consumerism, 8–9, 137, 146; influence on urban planning, 116–17, 146, 224, 246; social inequality from, 195–96; state promoting, 85, 180; in US propaganda, 21–22 289 INDEX consumers, 101, 105; construction companies marketing buildings to, 139–40, 140; driving economy, 138–39, 181, 246; empowered to start businesses, 96; self-management of, 74 Cooke, Catherine, 13 Cooley, Charles H., 193 corruption, efforts to reduce, xvi–xvii Čosić, Dobrica, 199–200 Costa, Lucio, 13 cotenancy, 152–53 Coudroy de Lille, Lydia, 18 Council of Town Planning Associations of Yugoslavia (Savez društava urbanista Jugoslavije), 192 Coventry, crime, 152–54, 157 Crowley, David, 18 culture: accepting vs trying to change workers’, 77–78; effects of self-built homes on, 165, 1149; fear of peasants’, 149, 187; models of modern living and, 92–94; New Belgrade’s lack of amenities for, 134, 137; planners’ role in civilizing citizens, 88, 96, 157–58, 179, 207, 245; shopping in, 136 Cvijić, Milan, 83–84 cybernetics, 214–15, 222, 247 Czechoslovakia, 17, 19, 24 Danube River: consideration of developing land north of, 112, 232, 240; industry located near, 43, 232; pollution of, 224 decentralization: in planners’ effort to reduce traffic congestion and overcrowding, 216, 222, 234–35; planners’ fears of sprawl and, 218; in working groups’ proposals for master plan, 227–29 See also suburbanization Delouvier, Paul, 214 demonstrations: large space planned for, 67, 116; student protests, 195 Dinỗkal, Noyan, 11 Directorate for the Construction of New Belgrade (Direkcija za izgradnje Novog Beograda, DINB), 119 Direkcija za izgradnje Novog Beograda See Directorate for the Construction of New Belgrade Djordjević, Aleksandar, 202 Dobrović, Nikola, 71, 110, 208; background of, 20–21, 30; desire for symbolic spaces, 32, 107–9, 247; influences on, 20, 37; plan for Kalemegdan Park, 31, 32; plan for left bank of Sava River, 34; plan for New Belgrade, 33, 290 36, 108–9; plan for reconstruction of Terazije terraces, 32, 34; in planning for New Belgrade, 28, 108–9; roles of, xi, 30–33, 36–37, 192 Ðokić, Aleksandar, 210–11 Ðorđević, Aleksandar, 99–100, 132, 141, 174–75, 218, 247; as head of Belgrade Town Planning Institute, 114–15; influence of, 127; on lack of community centers, 133–34; on rogue construction, 162–65; on single-family homes, 165–67, 172–73, 185; on urban planning, 110–11, 173 Dragojević, Anđeljko, 141–42 Društvo arhitekata Srbije See Society of Architects of Serbia Društvo urbanista Srbije See Society of Urban Planners of Serbia Dubovy, Jan, 63 Dunavgrad settlement, 240 Ðurović, Ðuro, 157, 172, 176, 239 “A Dwelling for Our Conditions” exhibit, 89–90, 111, 115; catalog for, 90–92, 91–92; furnishings in, 93–95, 97; ideals for apartments in, 89–94 Dyckman, John W., 220 Eastern Bloc See Soviet Bloc Eastern Europe, 17, 21, 35 economy, 85; Athens Charter assuming availability of resources, 38–39; austerity period in, 74–79; central planning of, 40, 50; changing priorities for, 104; consumers driving, 138–39, 181; cost-effectiveness versus speed, 170–71; effects of material scarcity on urban planning, 44–45, 70; effects of prosperity vs austerity on housing, 17–18; effects of Tito-Stalin split on, 28, 39, 73–75; in first five-year plan, 35, 73, 84; incomes in, 152, 175, 195; influences on, 9, 75; limited resources for modernization, 103, 111, 185–86; nosedive, 142–43; planning for, 38, 104; prosperity, 10, 74, 171, 216–17; reforms of, xiii, 168, 186, 195–96; scarcity of resources, 29, 73, 245–46; seven-year plan for, 167, 171; state control of, 8, 25; urban planners’ promoting living with one’s means, 187, 245; wealth disparities in, 195–96 See also market socialism; modernization, economic Eisenhuttenstadt (GDR), 16 employers: housing loans from, 86, 139, 167–68, 183; providing housing, 149–50; unable to provide housing, 178–79, 185–86 Engel, Antonin, 30 INDEX Engels, Friedrich, xvi, 48 environment, 224, 226–27, 232 Enyedi, Gyorgy, 18 Europe, 220; capitals of, 144; rogue construction across, 155–56, 160 Executive Council of the Municipal Council (Narodni odbor skupštine grada Beograda), 46 families, 78, 82–83 See also housing, singlefamily Federal Executive Council building, 116, 130, 144; construction of, 80, 105 Federal Institute for Communal and Housing Questions (Savezni zavod za komunalne i stambene pitanje, SZKSP), 178–82, 193–97 Federal Institute for Urbanism and Communal and Housing Questions (Savezni zavod za urbanizam i komunalne i stambene pitanje), 228 Federal Institute for Urbanism and Communal Questions, 98–101 Federal Republic of Germany (FRG), 190–91 fifth district, of New Belgrade, 120 Finci, Jahiel, 85–88 First Congress of Yugoslav Architects, 76, 78–79, 86 First Yugoslav Congress on Housing Construction and Habitation, 89 Fisher, Jack C., 219–20, 221 five-year plan, Yugoslavia’s first, 25, 75, 84; construction in, 36, 38; as transition from reconstruction to building socialism, 35, 73 five-year plan, Yugoslavia’s second, 85 floodplain: construction of New Belgrade on, 62, 80, 106–7; land north of Danube River as, 232 Ford, Henry, 8–9 Fordism, in French economic modernization, formalism, of Soviet architecture, 76 Fourcaut, Annie, 17 fourth district, of New Belgrade, 119–20, 136–37 France, 17, 190; economic modernization in, 9–10; rogue construction in, 155–56 functionalism, 62, 74 See also modernist functionalist cities functional zones, 118; Athens Charter overly simplifying, 200; in 1972 master plan, 234; in plans for New Belgrade, 65, 70, 107–9, 114 functions, of cities, xvi; interrelations in systems method of urban planning, 214; in planning for New Belgrade, 106, 116 Funds for Housing Construction, 86 furnishings, in “A Dwelling for Our Conditions” exhibit, 93–95, 97 Gans, Herbert, 189 Geddes, Patrick, 52 gender roles: efforts to free women from housework, 96–97; in exhibit catalog, 92; regime trying to increase women in workforce, 92, 96 General Urban Plan (1924), 63 German Democratic Republic (GDR), 17; Berlin as capital of, 144–45; urban planning in, 15–16, 18, 24, 222 Giedion, Siegfried, 201 Glavički, Milutin, 119, 121–22 Gornji Zemun, 143 Gournay, Isabelle, 220 government, 133, 150; self-management concept in, 74–75, 85; self-management’s effects on, 104 See also administration government, Belgrade municipal, 30, 154; on master plans, 46–47, 148; weakness of, 26, 48 See also Municipal Council government buildings, 16, 57, 116; goals for, 12–13; in plans for New Belgrade, 32, 36, 67 Grabrijan, Dušan, 208 Grands Ensembles (Paris), 5–6, 9, 190, 201, 242 Greater Belgrade, land to the north of the Danube in, 112 green belts, to separate industry from housing, xvi, 43 green-field sites, 99–100, 143 green spaces, 250n36; apartment buildings to ensure access to, 59, 61; Belgrade lacking, 112; buildings arranged in, 32, 60, 80; investors wanting elimination of, 100; in plans for New Belgrade, 32, 36, 70, 118, 121–22, 128; zones in master plan, 56 See also hygiene Gropius, Walter, 80, 201 Group of Architects of the Modern Movement, 20 growth, 28; alternative spatial patterns for, 226; anxiety about continued, 75, 218, 223, 228–29; effects of rapid, 73, 134, 216, 225–26; in master plans, 56–57, 217; rate of, 43–44, 127, 149 Guichard, Olivier, 5–6 Guillén, Mauro F., xvi, Hamlton, Shane, 96 Harloe, Michael, Harris, Chauncy D., 193, 218 291 INDEX health, xvi, 137, 197, 224 high modernism, 3–4 Hipšman, Bohumil, 30 Hirt, Sonia, 228 Holston, James, 6, 13 homelessness, 150–51, 158, 264n8 home ownership See ownership, home hotels, in New Belgrade, 105, 137 housing: allocation policies for, 82–84, 168, 195, 197; avant-garde promoting minimal, 77; Belgrade’s ordinances on, 87; as central challenge for urban planning, 78–79; construction locations before master plan, 44; density in Chandigarh, 12–13; in early Belgrade, 26–28; employers providing, 149–50; as focus for New Belgrade, 67; focus on, 73, 85, 110; in functions of cities, xvi; goals for, 57–58, 77–78, 89–90; government buildings’ relation to, 116; ideals for homes, 89–90; industry’s relation to, xvi; infrastructure and industrialization prioritized above, 35, 38–39; investors wanting to build only, 100; limited to low-rise prefabricated construction, 44–45; locations for, 55, 56, 57–58; as major concern in master plan, 56; military providing for members, 82, 125; as new focus for New Belgrade, 106–10; opposition to self-building in, 148–49, 169, 175; in plan for New Belgrade, 107–9, 114; planners’ concern about workers, 43; preference/choice in, 10, 105, 139, 146, 170, 177–79, 181, 193, 228, 232, 246; second homes outside Belgrade, 225; self-building, 164, 169, 170–71, 175, 177, 186; in seven-year plan, 167; state’s role in, 8, 17, 78, 85–86, 104, 168, 186; subletting, 153; substandard, 151–52, 173–76; symbolism of, 115; “temporary,” 162, 171; types of, 211, 216, 228–29, 269n60; uniqueness of Yugoslavia’s, 23; working group’s proposals for master plan, 227; WWII destruction of, 29 See also apartment buildings; apartments; rogue construction housing, collective (or mass): chosen as best form for Belgrade, 58–61, 79, 212, 227, 242; high-rise as preferred form of, 44–45; planners’ commitment to, 105, 186; popularity of settlements, 19; preference for individual homes over, 170 housing, financing of, 89, 145–46, 210; banking sector’s increasing role in, 104, 167–68; employers in, 86, 139; increased migration as result of, 168–69; not supplying services or community centers, 87–88, 134; from person- 292 al savings, 148, 168, 170, 172–73, 213, 227–28; residential communities and, 99–100; for self-built homes, 175; for single-family homes, 185; urban planners’ opposition to, 187 housing, mass production of, 17, 23 See also prefabrication housing, production of, 79, 86, 104 See also construction housing, single-family, 149, 185; apartment buildings vs., 58, 60–61; costs of, 172, 176, 183–84; decreasing enthusiasm for, 176; demand for, 148, 227–28; growing support for, 10–11, 170–71, 181; planners accommodating desire for, 143, 165, 167, 169, 211; popularity of, 177, 194, 213; in seven-year plan, 167–68; treatment of old, 60; urban planners’ opposition to, 169, 187 housing collectives, 17, 149, 165–67 housing costs, 9, 184, 227; for apartments, 175, 197; competition supposed to reduce, 104–5, 138–39, 168; increasing, 196; influences on, 149–50, 181; rogue construction and, 163–64; for self-built homes, 170, 175; for singlefamily homes, 172, 176, 183–84 housing councils, of apartment buildings, 81 housing density, 87; in city center, 15, 232; goals for, 45–46, 53; infrastructure and, 164–65; in master plans, 61, 232; in plans for New Belgrade, 108, 114, 121; plans for not carried out, 118; working groups’ opposing proposals for, 226–27 housing shortage: alternatives to, 165–66; cotenancy as response to, 152–54; effects of, 11, 81–82, 132, 151–52, 173; extent of, 85–86, 176; ineffective responses to, 129, 132, 176; persistence of, 147, 149–50, 245; post-WWII, 29–30; proposed solutions to, 10, 23, 44, 84, 243; responses to, 148, 170–71, 173 (See also rogue construction); self-building as response to, 169, 186; states addressing, 17–18, 85; subletting as response to, 151–52, 153; urbanization causing, 9; worsened by inmigration, 149, 176; worsened by population growth, 44, 75 Howard, Ebenezer, 43 Hoyt, Homer, 193, 218 Hungary, 20, 169, 195 hygiene (air, light, green space for): substandard housing lacking light and air, 173–74; urban planners’ commitment to, 59, 61, 79 INDEX Ignjatović, Bogdan, 46 Ilić, Ljubomir, 80 Ilz, Erwin, 63 “in-betweeness,” Yugoslavia’s, xiii India, 12–13 industrialization, 25, 28; goals for, 4, 29, 40; prioritized in first five-year plan, 35, 38–39, 73 industry, 44; Belgrade not planned as center of, 52–53; development of, 41, 75; efforts to improve, 8–9, 85, 138; locations for, 42–43, 56, 232; in plan for New Belgrade, 70, 114; relation to housing, xvi, 43; in urban planning, 16, 41–43, 56; zones for: in master plan, 56 infrastructure, 87, 175; lack of, 28, 48–49; prioritization of, 29, 38–39, 41, 73; problems with, 29, 149, 246; reconstruction of, 30, 73; relation to population density, 164–65; rogue construction and, 157, 162, 164, 170; types of housing and costs of, 59, 164, 172, 269n60 International Congress for Modern Architecture (CIAM), xiv–xv, 14, 22, 28, 58; dissolution of, 5, 190, 201; on heart of cities, 200–201 investors, 161; influence on plans, 99–100, 125, 146; maximizing number of apartments, 132–33 Jacobs, Jane, 5–6, 191, 206 Jakšić, Milica, 127 Janev, Dušanka, 218 Jankes, Iva-Maja, 179, 181 Janković, Milica, 203–7 Jankowski, Stanislaw, 254n29 Jencks, Charles, Jeržabek, Vinko, 193, 196 Jernejec, Mitija, 98 Jobst, Wolf, 5, 191 Jovanović, Stevan, 44–45, 154, 170 Julino Brdo settlement, 144 Kadić, Muhamed, 21 Kaganovich, L M., 49 Kalemegdan fortress, 208 Kalemegdan Park, 31, 32, 70 Kanarevo Brdo settlement, 144, 210, 269n59 Karaburma settlement, 143 Khrushchev, Nikita, 17; directive to learn from West, 217–18; endorsing modernism, 13, 21–22 Kidrič, Boris, 35 Klemek, Christopher, 8, 214–15 Kneževac-Kijevo settlement, 210–11 Kojić, Branislav, 20 Kolundija, Petar, 170 Komsomolsk (Soviet Union), 16 Konjarnik settlement, 143, 210, 269n59 Kostić, Cvetko, 191 Košutnjak Park, 70 Kovaljeski, Ðorde, 63 Kralj, Niko, 93, 95 Krstić, Branko, 20 Krstić, Petar, 20 Kulić, Vladimir, xii, 19, 21–22, 47, 201, 208; on architecture for socialism, 75–76 kvartal, 15, 17, 98, 256n81 Kwak, Nancy, 220 Lajovic, Janez, 92–93 land, 52; for construction, 114, 148, 151, 156, 159, 161, 166, 182; cost of, 59, 173; for housing, 167–68, 175, 177, 183, 185, 229; nationalization of, 181–83; speculation in, xv, 25, 160 land use: efficiency of, 9, 59, 87; in New Belgrade, 67, 106–7, 119; planning for, xix, 32, 38, 42, 51–52, 54, 56 land use—transportation study, 213, 220–30 Lazarević, Djordje, 109 Lebow, Katherine Ann, 16 Le Corbusier, xv, 14, 201, 250n34; influence of, xii, 12, 19–20, 22, 36, 54, 106, 208; on modernist functionalism, xii, 74; promoting vertical building, 59, 87; Radiant City of, 63, 64, 107; values of, 67, 69 Lefebvre, Henri, 190 Le Havre, France, leisure See recreation Leucht, Kurt W., 16 Levitt, Bill, 220 light See hygiene living conditions/standard of living, 80; effects of lack of services and amenities, 134, 136; efforts to improve, 73–74; home ownership and, 170, 172, 194; inequalities in, 195; planning focused on improving, 56–57, 85, 88, 104, 120, 146, 216; rising, 173; substandard, 82–84, 158; superpowers competing over, 90 Ljubljana, 19–20 Ljubljana Demonstration Study, 221 local communities, 143; expected effects of, 133, 158, 193; failure to develop spaces for, 137–38; in New Belgrade planning, 119, 120–26 See also residential communities London, 214 Lowry, Ira, 221 293 INDEX machine age, xv–xvi Macura, Milorad, 33, 36, 76–79 Magnitogorsk, USSR, 62 maintenance, 11, 83 Maksimović, Branko, 33, 41–42 Mandić, Stanko, 43, 57–60; plan for New Belgrade by, 105–7, 107 Manoljević, Ranko, 183–85 market socialism, 146, 186, 246; impact of, 104, 138; urban planners’ adjustment to, 244 Marković, Momčilo (Moma), 109, 170–71 Marković, Predrag, xii–xiii Martinović, Uroš, 241; luxury apartments designed by, 139–43; plan for central New Belgrade by, 116, 120 master plan (1924), 48–49 master plan (1950), 36; area covered by, 52, 53, 165; efforts to enforce, 118, 148; explanatory book for, 47–48, 70; flexibility built into, 47–48, 51, 55; goals of, 45–46, 51–53, 56, 71; implementation of, 117–18, 217; influence of Athens Charter on, xv, 53–54, 71; lack of information for development of, 40–42; limitations of, 47, 61–62; map of, 54; modernization of transportation in, 55–56; New Belgrade in, 62–70; population densities in, 61, 231; rejection of, 106, 231, 246; revisions to, 105–6; separation of functional zones in, 53, 55, 56; unveiling of, xi, 46–47; values of, 50–51, 103, 208, 231, 245; vs 1972’s, 215–16, 231, 242 master plan (1972), 225, 234; approval process for, 235–42; Belgrade Town Planning Institute familiarizing public with, 235–41; cover of, 237; goals of, 216, 242; land use—transportation study for, 222–30; limited public input to, 235–36, 239–41; planning centers as guiding principle of, 234–35; process for, 219, 223–30, 235; transportation map in, 239; trend management in, 231; use of computer modeling in, xi–xii, 216; vs 1950’s, 215–16, 231, 242; working groups for different sectors of, 223–27 master plans, call for new, 213, 217 Maxim, Juliana, 18 May, Ernst, 14, 80 Mayer, Albert, 12 Mendelsohn, Andrija, 211 microraion, similarity of residential communities to, 98 migration, into Belgrade, 19, 150; desire to block, 75, 165; Europe dealing with, 155–56; 294 housing and, 26–28, 168–69, 179; planners’ anxiety about, 148, 165, 187, 195; quality of, 176, 178; rogue construction and, 154, 160 Mihailović, Daroslava and Pavle, 82 military: housing for members of, 82, 125; Soviet threat and, 74–75; state legitimacy challenged by veterans’ homelessness, 158 Miliutin, Nikolai, 16, 48–49 Minić, Miloš, 109 Minić, Oliver, 54–55, 202 Misa, Thomas, Mišević, Radovan, 98–101 Mišković, Jovan, 121 Mitić, Vera, 211 Mitscherlich, Alexander, 5, 190–91 modernism, 201; decline of, 6, 244; factors in adoption of, 11–13, 38, 126–27, 171; goals of, 6–7; influence on design of New Belgrade, 37, 114; prewar, 76; rise of, 4, 21; Soviets and, xvii, 13–16, 21–22; in Yugoslavia, 19–20, 126–27, 209 modernist functionalism, xiv, 103; appeal of, 70, 74; declining influence of, xii–xiii, 149, 246, 249n8; New Belgrade as successful interpretation of, 244; as product of high modernism, 3–4; support for, 78–79, 87, 250n2 modernist functionalist settlements, 42; continuing in spite of critiques, 210; as cost-effective solution to housing shortage, 243; critiques of, 5–6, 189–200; differences vs similarities among, 6–7; effects on inhabitants, 6, 96; limited resources for, 171, 185–86; New Belgrade planned to be, 28, 244; perceptions of, 5–6, 10–11, 189; in peripheral districts, 143–45; varying uses of, 7–8 See also settlements modernity, Yugoslavia’s, 126–27, 209 modernization, 165, 203, 246; Athens Charter as manifesto for, xv, 9; consequences of, 152, 180–81, 210–11, 244–45; economic, 9–10, 104, 146; in European vs non-Western countries, 11–13; limited resources for, 103, 111, 185–86; struggles among players in, 9–10; tools for, 96, 104, 146; of transportation, 53, 55–56; Yugoslavia’s, xii, 25, 35, 85, 97 Mrduljaš, Maroje, xii Mumford, Eric, 14–15, 52, 201 Municipal Council, 106, 118, 141; on master plans, 46, 217, 237, 242; rogue construction and, 162–67, 174–75, 177 Mušič, Vladimir Braco, 92, 94, 203 INDEX Najman, Josif, 43 Narodni odbor skupštine grada Beograda See Executive Council of the Municipal Council Nastasović, Miodrag, 170 nation building, modernism in, 12–13 nature, mastery over, 16, 62 Nehru, 12 Neidhardt, Juraj, 19, 208–10 neighborhoods, 6; Belgrade’s old, 209; elite, 142, 196; goals for, 18, 190, 201; obstacles to development of, 133–36, 190, 213–14; of selfbuilt homes, 170–71, 175; social scientists studying relations in, 192–93, 196–97; in urban planning, 16, 58, 98 See also residential communities neighborhood unit, 85, 98, 256n81 Nemanjina Street, importance of, 116 Neorić, Milijan, 167 Nestorović, Bogdan, 20 Netherlands, 18 Neumann, Zlatko, 33 New Belgrade: as Belgrade Town Planning Institute’s premier project, 127–28; central blocks of, 115, 117, 137–38, 140–43 (see also blocks 22 and 23, in New Belgrade); competition for designs for, 33–35, 115; construction of, 79–80, 105, 115, 119, 127; development of, 119–20, 140–43; development of local communities in, 120–26; Dobrović’s plan for, 32–33, 36, 107–9; functional zones of, 114; goals for, 106, 120–26; housing as focus of, 106–10, 171; housing for construction workers on, 83–84; isolation of, 81, 109; lack of services and amenities in, 81, 108, 132–37; land use in, 119; Mandić’s plan for, 105–7, 107; maps of, 33; in 1950 master plan, 62–70; model of, 68; modernist settlements in peripheral districts compared to, 143–44; panorama of, 130; perspective of, 68; Petričić’s plan for, 106–12; planning process for, 118, 127–28; plans for, 28, 113, 114; popularity of, 6, 128; preliminary sketch for, 65; principles for planning of, 111–14; Radiant City compared to, 36, 63–65, 66, 69, 107; regulation plans for, 117–18, 120–21; relation to Belgrade, 32, 109, 115–16, 132, 218; residents’ dissatisfactions with, 132, 138; rogue construction in, 162, 175; role/status of, 108, 110, 114, 144, 171, 196; as showplace for Yugoslav modernity, 126–27, 145–46; site plans of, 121; squatter settlements in, 80–81; subdivisions in development of, 118, 121; symbolism of, 62–63, 104, 107–9, 171, 244 New Towns Act (England), 12–13 Niemeyer, Oscar, 13 Niggemeyer, Elisabeth, 191 Nikezić, Marko, 47, 51–52, 59 Nonaligned Movement, 21, 23, 162 Novaković, Borko, 165, 179–80 Nowa Huta (Poland), 16 Obrenovac, 56, 235 Odeljenje za komunalne-stambene poslove See Bureau for Communal and Housing Construction Ognjanović, Svetozar, 168, 170 Osijek, rogue construction in, 155 Ostrogović, Kazimir, 21 ownership, home, 89, 220; credit mechanisms for purchasing, 105; desire for, 148, 194; financing for, 105, 168; state promoting, 10–11, 139, 168 Pančevo, rapid-transit line to, 56 Pantović, Milorad, 19, 54 Paris, 214 parks, 69–70, 107–8, 250n36 Partisan regime, xi, 25, 28–30 Partisans, in WWII, 21, 30 Patterson, Patrick Hyder, 21–22, 90, 180 Paunović, Vera, 128 peasants: fear of invasion by, 149, 165, 187; integration of, 19, 25, 192; migration into cities, 19, 148, 165; rogue construction and, 160, 177–78, 182; self-building by, 149, 176 Perco, Rudolph, 63 peripheral districts, 165; construction in, 44, 173; growth in, 49, 149; lacking infrastructure and utilities, 48–49; old city center vs., 26, 241–42; rogue construction in, 148, 154, 159, 162, 175; self-building relegated to, 164, 169; settlements built in, 143–45, 217, 241–42; singlefamily homes planned for, 168, 185, 229 Perišić, Dušan, 84 Perović, Miloš, 20 Perry, Clarence, 14, 98 Pešić, Branko, 141, 150, 176; on alternatives to housing shortages, 165–66; on rogue construction, 154, 157 Petričić, Branko: blocks and in New Belgrade designed by, 129; plan for New Belgrade by, 109–12 295 INDEX phase plans, master plan to be broken into, 51 Pibernik, Anton, 92 Plan Courant of 1953 (France), playgrounds, 99–100, 122 Poland, 17, 150–51 Politburo, review of 1949 master plan, 46 politics, 13, 106, 157; CIAM trying to avoid limitations by, xiv–xv; meaning of master plan in, 71–72; modernist functionalist concept beyond, xvii, 74; residential communities and, 97–98, 101, 134–36 population, 214; efforts to steer movements of, 222; of New Belgrade, 67, 127; of peripheral districts, 143, 149; projections of, 41, 52, 67, 173, 230–31 See also growth Prakesh, Vikram, 12 prefabrication, 202; for blocks and in New Belgrade, 115, 129; experimentation with, 17, 115; housing limited to low-rise construction and, 44–45; in rationalization of construction process, 79, 87 Prelog, Milan, 198–99, 208 press coverage, 158, 195, 208; of criticism of modernist functionalist settlements, 18990, 19798, 247 Prieur, Franỗois, 201 Prijevi, Miladin, 20 private interests, 109; needs of society as a whole vs., xv–xvi, 38, 105; profits from exorbitant subletting, 151–52, 153; rogue construction and, 157, 163 productivity, workers’, 96, 205; consumerism and, 105, 111, 181; economic reforms supposed to increase, xviii, 186; housing and, 8, 86, 105 Prokop, rogue construction in, 158, 159 Pruitt-Igoe housing project, Ptaszycki, Tadeusz, 16 public buildings, 32, 157; in plans for New Belgrade, 67, 107–9; site plans’ never constructed, 132–33; split between Belgrade and New Belgrade, 112 Qualls, Karl, 254n29 Radiant City (Ville Radieuse): New Belgrade’s differences from, 69; plan for, 64; similarity of New Belgrade plans to, 36, 63–65, 66, 107 Radojčić, Perica, 158 Radović, Ranko, 202–3 railroads, xi; relocation of rail yards for, 42, 56, 112, 113; relocation of station, 65, 116; rerouted, 65, 120 296 raion (Soviet superblocks), 14 Rajačić, Milan, 175–77 Rajić, Rajko, 193 rational-process view, of urban planning, 214 Ravnikar, Edvard, 19, 33, 94 real estate market, Yugoslavia’s, 23, 160 Reconstruction of Literary and Arts Organizations, 14 recreation, 98, 100, 122, 225; in functions of cities, xvi; in master plans, 216–17, 227; New Belgrade’s lack of sports culture, 136; in plans for New Belgrade, 69–70, 107, 114, 116, 118, 137; pollution’s ill-effects on, 224–25 regulation plans, of New Belgrade, 117–18, 120–21 rejoini, making up local communities, 119 rents, in Belgrade, 26–28, 87; increases of, 11, 86, 196 Representative Hotel, 67, 105, 112 residential communities, 115; financing of, 99–100; planning for successful, 96–98, 101; self-management and, 74, 85; size of, 98–99, 101; state promoting, 96–97 See also local communities restaurants, in New Belgrade, 122, 136–37 Ribnikar, Vladislav C., 39, 76, 78–79 Richter, Vjenceslav, 21 Rochefort, Christiane, 5, 191 rogue construction, 154, 155; builders’ relations with authorities, 156–61; causes of, 160, 167, 177, 180–81; conference of Yugoslav Cities discussing, 177–85; demographics of builders, 159–61, 176, 178, 180; demolition of, 157–58, 166, 182–83; effects of, 161–62, 170, 245–46; extent of, 163, 174–75, 177, 266n68; government efforts to co-opt builders of, 148–49, 167, 187–88; motives for, 179, 180–81; Municipal Council and, 174–75; prosecution for, 166–67, 175, 181, 185; settlements of, 161, 163; single-family homes recommended as solution to, 185; state’s responses to, 162–67, 182–83, 186 Roma, 156, 159–60 Romania, 18 Rotterdam, Rowell, Jay, 17–18 Ruma, rapid-transit line to, 56 Safdie, Moshe, 210 Sarajevo, 208–9 satellite settlements, 10 INDEX Sava River: plans for, 34, 70, 232; plan to build New Belgrade across, 28, 32, 36, 62; pollution of, 224; previous proposals to build across, 62–63 Savet za urbanizam See Urbanism Council Savez društava urbanista Jugoslavije See Council of Town Planning Associations of Yugoslavia Savezni zavod za komunalne i stambene pitanje (SZKSP) See Federal Institute for Communal and Housing Questions Savezni zavod za urbanizam i komunalne i stambene pitanje See Federal Institute for Urbanism and Communal and Housing Questions Savić, Miloš, 179–80 schools, 98, 122, 134 science, 4; planning asserted to be, xvi, 47, 49 Scott, James, 3–4, 171 secondary centers See decentralization second district, of New Belgrade, 120 See also blocks 22 and 23, in New Belgrade Sedlar, Saša, 97–98 Šegvić, Neven, 76 Seissel, Josip, 21 self-management, 75, 101–2; of apartment buildings, 81, 89; decentralization and, 104, 106, 199; functionalism linked to, 74, 85; goals of, 196, 228; influence on urban planning, 77, 104, 109, 194, 215–16; lack of public spaces for, 137–38; residential communities and, 85, 96–98; urban sociology and, 191–93; as Yugoslavia’s own version of socialism, 74 Sert, Josep Lluis, 201 services and amenities: Athens Charter on provision of, 98; financing for, 100, 185–86; lack of, 83, 132–37, 138, 143, 197, 214; for nested communities, 99; New Belgrade lacking, 81, 108, 132–37; in plans for apartment buildings, 67, 87–88, 129, 132; in plans for New Belgrade, 107, 114, 122, 136–37; in plans for settlements, 147, 167; residential communities and, 96, 98 settlements, 217; architects’ role in planning, 79, 105; chosen as best for Yugoslavia, 212, 241–42; criticisms of, 98, 197–98, 207, 213–14; diverse types of housing in, 211, 228–29; goals for, 157–58, 203; increasing social inequality, 189, 196, 210; of modest family housing, 167; public opinion of, 240; rogue, 154, 159, 161, 162, 163; similarities among, 147; slums as, 175–76; social experience of, 201–2; social scientists studying and evaluating, 193; squatters, 80–81 See also apartment buildings; modernist functionalist settlements seven-year plan, 167 Sever, Savin, 92 shopping: modernization of, 96, 137–38; in Yugoslav culture, 136 Sila, Zdenko, 98–101 Sillamäe (Estonia), 16 Sillince, J A A., 150–51, 156 Šimanović, Mirjana, 93 site plans, 118–19; amenities on never constructed, 132–33; for blocks 22 and 23, 122, 123, 125; for New Belgrade, 120, 121–22 sites, placement of buildings on, 14–15, 17, 61, 67–69, 80, 122; clustering, 210–11; influences on, 147, 202; open-block multistory apartment buildings, 59–60 Sitte, Camillo, 12, 16 sixth district, of New Belgrade, 120 Slajmer, Marko, 219–20 Smederevo, rapid-transit line to, 56 Smithson, Alison, 201 Smithson, Peter, 201 social engineering, 5, 13, 25, 82; architects’ role in, 88; goals of, 14–15, 43; through urban planning, 38, 49–50, 78–79, 96–98 socialism, 109, 160; architecture for, 75–76; benefits for urban planning, 49, 54–55, 86–87; commitment to improving citizen’s lives, 57, 110, 115; development of citizens of, 192; disillusionment with, 184, 195–96; of “A Dwelling for Our Conditions” exhibit, 93–94; increasing public consultation in, 214–15; individual agency in, 4–5, 228; modernist functionalism politicized as, 74; state, 13–17, 195; systemic problems in, 245–46, 264n8; transition from reconstruction to building, 73; of urban planners, 244, 245; urban planning in promoting, 7, 47, 57, 127; urban planning under, 18, 23; US propaganda trying to undermine, 21–22; Yugoslavia’s own version of, xiii, 23, 74, 75, 104 See also market socialism socialist realism, 14, 17, 75–76, 106 social justice: desire to eliminate inequalities, 25, 28; egalitarianism of urban planners, 146, 245; freedom of choice outweighing equality, 187; housing issues increasing inequities, 150, 197, 210; persistence of inequities vs., 152, 184, 195–96; trying to achieve through urban planning, xvi, 20, 141, 242 297 INDEX social scientists, 210; critique of modernist functionalist cities by, 189–200; critique of urban planning by, 198–200, 211–12, 247; studying relations in neighborhoods, 196–97 Society of Architects of Serbia (Društvo arhitekata Srbije), 108, 192 Society of Urban Planners of Serbia (Društvo urbanista Srbije), 108, 192 Somborski, Miloš, 55; appointments of, 36, 39; master plans and, 41, 47, 51; optimism about solving social problems, 49–50; in planning for New Belgrade, 28, 62; rejecting Belgrade as metropolis, 52–53 Šotra, Ranko, 170 Soviet Bloc, 40, 128; housing in, 18–19, 150, 156, 169, 228; US wedge strategy in, 21–22; Yugoslavia distinguishing self from, 50, 75; Yugoslavia’s expulsion from, 28, 47, 73–74 Soviet Union, xvii, 18, 35, 76, 90, 222, 254n29; architecture and, 17, 21, 55, 77, 244, 250n34; housing in, 17, 19; nature and, 62, 250n36; Stalinism in, 13–16; threat of invasion by, 74–75; Yugoslavia’s relations with, 21–22, 25, 85 spectacle, desire to create, 15–16 sports, 67, 136 sprawl, 223–24; apartment buildings minimizing, 59–61; in Chandigarh, 12–13; efforts to minimize, 10, 52–53, 231; planners’ fears of, 216, 218 squatter settlements, 80–81 Stalin, Joseph, 25, 85 See also Tito-Stalin split Stalinism, 13–16, 76, 105 Stalna konferencija gradova Jugoslavije (SKGJ) See Standing Conference of Yugoslav Cities standard of living See living conditions/standard of living Standing Conference of Yugoslav Cities (Stalna konferencija gradova Jugoslavije, SKGJ), 85–86, 89, 193; on rogue construction, 177–85 state, 19, 40, 109; in Athens Charter assumptions, 38; competing actors within, 186; control of economy, 25, 38; individual agency vs., 4–5; involvement in urban planning, 8, 13; legitimacy based on care for workers, 158, 161; modernism and, 4, 246; nationalization of buildings by, 86, 182–83; promoting consumption, 85, 180; promoting personal savings for financing homes, 148, 168, 213; promoting residential communities, 96–97, 102; response to rogue construction, 148–49, 156, 162–67, 186–88; responsibility for citi- 298 zens, 29, 49; rogue construction and, 156–61, 182–83; role in housing, 8, 10–11, 17–18, 78, 82–84, 89, 104, 168, 179–80, 246; shift to market socialism, 186 state socialism See socialism, state Stevović, Miodrag, 152–54 Stojanović, Bratislav, 39, 46 Stojanović, Ðorđe, 180 Stojanović, Dubravka, 26 Stojkov, Borislav, 142, 235, 237, 241 street level, plans to enliven, 67 Strižuć, Zlatko, 35 Stronski, Paul, 18–19 students: protest by, 195; settlement for, 80–81, 129 Stuttgart, subletting: cost of, 151–52, 153; in rogue construction homes, 160 suburbanization, 223–24 See also sprawl Šumice settlement, 143, 145 superblocks, 98; proposed for New Belgrade, 36, 106–7, 107 supermarkets, 96, 132, 136 Svoboda, Josip, 211, 269n60 symmetry, Le Courbusier on, 69 systems method, of urban planning, 214 Szelenyi, Ivan, 19, 150, 195 Tange, Kenzo, 218 Tashkent (Uzbekistan), 16, 18–19, 40, 62, 251n40 Taylor, Nigel, 37–38 Taylorism, 4, 8; influence on architecture, xvi, 18, 87 Team 10, 5, 190, 201 technology, xvi, 7, 13, 62; in Athens Charter assumptions, 38, 164; in construction, 79, 115, 127, 149, 164, 202; domestic, 92–93; transfer, 219–21 Teige, Karel, 14 tenants, 78, 88, 179; architects urged to focus on needs of, 76–77, 88; complaints by, 80, 197–98 Terazije terraces, Dobrović’s plan for reconstruction of, 32, 34 third district, of New Belgrade, 119–20, 136–37 Thomas, W I., 193 Thyagarajan, S., 226 Tito, Josip Broz, 20, 46–47, 71; goals of, 30, 85; regime of, xi, 25, 74, 104 Tito-Stalin split, 21; economic effects of, 73–75, 84; effects of, 28, 39, 50, 70, 75–76, 79; ideological effects of, 22, 75, 263n1 topography, 232, 233 INDEX Tošin Bunar pavilions, 80 Toulouse, 9–10, 214 Town Planners’ Association of Serbia, 192 town planning See urban planning transportation, 144, 222; computer modeling used in planning for, 216, 228; effort to reduce traffic congestion and overcrowding, 60, 216; in 1972 master plan, 228, 235, 239; modernization of, 53, 55–56; New Belgrade’s lack of public, 81, 136; in plans for New Belgrade, 65, 121, 128; plans for rapid-transit line, 56, 216, 226, 235; plans to separate types of traffic, xvi, 203; rationalization of road system, 55–56, 57, 121; traffic congestion in city center, 112, 174, 217; trying to minimize workers’ commute time, 43, 55, 114; WWII destruction of lines and vehicles, xi, 29 See also land use—transportation study Trifunović, Stojan, 83 Turkey, 11–12 Tyrwhitt, Jacqueline, 201 Ullman, E L., 193 UN conference, on “cities of the future,” 196–97 United States: death of city centers in, 223–24; influence on urban planning, 217–19; influence on Yugoslavia, 92, 192–93, 263n1; promoting American standard of living, 90, 148; relations with Yugoslavia, 21, 23; urban planning in, 189, 214–15 Urban, Florian, 7–8 urbanism, 76, 89, 201; public opinion of, 240– 41; small-scale, 204–5, 207, 212; Yugoslavia embracing, 78, 127 Urbanism Commission (Urbanistička komisija), of Belgrade Municipal Council, 39, 43, 101–2; making with low-rise prefabricated construction, 44–45; on master plans, 46–47; overseeing Belgrade Town Planning Institute, 39–41; struggle between short-term and long-term planning, 44–45 Urbanism Council (Savet za urbanizam), of Belgrade Municipal Council, 106, 115, 140; approving 1972 master plan, 239–40; blocks and in New Belgrade designed by, 128–29; on planning for New Belgrade, 111–14; on plans for New Belgrade, 108, 110, 125 Urbanistička komisija See Urbanism Commission Urbanistički institut Srbije (UIS) See Urban Planning Institute of Serbia urbanists, vs disurbanists, 13 urbanization: efforts to address problems of, 38, 214, 222; global problems of, 148, 150, 217; master plan projecting, 52; of peripheral districts, 165; problems caused by, 9, 155–56, 198, 210, 246; of villages, 199 urban planners, 203, 216; on Athens Charter, 188, 203–4; criticisms of, 100, 198, 211; egalitarian ethos of, 141, 146; evaluations by, 211– 12; forgetting about rogue construction, 156; pragmatism of, 100, 245; socialism of, 245 urban planning: architects in, xii, 29, 212; architecture and, 37, 101, 214, 247; baroque designs, 16; Belgrade behind other nations’, 49; challenges to, 138, 147–49; changing attitudes toward old buildings in, 236–37; changing with state’s evolution, 244; commitment to Athens Charter in, 85, 171; Communist Party’s beliefs about, 37–38; computer modeling in, 215–16, 219–21; consumerism’s influence on, 146, 224, 246; difficulty imagining ideal city in, 101–2; difficulty of facilitating ambiance in, 204, 205; Dobrović’s approach to, 32, 37; effects of material scarcity on, 29, 42, 44–45, 50–51; fundamental methods criticized, 199–200; geographic scope of, 52, 199, 212; goals of, xvi–xvii, 18, 43, 49–50, 57, 78–79, 205–6; importance of, 87, 127, 173; increasing public consultation in, 214–16; influence of Athens Charter on, xv, xvi, 189, 205, 210; influence of capitalism on, 48–49; influences on Yugoslavia’s, 19, 22–23, 49; lack of accurate information for, 29, 40–42; living within one’s means through, 187, 245; for long- and short-term, 44–45, 101–2, 110–11, 173, 246; monumental, 110, 116, 205, 210; as multidisciplinary, 128, 192; non-European states’ emulating European, 12; outside influences on implementation of, 103–4; politics’ relation to, 13; pragmatism of, 50–51; principles in German Democratic Republic, 15–16; problems with, 110, 182; process for, 49–50, 214; promoting needs of society as a whole, 58, 105; rational-process view of, 214; relations between Urbanism Commission and Belgrade Town Planning Institute in, 39–40; search for new approach to, 219, 222; self-management not applied to, 194; separation of functions of cities in, xvi, 6, 12, 14, 53; socialism and, 7, 18, 49, 245; socialist vs functionalist, 16; social scientists and, 192; Soviet, 13–14; streamlining, 167; as subset of economic planning, 247; training in, 222; 299 INDEX urban planning (cont.) turf wars with other parties, 165–66, 174; undermining of, 6, 99–100, 148–49, 161–62, 175, 186, 242; uniqueness of Yugoslavia’s, 23, 24; US influence on worldwide, 217–19; values in, 79; view of popular opinion in, 193–94; visions of, 101–2, 110–11, 138 See also Belgrade Town Planning Institute Urban Planning Institute of Serbia (Urbanistički institut Srbije, UIS), 30–33 Urban Planning Institute of Slovenia, 219–21 urban sociology, 191 utilities, xi, 128 Van Moos, Stanislaus, xii Veliko Ratno Ostrvo (Great War Island), 70, 106–7 Verdery, Katherine, 195 Vernon, Raymond, 224 vikendice (weekend homes), 225, 232 villages, 199, 203 Vinča, as secondary center, 235 Vladivostok, 251n40 Vovk, Marija, 94 Vrbanić, Vido, 63, 80, 107 Vukmanović Svetozar Tempo, 139 Wakeman, Rosemary, 9–10 Warsaw, 144 Wayne State University: hired in making new master plan, 213, 219; land use—transportation study by, 221–22 Weissmann, Ernest, in development of Athens Charter, xv, 19–20, 54 West, 211; consequences of modernization in, 244–45; influence on Soviets, 17, 217–18; influence on Yugoslavia, 23, 208–10; influence on Yugoslavia’s urban planning, 19, 22, 49, 86–87 300 Western Europe, 17, 189–90 West Germany, 18 Willmott, Peter, 189 “Wohnung für das Existenzminimum,” 58 workers, 25, 105, 195; accepting vs trying to change lifestyles of, 77–78; average incomes of, 152, 175; efforts to minimize commute time for, 55, 114, 165; employers’ role in providing housing for, 86, 149–50; homes as restoration for, 78, 89–90; housing for, 55, 82–84, 168, 203; numbers of, 41, 75; planners’ focus on well-being of, 42, 43, 74; rogue construction by, 154, 163, 178, 180; selfmanagement by, 74–75, 104; state legitimacy based on care for, 158, 161 World War II: destruction in, xi, 28–29, 39; reconstruction following, 8, 40, 73, 254n29 Young, Michael, 189 “Yugoslav Dream,” 22–23, 90, 104, 115 Yugoslavia: “in between” position of, 19, 23, 47; New Belgrade as symbol of modernity of, 126–27; in Nonaligned Movement, 21, 23, 162; old empires united in, 62–63; Soviets and, 22, 28, 39; unique socialism of, 23, 74 Yugoslav Museum of Art, 68 Yugoslav National Army (JNA), 82, 125 Zadina, Vojislav, 20 Zagreb, 19–20, 155 Zarecor, Kimberly Elman, 15, 17–18 Žeželj, Branko, 115 “Zeilenbau” arrangement of buildings, 80 Železnik, as secondary center, 235 Zemun, 63, 65, 120 Zloković, Milan, 20 Znaniecki, Florian, 193 ... Manufactured in the United States of America Printed on acid-free paper 10 Library of Congress Cataloging -in- Publication Data Le Normand, Brigitte Designing Tito? ??s Capital: Urban Planning, Modernism, and. .. looked and in- 23 MODERNIST FUNCTIONALIST PL ANNING IN GLOBAL CONTEX T vested more in urban design Belgrade does stand out in the Second World in terms of the creativity and resources invested in designing. .. labor, steering the country’s resources toward automated production and mass consumption in novel industries, and infusing a new will and spirit into French business and practices.” Modernism was