metaphor thesis

metaphor

Moldova State University Faculty of Foreign Languages and Literatures English Philology Department GRADUATION THESIS The Role of Metaphor in Dan Brown’s Novels “The Da Vinci Code” and “Angels & Demons” Scientific advisor: <surname, name>, <MA/PhD> Submitted by: <student surname, name>, gr. <number> Chișinău <year> Table of Contents Introduction 3 CHAPTER I: Metaphor as a Stylistic Device and a Complex Unity 5 1.1 The Notion of Stylistic Device. An Overview of Classifications of Stylistic Devices 5 1.2 Definitions, Origins and Nature of Metaphor 9 1.3 Modern Theories about Metaphor and Its Attribution to the Terms Figure and Trope 13 1.4 Structure and Types of Metaphor 17 1.5 Functions and Roles of Metaphor 22 CHAPTER II: Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis of Metaphors in Dan Brown’s Novels 25 2.1 Analysis of Metaphors in “The Da Vinci Code” 25 2.1.1 Metaphors classified according to the part of speech 25 2.1.2 Metaphors classified according to novelty (I.Galperin) 29 2.1.3 Metaphors classified according to structure (I.Galperin) 32 2.1.4 Metaphors classified according to the presence of departure and arrival terms (E. Slave) 34 2.2 Analysis of Metaphors in “Angels & Demons” 37 2.2.1 Metaphors classified according to the part of speech (E. Slave) 38 2.2.2 Metaphors classified according to novelty (I.Galperin) 41 2.2.3 Metaphors classified according to structure (I.Galperin) 43 2.2.4 Metaphors classified according to the presence of departure and arrival terms (E. Slave) 44 2.3 Quantitative Analysis of Metaphors in Dan Brown’s Novels 46 Conclusions 50 Bibliography 52 Appendix 55 Glossary of Linguistic Terms 55 Corpus Linguistics 56 2 Introduction Do not go gentle into that good night. Dylan Thomas These famous lines by Thomas are examples of what classical theorists, at least since Aristotle, have referred to as metaphor: instances of novel poetic language in which words like ``mother,'' ``go,'' and ``night'' are not used in their normal everyday senses. The study of metaphor had been a preoccupation, which dominated all the periods of human existence. Its study can and will never be completed, because it penetrates not only figurative language, but the ordinary language as well. It is dissolved in the myriads of lines of emotive prose, poetry as well as in well-known everyday words and expressions. The present paper attempts to touch only a small section of the metaphor universe. The purpose of the given research paper is to analyze a corpus linguistics of 150 examples (taken in context), collected from Dan Brown’s novels “The Da Vinci Code” and “Angels & Demons”, observe and comment on the use of metaphors, their type, structure, stylistic function and effect within the novels. The topicality of the theme lays in the fact that modern literature enjoys a tremendous popularity, so it would be relevant to perform a linguistic analysis of some of the bestseller novels and determine possible linguistic reasons for this popularity, as they proved to be of interest to great numbers of readers. The hypothesis that we postulate for this research is that metaphors sought in the two modern novels by Dan Brown will be not quite numerous due to the fact that contemporary popular literature tends to stay less sophisticated from the point of view of language. The specific objectives of the research are: •To study the notion of stylistic devices and their classification; •To examine theoretical sources concerning the nature of metaphor; •To provide a concise picture of numerous views on metaphor, its definitions and classifications; •To reveal specific characteristics of metaphors in the novels under analysis; •To classify the metaphors under investigations according to criteria selected according to the theoretical sources that were examined; 3 •To establish the frequency of occurrence of various metaphoric patterns in both novels under analysis; •To interpret images created by metaphors in the novels under analysis; •To comment on the effects created by metaphors in the novels under analysis; •To demonstrate the connections within the images that are created and elements of the narrative text; •To bring arguments to support the choice of this type of grouping; •To conclude on the results of the research. In the course of our research activity on the given topic, we used diverse methods such as: description, analysis, synthesis, generalization, classification, commentary. As for the structure of the research paper, it is organized as follows: The introduction presents the goal, objectives, resources and topicality of the research. Chapter One introduces general considerations on stylistic devices and namely defines them, presents their classification and describes some of their peculiarities. It also deals with the notion of metaphor in general, attempting to describe it and its peculiarities and types. Finally, it dwells on the basic concepts concerning structure and functions of the metaphor. Chapter Two is dedicated to the analysis of 150 metaphors from two novels by Dan Brown from the various such classification point of view as part of speech grouping, novelty, and structure. The conclusion sums up the results of the research. The bibliography lists the entire bulk of primary and secondary sources used for the elaboration of the research. The appendix includes a glossary of linguistic terms that were used in the thesis and the complete corpus linguistics used as basis for the investigation. We believe that the practical value of our work might lie in fact that it can be useful for specialists in the field of stylistics and literary theory, as well as methodology, because an investigation of metaphor helps pay attention to teaching it and explain its meaning as well as possible. It may also be useful to researchers in the field of stylistics, text interpretation and literary theory, as well as to practical translators. We also hope that our work could help those, who encounter difficulties with the understanding of the concept of metaphor. 4 CHAPTER I: Metaphor as a Stylistic Device and a Complex Unity The purpose of the given chapter is to present an overview on the most important theoretical concepts that are relevant for our research. Among these are the notions of stylistic devices and their classification, various definitions of metaphor and opinions on its classification according to a number of linguists, modern linguistic and philosophical theories on metaphor, and types and functions of metaphor. These notions will be briefly presented, analysed and compared. 1.1 The Notion of Stylistic Device. An Overview of Classifications of Stylistic Devices. The notion of “stylistic device” is very controversial. The style of anything is formed out of features peculiar to it, those differentiating it from whatever it may be compared to. What we say or write what we read or hear is not style by itself, but simply has style; it demonstrates stylistic features. It is just like fashion in clothing: no one ever wears “fashion”, people wear clothes which demonstrate fashionable features. In linguistics, there are different terms to denote the particular means by which a writer obtains his effect and shows a certain style. Expressive means, stylistic devices, and other terms are used to characterize his own style of writing. It is very important to make a distinction between expressive means and stylistic devices. I. R. Galperin defines expressive means as “phonetic means, morphological means, morphological forms, means of word-building, lexical, phraseological and syntactical forms, all of which linguistic function is to intensify the utterance [15; 137]. One of the first linguists who tried “to modernize” traditional rhetoric system was British scholar G. Leech. In 1967 his contribution into stylistic theory in the book “Essays on Style and Language” was published in London. Paying tribute to the descriptive linguistics popular at the time he tried to show how linguistic theory could be accommodated to the task of describing such rhetorical figures as metaphor, parallelism, alliteration, personification and other in the present- day study of literature. One of the latest classifications of expressive means and stylistic devices is given in the book “Fundamentals of English Stylistics” by Y. M. Skrebnev. His approach demonstrates a combination of principles observed in Leech’s system of paradigmatic and syntagmatic 5 subdivision and the level-oriented approach on which Galperin’s classification is founded [44; 24]. An overview of the classifications presented here shows rather varied approaches to practically the same material. And even though they contain inconsistencies and certain contradictions they reflect the scholar’s attempts to overcome an intentional description of device. Meanwhile we will focus our attention on the I. R. Galperin’s classification. Thus, he defines the stylistic device as a literary model in which semantic and structural features are blended so that it represents a generalized pattern [15; 118-123]. Prof. I. R. Galperin calls a stylistic device a generative model when through frequent use a language fact is transformed into stylistic device. Thus we may say that some expressive means have evolved into stylistic devices which represent a more abstract form or set of forms. A stylistic device combines some general semantic meaning with a certain linguistic form resulting in stylistic effect. It is like an algorithm employed for an expressive purpose. The classification suggested by Prof. Galperin is simply organized and very detailed. His manual “Stylistics” published in 1971 includes the following subdivision of expressive means and stylistic devices based on the level-oriented approach: 1. Phonetic expressive means and stylistic devices. 2. Lexical expressive means and stylistic devices. 3. Syntactical expressive means and stylistic devices. 1.1.1 Phonetic Expressive Means And Stylistic Devices To this group Galperin refers such devices as: Onomatopoeia, Alliteration, Rhyme, Rhythm and Meter. [15; 123-131] Onomatopoeia is a combination of speech-sounds, which aims at imitating sounds produced in nature (wind, sea, thunder…), by things, by people and by animals. There are two varieties of onomatopoeia: direct and indirect. Alliteration is a phonetic stylistic device, which aims at imparting a melodic effect to the utterance. The essence of this device lies on the repetition of similar sounds, in particular consonant sounds, in close succession, particularly at the beginning of successive words. Therefore alliteration is generally regarded as a musical accompaniment of the author’s idea, supporting it with some vague emotional atmosphere, which each reader interprets for himself. Rhyme is repetition of identical or similar terminal sound combinations of words. We distinguish between full rhymes and incomplete rhymes. rhyme (full, incomplete, compound or broken, eye rhyme, internal rhyme. Also, stanza rhymes: couples, triple, cross, framing/ring.) 6 Rhythm exists in all spheres of human activity and assumes multifarious forms. It is a mighty weapon in stirring und emotions whatever its nature or origin, whether it is musical, mechanical, or symmetrical as in architecture. Rhythm in language necessarily demands oppositions that alternate: long, short; stressed, unstressed; high, low and other contrasting segments of speech. Meter is any form of periodicity in verse, its kind being determined by the character and number of syllables of which it consists. Rhythm is flexible and sometimes an effort is required to perceive it. Much has been said and written about rhythm in prose. 1.1.2 Lexical Expressive Means And Stylistic Devices There are three big subdivisions in this class of devices and they all deal with the semantic nature of a word or phrase [15; 135-160]. However the criteria of selection of means for each subdivision are different and manifest different semantic processes. In the first subdivision the principle of classification is the interaction of different types of a word’s meanings: dictionary, contextual, derivative, nominal and emotive. The stylistic effect of the lexical means is achieved through the binary opposition of dictionary and contextual or logical and emotive or primary and derivative meanings of a word. A. The first group includes means based on the interplay of dictionary and contextual meanings: Metaphor, Metonymy, Irony. B. The second unites means based on the interaction of primary and derivative meanings: Polysemy, Zeugma and Pun. C. The third group comprises means based on the opposition of logical and emotive meanings: Interjections and exclamatory words, Epithet, Oxymoron. D: The fourth group is based on the interaction of logical and nominal meanings and includes: Antonomasia The principle for distinguishing the second big subdivision according to Galperin is entirely different from the first one and is based on the interaction between two lexical meanings simultaneously materialized in the context. This kind of interaction helps to call special attention to a certain feature of the object described here belong: Simile, Periphrasis, Euphemism, Hyperbole. III. The third subdivision comprises stable word combinations in their interaction with the context: Clichés, Proverbs and sayings, Epigrams, Quotations, Allusions, Decomposition of set phrases [15; 135-160]. 7 As the purpose of the given research encompasses a study of metaphor, we will further concern ourselves with a perspective on stylistic devices that deal with the interaction of dictionary a nd contextual logical meanings, as it is this division that comprises metaphor. The stylistic devices based on this principle are metaphor, metonymy, and irony. A metaphor is defined as a relation between the dictionary and contextual logical meanings based on the affinity or similarity of certain properties of features of two corresponding concepts. The metaphor is well-known semantic way of building new meaning and new words. Metaphors, like all stylistic devices can be classified according to their degree of unexpectedness. Thus metaphors, which are absolutely unexpected, are quite unpredictable, are called genuine metaphors. Those, which are commonly used in speech and therefore are sometimes even fixed in dictionaries and expressive means of language, are trite metaphors, or dead metaphors. V. V. Vinogradov states: " a metaphor, if it is not a cliché, is an act of establishing an individual world outlook, it is an act of subjective isolation Therefore a word a metaphor is narrow, subjectively enclosed, it imposes on the reader a subjective view of the object or phenomenon and its semantic ties. A more thorough look on metaphor will be provided further, in the next subchapters. Metonymy is based on a different type of relation between the dictionary and contextual meanings, a relation based not on affinity, but on some kind of association connecting the two concepts, which these meanings represent. Metonymy used in language-in-action or speech, i.e. contextual metonymy, is genuine metonymy and reveals a quite unexpected substitution of one word for another, or even of one concept for another, on the ground of some strong impression produced by a chance feature of thing. Irony is a stylistic device also based on the simultaneous realization of two logical meanings – dictionary and contextual, but the two meanings stand in opposition to each other. In no other device where we can observe the interplay of the dictionary and contextual meanings, is the latter so fluctuating, suggestive, and dependent on the environment as is irony. Irony must not be confused with humour, although they have much in common. Humour always causes laughter. What is funny must come as a sudden clash of the positive and negative. In this respect irony can be linked to humour. But the function of irony is not confirmed to producing a humorous effect [15; 136-144]. 1.1.3 Syntactical Expressive Means And Stylistic Devices 8 Another fundamental subdivision of stylistic devices according to Galperin is named qualified as syntactical, as they are not paradigmatic, but syntagmatic, or structural means [15; 164-180]. In defining syntactical devices I. R. Galperin proceeds from the following criterion: the structural elements have their own independent meaning and this meaning may affect the lexical meaning. In doing so it may impart a special contextual meaning to some of the lexical units. The principal criteria syntactical stylistic devices are: - the juxtaposition of the parts of an utterance; - the type of connection of the parts; - the peculiar use of colloquial constructions; - the transference of structural meaning. Devices built on the principle of juxtaposition number: Inversion, Detached constructions, Parallel constructions, Chiasmus, Repetition, Enumeration, Suspense, Climax, Antithesis. Devices based on the type of connection of the parts include: Asyndeton, Polysyndeton, Gap- sentence link. Devices united by the peculiar use of colloquial constructions are: Ellipsis, Aposiopesis (break-in-the-narrative), Question in the narrative, Represented speech (uttered and unuttered or inner represented speech). Transferred use of structural meaning devices involve such means as: Rhetorical questions and Litotes. 1.2 Definitions, Origins and Nature of Metaphor The word metaphor has Greek origin and it means “translation (moving), transfer of a word ‘s meaning onto another one.” The metaphor had been widely discussed in rhetoric and in almost all the philological disciplines; it is a basic notion of stylistic studies, as well as those of poetics and aesthetics. Since the ancient times philosophers had analyzed the possibilities of an accurate expression. The art of rhetoric was highly developed in both Greek and roman civilizations. Ample treatises about an attractive expression had been written. And it is the metaphor that was the central figure of ancient rhetoric. Aristotle offers the first definition of metaphor. He says that it is a transfer of the name of an object onto another object; which can be from a category to an item, from an item to a category, or by analogy. In other words, Aristotle implies that metaphor is recognition of 9 objective properties being objectively shared by objective referents in the objective world [6; 52]. But the linguist M. Dolgan [41;14] points out that Aristotle’s definition also implies a formal classification of metaphors, the first classification in aesthetic theory. He asserts, that from the point of view of modern classification of stylistic devices, Aristotle’s notion cannot be accepted entirely, as it makes no difference between metaphor, metonymy and other stylistic devices, but places them all in the field of metaphor. The Romanian linguist Tudor Vianu [38;10] criticizes Aristotle, because the latter had described the notion and its types and varieties, but he hadn’t mentioned why it appeared. The next to examine the problem of metaphor during the ancient period was Cicero, in his work “De Oratore”. He was also the one to dwell upon the cause of emergence of this notion. Cicero shows that the metaphor appeared because of a certain insufficiency of language. There were no expressions for the new notions emerging from human experience, thus, he says, they (the notions) had to be named by the old ones. At the same time Cicero highlights the fact that just as the clothes appeared firstly to protect human body from cold, later becoming ornaments, the same way, the metaphor, firstly imposed by lacks of language, became later an object of rhetoric delight [38; 23]. Other ancient thinkers also used the term “ornament”, but when they did, they either omitted the metaphor from their field (as Aristotle, who said that any name can be provincialized, be it metaphor or ornament; and as Quintilian, who distinguished between “ornaments of language” and “stylistic devices”, separating them into two separate categories. Quintillian shows that only the following qualities of language can be its ornaments: purity, vitality and clarity. He defined an ornament as follows: “an expression cannot be called an ornament of language if it is only clear and plausible. The first step to the perfection of an expression is to grasp with our mind its object; then it is necessary for one to be able to depict it by means of the word, and the third step is to give it decorous shine, so, this is, truly, an ornament”. ) or they expanded it over the field of the stylistic device, as Cicero. The common point is that in both cases, the notion of the “ornament” was attributed a positive semantic content. Cicero’s explanation remained as a cornerstone for many generations of writers of all sort of Poetics and Rhetorics. But in the XVIIIth century Giambatista Vico considered it necessary to rectify the understanding of metaphor as an “ornament”. In his greatest work “Scienza Nuova” (1725), Vico distinguishes a poetic phase of the human spirit, which is prior to the philosophic one, to which the modern scientists belonged [5; 34]. 10 [...]... previously 2.1.3 Metaphors classified according to structure (I.Galperin) According to structure metaphors may be simple and sustained Unlike the simple ones, the sustained metaphors are chains of two and more images created by more than one metaphor • Simple metaphors The agent gunned the sedan across the junction and sped onto a wooded section of Rue Castiglione [45;15] The given metaphor involves... adjectival metaphor, but she considers it less important and structurally similar to the verbal metaphor 1.4.2.2 I R Glaperin’s Classification Let’s now turn to other classifications of metaphor, and firstly, to the one offered by Galperin He classifies the metaphors according to their degree of unexpectedness [15;137] Based on this criterion, there can be genuine, trite/dead and sustained/prolonged metaphors... even was a philosophical work that treated the role of the metaphor in philosophy It was “The Two Great Metaphors Of Philosophy” by Jose Ortega y Gasset Unlike Biese, Ortega does not treat only personifying metaphors He possesses a different conception of metaphor according to which, the terms that replace each other during the process of metaphoric transfer are accompanied by the awareness of their... information, whereas the scientific metaphor, vice versa, goes from more to less The two fundamental metaphors examined by Ortega y Gasset and endlessly studied by cognition theories were the following: the metaphor of consciousness as a board (tabula), where the impressions are recorded and the metaphor of consciousness as a vessel, where ideas are gathered in content If metaphor can help the spirit during... a detailed analysis of metaphors grouped under the above-mentioned criteria and their corresponding groups can be found The analytical comments will refer not only to the criterion that the metaphor will be classified under, but to the stylistic effect and connotations that it creates, as well 2.1.1 Metaphors classified according to the part of speech • Nominal metaphors 25 Metaphors that take the... effect and thus entertain the reader • Verbal metaphors In most cases verbal metaphors are more complex that the nominal or the adjectival ones, as they almost never possess a complete typical metaphor structure (departure term + arrival term) Verbal metaphors are in most cases made of only the arrival term The hall erupted in laughter [45;7] The verbal metaphor erupted creates an effect of immediacy... Types of Metaphor 1.4.1 Structure of Metaphor Thus, we could see that metaphor was defined as a change of meaning, which is based on an elliptical comparison Further we will try to present various linguists’ results of studies and their opinions, concerning the structure and the classification of metaphors The English critic I.A Richards names the tenor and the vehicle as the components of a metaphor, ... realities Vianu also concludes that metaphor is psychologically sustained by the perception of a certain unity of the objects by means of the differences between them From the logical point of view, metaphor implies a considerably high level of abstractization, because mind (in order to realize the metaphor) has to execute a double operation of elimination Firstly, by means of metaphoric transfer, it must... prolonged metaphor Galperin comments on them as follows [15; 138]: “Trite metaphors are sometimes injected with new vigour, i.e their primary meaning is re-established alongside the new (derivative) meaning This is done by supplying the central image created by the metaphor with additional words bearing some reference to the main word” Galperin appoints several terms to describe the sustained metaphor. .. phenomenon of metaphor 1.5 Functions and Roles of Metaphor The origins and functions of metaphor are closely interconnected In the above-mentioned work, T.Vianu tries to point out the connection between the first original functions of this trope and its later functions The answer to this question is found in G Vico’s works [38; 36] Vianu considers Vico the modern founder of the philosophy of metaphor Defining . Quantitative Analysis of Metaphors in Dan Brown’s Novels 25 2.1 Analysis of Metaphors in “The Da Vinci Code” 25 2.1.1 Metaphors classified according to the part of speech 25 2.1.2 Metaphors classified. Metaphor 9 1.3 Modern Theories about Metaphor and Its Attribution to the Terms Figure and Trope 13 1.4 Structure and Types of Metaphor 17 1.5 Functions and Roles of Metaphor 22 CHAPTER II: Qualitative. 29 2.1.3 Metaphors classified according to structure (I.Galperin) 32 2.1.4 Metaphors classified according to the presence of departure and arrival terms (E. Slave) 34 2.2 Analysis of Metaphors