Introduction to International Trade

An Introduction to International Varieties of English Edinburgh University Press Laurie Bauer An Introduction to International Varieties of English Laurie Bauer Edinburgh University Press 01 pages i-viii prelims 6/8/02 1:25 pm Page i © Laurie Bauer, 2002 Edinburgh University Press Ltd 22 George Square, Edinburgh Typeset in Janson by Norman Tilley Graphics and printed and bound in Great Britain by MPG Books Ltd, Bodmin, Cornwall A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 0 7486 1337 4 (hardback) ISBN 0 7486 1338 2 (paperback) The right of Laurie Bauer to be identified as author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. 01 pages i-viii prelims 6/8/02 1:25 pm Page ii Disclaimer: Some images in the original version of this book are not available for inclusion in the eBook. Contents Acknowledgements v Abbreviations and conventions used in the text vi To readers vii 1 Background notions 1 1.1 Accent, dialect, language and variety 2 1.2 Home and colony 4 1.3 Colonial lag 5 1.4 Dialect mixing 6 Exercises 11 Recommendations for reading 12 2 English becomes a world language 13 2.1 The spread of English 13 2.2 Models of English 19 2.3 English in Scotland and Ireland 25 Exercises 28 Recommendations for reading 29 3 Vocabulary 32 3.1 Borrowing 33 3.2 Coining 40 3.3 The results 42 Exercises 44 Recommendations for reading 45 4 Grammar 46 4.1 Morphology 46 4.2 Syntax 48 4.3 Discussion 58 Exercises 59 Recommendations for reading 60 01 pages i-viii prelims 6/8/02 1:25 pm Page iii 5 Spelling 61 5.1 Lexical distributional differences 62 5.2 Variation in the system 62 5.3 Conclusion 66 Exercises 67 Recommendations for reading 68 6 Pronunciation 69 6.1 Describing varieties of English 69 6.2 Input varieties 71 6.3 Influences from contact languages 73 6.4 Influences from other colonies 74 6.5 Influences from later immigrants 75 6.6 Influences from world English 75 6.7 Differences between varieties 76 Exercises 82 Recommendations for reading 83 7 The revenge of the colonised 84 7.1 Vocabulary 86 7.2 Grammar 86 7.3 Pronunciation 88 7.4 Conclusion 90 Exercises 91 Recommendations for reading 92 8 Becoming independent 93 8.1 British Englishes 95 8.2 North American Englishes 97 8.3 Southern hemisphere Englishes 98 8.4 Discussion 99 8.5 The break-up of English? 100 Exercises 102 Recommendations for reading 103 9 Standards in the colonies 104 9.1 Moving away from the standard in vocabulary 104 9.2 Moving away from the standard in grammar 105 9.3 Moving away from the standard in pronunciation 108 9.4 Discussion 110 Exercises 112 Recommendations for reading 112 Discussion of the exercises 113 References 127 Index 133 iv INTERNATIONAL VARIETIES OF ENGLISH 01 pages i-viii prelims 6/8/02 1:25 pm Page iv Acknowledgements Grateful acknowledgement is made to the following sources for permission to reproduce material in this book previously published elsewhere. Every effort has been made to trace copyright holders, but if any have been inadvertently overlooked the publisher will be pleased to make the necessary arrangement at the first opportunity. Cambridge University Press and Tom McArthur for Figure 2.4 on p. 22, from McArthur (1987). Contact, for the text published on 27 February 1992 reproduced on p. 103. Max Niemeyer Verlag GmbH for Figure 2.3 on p. 21, from Görlach (1990a). The New Zealand Listener, for the letter to the editor of 12 March 1983 reproduced on p. 102. Professor D. Throsby for the text from The Sydney Morning Herald of 9 August 1999 reproduced on p. 67. Times Newspapers Limited for Eleanor Mills’s Column, The Sunday Times, 7 January 2001. © Times Newspapers Introduction to International Trade Introduction to International Trade By: OpenStaxCollege Apple or Samsung iPhone? While the iPhone is readily recognized as an Apple product, 26% of the component costs in it come from components made by rival phone-maker, Samsung In international trade, there are often “conflicts” like this as each country or company focuses on what it does best (Credit: modification of work by Yutaka Tsutano Creative Commons) Just Whose iPhone Is It? 1/3 Introduction to International Trade The iPhone is a global product Apple does not manufacture the iPhone components, nor does it assemble them The assembly is done by Foxconn Corporation, a Taiwanese company, at its factory in Sengzhen, China But, Samsung, the electronics firm and competitor to Apple, actually supplies many of the parts that make up an iPhone—about 26% That means, that Samsung is both the biggest supplier and biggest competitor for Apple Why these two firms work together to produce the iPhone? To understand the economic logic behind international trade, you have to accept, as these firms do, that trade is about mutually beneficial exchange Samsung is one of the world’s largest electronics parts suppliers Apple lets Samsung focus on making the best parts, which allows Apple to concentrate on its strength—designing elegant products that are easy to use If each company (and by extension each country) focuses on what it does best, there will be gains for all through trade Introduction to International Trade In this chapter, you will learn about: • • • • Absolute and Comparative Advantage What Happens When a Country Has an Absolute Advantage in All Goods Intra-industry Trade between Similar Economies The Benefits of Reducing Barriers to International Trade We live in a global marketplace The food on your table might include fresh fruit from Chile, cheese from France, and bottled water from Scotland Your wireless phone might have been made in Taiwan or Korea The clothes you wear might be designed in Italy and manufactured in China The toys you give to a child might have come from India The car you drive might come from Japan, Germany, or Korea The gasoline in the tank might be refined from crude oil from Saudi Arabia, Mexico, or Nigeria As a worker, if your job is involved with farming, machinery, airplanes, cars, scientific instruments, or many other technology-related industries, the odds are good that a hearty proportion of the sales of your employer—and hence the money that pays your salary—comes from export sales We are all linked by international trade, and the volume of that trade has grown dramatically in the last few decades The first wave of globalization started in the nineteenth century and lasted up to the beginning of World War I Over that time, global exports as a share of global GDP rose from less than 1% of GDP in 1820 to 9% of GDP in 1913 As the Nobel Prize-winning economist Paul Krugman of Princeton University wrote in 1995: “It is a late-twentieth-century conceit that we invented the global economy just yesterday In fact, world markets achieved an impressive degree of integration during the second half of the nineteenth century Indeed, if one wants a specific date for the beginning of a truly global economy, one might well choose 1869, the year in which 2/3 Introduction to International Trade both the Suez Canal and the Union Pacific railroad were completed By the eve of the First World War steamships and railroads had created markets for standardized commodities, like wheat and wool, that were fully global in their reach Even the global flow of information was better than modern observers, focused on electronic technology, tend to realize: the first submarine telegraph cable was laid under the Atlantic in 1858, and by 1900 all of the world’s major economic regions could effectively communicate instantaneously.” This first wave of globalization crashed to a halt in the beginning of the twentieth century World War I severed many economic connections During the Great Depression of the 1930s, many nations misguidedly tried to fix their own economies by reducing foreign trade with others World War II further hindered international trade Global flows of goods and financial capital rebuilt themselves only slowly after World War II It was not until the early 1980s that global economic forces again became as important, relative to the size of the world economy, as they were before World War I 3/3 Reducing the Barriers to International Trade in Accounting Services AEI STUDIES ON SERVICES TRADE NEGOTIATIONS Claude E. Barfield, series editor R EDUCING THE B ARRIERS TO I NTERNATIONAL T RADE IN A CCOUNTING S ERVICES Lawrence J. White I NSURANCE IN THE G ENERAL A GREEMENT ON T RADE IN S ERVICES Harold D. Skipper, Jr. Reducing the Barriers to International Trade in Accounting Services Lawrence J. White The AEI Press Publisher for the American Enterprise Institute WASHINGTON, D.C. 2001 Available in the United States from the AEI Press, c/o Publisher Resources Inc., 1224 Heil Quaker Blvd., P.O. Box 7001, La Vergne, TN 37086-7001. To order, call 1-800-937-5557. Distributed outside the United States by arrangement with Eurospan, 3 Henrietta Street, London WC2E 8LU, England. ISBN 8447-7157-0 1 3 5 7 9 10 8 6 4 2 © 2001 by the American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research, Washington, D.C. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without permission in writing from AEI except in the case of brief quotations embodied in news articles, critical articles, or reviews. The AEI Press Publisher for the American Enterprise Institute 1150 17th Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20036 Printed in the United States of America v Contents F OREWORD , Claude E. Barfield v A CKNOWLEDGMENTS xi 1I NTRODUCTION 1 2B ACKGROUND 3 3W HY I NTERNATIONAL T RADE IN S ERVICES I S ( AND I S N OT ) D IFFERENT FROM T RADE IN G OODS 5 4A CCOUNTING S ERVICES IN I NTERNATIONAL T RADE 11 5T HE I MPEDIMENTS TO T RADE IN A CCOUNTING S ERVICES 18 6D IFFERING A CCOUNTING S TANDARDS : H OW I MPORTANT I S H ARMONIZATION ?22 7T HE C URRENT F RAMEWORK FOR N EGOTIATIONS 28 8T HE R OAD A HEAD 34 9C ONCLUSION 37 N OTES 39 R EFERENCES 43 G LOSSARY OF T RADE T ERMS 47 A BOUT THE A UTHOR 55 vii Foreword T he service sector accounts for more than 70 percent of the gross domestic product (GDP) of advanced industrial economies. Though trade in services is dif- ficult to calculate and many transactions still go uncounted, current estimates place the worth of such trade as at least $2.5 trillion, or about a third of total world trade. For the United States, the world’s most advanced indus- trial economy, the service sector looms even larger. Services account for almost 80 percent of U.S. production and U.S. employment (while manufacturing accounts for 19 percent of U.S. GDP and 18 percent of U.S. employment). The sur- plus in U.S. services trade also partially offsets persistent U.S. merchandise trade deficits. In 1999, the services trade surplus was $76 billion; the merchandise deficit, $347 bil- lion. Despite the increasing importance of services trade and investment, only in 1995 did the multilateral trading system establish rules for opening markets in these economic sec- tors by negotiating the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS). This first effort at a discipline for services trade and investment created a framework of general princi- ples and rules but left the large-scale liberalization of indi- vidual sectors to later negotiations. Subsequently, under a mandate established as a part of the Uruguay Round negotiations, important advances toward real liberalization were achieved in two key sectors, telecommunications (1998) and financial services United States Department of Agriculture Or g anic A g ricultural Products: Marketing and Trade Resources, Guide 2 Guide to International Trade in Organics: Laws and Regulations Compiled by Mary V. Gold Alternative Farming Systems Information Center National A g ricultural Librar y Agricultural Research Service Alternative Farming Systems Information Center USDA, ARS, National Agricultural Library Beltsville MD 20705-2351 January 2008 Organic Agricultural Products: Marketing and Trade Resources Series This research guide is one of seven in a series. Each guide is a subject-oriented compilation that focuses on a separate type of information or research source. Sources cited in each guide were selected based on their applicability to U.S. organic production and enterprises; ready availability, especially those that are free and online; and timeliness - most sources were created or updated within the past five years. This series updates and replaces AFSIC’s Organic Agricultural Products: Marketing and Trade Resources (2005), Special Reference Brief Series no. 2003-01. AFSIC guides are not intended as definitive guides to Federal regulations and rules or to developing a fail-proof business or marketing plan. They will, however, lead the researcher to primary resources and agencies that impact organic marketing, import or export enterprises. Research beyond cited sources, for any marketing or trade project, is highly recommended. Although every effort has been made to provide the most current and correct information available, the author and the National Agricultural Library assume no liability for the accuracy or completeness of the information resources presented. Titles in this series are: 1. Guide to U.S. Organic Marketing: Laws and Regulations U.S. Federal laws and regulations; state laws and regulations pertinent to marketing organic products; other organic-related certification programs; selected background documents about U.S. standards; general Federal food-related labeling and regulatory programs and information; general state food- related labeling and regulatory programs and information; related food safety resources 2. Guide to International Trade in Organics: Laws and Regulations Exporting and importing organic products - U.S. regulations and information sources; selected international organic-specific law and policy sites; general U.S. export and import regulations, certifications and information; selected international general food law and policy sites 3. Guide to Organic Marketing and Trade How-to Publications Organic-specific marketing publications; related alternative farm marketing publications; publications about international trade; selected business guides and enterprise budgets 4. Guide to Organic Marketing and Trade Research Tools Online Internet portals, cyberguides and news services; business directories and commodity trading sites; organic price indexes; literature guides: catalogs, bibliographies and bibliographic databases 5. Guide to Organic Marketing and Trade Periodicals, Calendars and Trade Shows Trade and marketing magazines and e-zines; market research journals; selected events calendars and organic food trade shows 6. Guide to [...]... the International Law Association International Law Commission Yearbook of the International Law Commission International Legal Materials International Labour Organization International Law and Policy International Law Quarterly International Law Reports The Irish Law Times and Solicitors’ Journal International Monetary Fund International Maritime Organization Indian Journal of International Law International. .. 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Netherlands International Law Review Northwestern Journal of International Law and Business New Law Journal Nordic Journal of International Law Netherlands Quarterly of Human Rights Northwestern University Law Review New World Information and Communication Order Netherlands Yearbook of International Law New York Law School Journal of International and Comparative Law New York University Journal of International. .. state as to whether or not to present the claim In other words, the international legal system is still primarily geared towards the international community of states, represented by governments.18 General and regional international law ‘General international law refers to rules and principles that are applicable to a large number of states, on the basis of either customary international law or multilateral... (US) Connecticut Journal of International Law Cornell International Law Journal Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe Consolidated Treaty Series California Western International Law Journal Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law Canadian Yearbook of International Law Dalhouse Law Journal Denning Law Journal Denver Journal of International Law and Policy Department of State Bulletin... Environmental Law News Proceedings of the American Society of International Law Association of Student International Law Societies International Law Journal Asian Yearbook of International Law American University Journal of International Law and Policy American University Law Review AVR AYIL BayVBI BCICLR BENELUX BPIL Brooklyn JIL Brownlie BDIL BYIL CACM Cardoza LR This page intentionally left blank An Introduction to International Criminal Law and Procedure This market-leading textbook gives an authoritative account of international criminal law, and focuses on what the student needs to know – the crimes that are dealt with by inter- national court s and tribunals as well as the procedures that police the investigation and prosecution of those crimes. The reader is guided through controversies with an accessible, yet sophisticated, approach by the author team of four international lawyers with experience of teaching the subject, and as negotiators at the foundation of the International Criminal Court (ICC) and the Rome Conference. It is an invaluable introduction for all students of international criminal law and international relations, and now covers developments in the ICC and victims’ rights alternatives to international criminal justice. The book is supple- mented by an extensive package of online resources (www.cambridge.org/law/cryer), which offers convenient access to primary sources, well-chosen excerpts for supplementary reading, problems and questions for reflection and discussion, and materials for exercises and simulations. ROBERT CRYER is Professor of International and Criminal Law at the University of Birmingham. HÅKAN FRIMAN is Visiting Professor at University College London. DARRYL ROBINSON is a professor at Queen’s University, Faculty of Law, Kingston, Canada. ELIZABETH WILMSHURST is an associate fellow at Chatham House and Visiting Professor at University College London. An Introduction to International Criminal Law and Procedure second edition ROBERT CRYER HÅKAN FRIMAN DARRYL ROBINSON ELIZABETH WILMSHURST CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo, Delhi, Dubai, Tokyo Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK First published in print format ISBN-13 978-0-521-11952-8 ISBN-13 978-0-521-13581-8 ISBN-13 978-0-511-78934-2 © Robert Cryer, Håkan Friman, Darryl Robinson and Elizabeth Wilmshurst 2010 2010 Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521119528 This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of urls for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate. Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www.cambridge.org Paperback eBook (NetLibrary) Hardback Contents page Preface xi Table of Cases xiv Table of Treaties and other International Instruments xxxviii Table of Abbreviations lxiv PART A: INTRODUCTION 1 1. Introduction: What is International Cri minal Law? 3 1.1 International criminal law 3 1.2 Other concepts of international criminal law 5 1.3 Sources of international criminal law 9 1.4 International criminal law and other areas of law 13 1.5 A body of criminal law 16 2. The Objectives of International Criminal Law 22 2.1 Introduction 22 2.2 The aims of international criminal justice 23 2.3 Broader goals 30 2.4 Other critiques of criminal accountability 36 PART B: PROSECUTIONS IN NATIONAL COURTS 41 3. Jurisdiction 43 3.1 Introduction ... competitor for Apple Why these two firms work together to produce the iPhone? To understand the economic logic behind international trade, you have to accept, as these firms do, that trade is... each country) focuses on what it does best, there will be gains for all through trade Introduction to International Trade In this chapter, you will learn about: • • • • Absolute and Comparative.. .Introduction to International Trade The iPhone is a global product Apple does not manufacture the iPhone components,