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PART III Sentence Stmcture 169 CHAPTER Types of Sentences ^ • : ♦ i I o ' » • i < t Thai manuscript Clauses Clauses are the building blocks o f sentences A clause is a group o f words that contains (at least) a subject and a verb These are clauses: These are not clauses: ecology is a Science to protect the environment because pollution causes cancer after working ail day There are tvvo kinds o f clauses: independent and dependent 170 Chapter 10 Types o f Sentences hưỉependent Cỉauses An independent claiise contains a subject and a verb and expresses a compleíe thought It can stand alone as a sentence by itselí An independent clause is funned vvith subject verb (+ complement) Students normally spend four years in college I will declare my major’ now, but I may change it later Many international students experience cuỉture shock when they tome to the United States Independent Cỉauses A dependent clause begins with a subordinator such as when, whiỉe, if, íhaí, or who A dependent clause does not express a complete thought and cannot stand alone as a sentence by itselí A dependent clause is íormed with suborđinator + subject verb (+ complement) although students normally spend four years In college if I đeclare my major now when they come to the United States who was accepted at Harvard University that the experiment was a success A partial list o f subordinators tbllovvs in the chart o f clause connectors Stuđy th chart, and then refer to it when you Practice I Clause Connectors Three groups o f vvords are used to connect clauses in order to form different kinds c sentences They are subordinators (subordinating conjunctions), coordinators (cooi dinating conjunctions), and conjunctive adverbs ’ declare my major: officially register a major field o f study vvith the university Part III Sentence Structure CLAUSE CONNECTORS SUBORDINATORS (SUBORDINATING C0NJUNCT10NS) aíter before that when vvhich aỉthough as as if as soon as because even though hovv if since so that though unỉess until what vvhenever vvhiỉe who vvhom vvhose vvhere vvherever \vhether COORDINATORS (COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS) You can remember the seven coordinators by the phrase FAN BOYS: for and nor but or yet so C0NJUNCT1VE ADVERBS accordingly furthermore in contrast meanwhiỉe besides consequently for example hence hovvever in addition ỉndeed instead likewise moreover otherwise nevertheless therefore nonetheless thus on the other haind PRACTICE I lỉìdependeiu and Dependent Ciaiises Write ỈNDEP next to the independent clauses and put a period (.) after them Write DEP next to the dependent clauses Jet ỉag affects most ỉong-distance travelers Which is simply the urge to slcep at inappropriate times During long journeys through several time 70nẹs, the body's iniicrclock is disrupted For some reason, travel from west to east causes greater jet lagthantravel fro)m east to vvest Also, changes in vvork schedules can cause jet lag When hospita! nurses change from a day shiíìt to a night shift,for example Although there is no sure vvay to prevent jet ỉag There are some ways to minimize it Because jet lag is caused at least partialỉy by ỉost o f sleep, not just a change ini the time o f sleep 10 A traveler should plan to arrive at his or her destination as late as possible 11 Upon arriving, he or she should iinmediately go to bed 12 Then the traveler should start to live in.the new time frame immediately 72 Chapter 10 Types o f Sentences Khuls o/Seníences A sentence is a group of vvords that you use to comrnunicate your iđeas Every scntence is íormed from one or more clauses and expresses a complete thoưght There are basically four kinds o f sentences in English: simple, compound, compỉex, and compound-compĩex The kind o f sentence is determined by the kind o f cỉauses used to form it Sùnpie Sentences A simple sentence is one independent clause / eỉỹoy pỊaving tennis \vith mv/riends every> \veekenci ỉ Cìỹoy plaỵing tennis and ỉook fon\'cird to it every \veekend M yfriends and ỉ pỉay íennis and go bo\vling evcỉy \ị'eekend Notice that the second sentence has two verbs, enjoy and ỉook /onvarci to This is called a compound verb Because there is only one clause, this is a simple sentence The third sentence has a compound subject as vvell as a compound verb, but it is still a simple sentence because it has only one cỉause PRACTICE Simpỉe Sentences Write two simple sentenceswith one subject and one verb Write two simple senlencesvvith one subject and two verbs Write two simple sentericesvvith tvvo subjects and tvvo verbs Contpound Sentences A compound sentence is two or more independent clauses joined together There are three vvays to join the cỉauses: With a coordinator ! enjov tennis, but hate golf With a conjunctive adverb 1enjoy tennis; hoNvever, I hate í;olf With a semicolon 1enịoy tennis; hate goir Let's study each type of compound sentence in more detail ỉ, Compoiitui Setìíences with Coordinors A compound sentence can be formed as follows: Independení clause, + coordinator + independent clause Notice that there is a comma after the ĩirst independent clause The following sentences iỉlustraíe the meanings o f the seven "FAN BOYS' coordinators 17* Part III Sentence Structure for and Women live longer than men, for they take better care o f their Health (The second clause gives the reason for the first clause.) Women follow more healthíul diets, and they go to doctors more oíten (The tvvo clauses express equal, similar ideas) nor Women don't smoke as much as men do, nor they drink as much alcohol (Nor means "and not," It joins two negative independent clauses Notice that question vvord order is used after nor,) but Men may exercise harder, but they may not exercise as regularly as vvomen (The two clauses express equal, contrasting ideas.) or Both men and vvomen should ỉimit the amount o f fat in their diets, or they risk getting heart disease (The two clauses express altemative possibilities.) yet VVomen used to be known as the "vveaker sex," Jet in some ways, they are stronger than men (The second clause is a surprising or unexpected contrast to the first clause.) so Men are ỉess cautious than vvomen, so more men die in accidents (The second clause is the result o f the ĩirst clause.) PRACTICE Compoimd Sentences wỉíh Coordìnators A Add another independent cỉause to the íollovving independent clauses to form compound sentences Be sure to vvrite a complete clause containing a subject and a verb Circle the coordinator and add punctuation Example The college campus is located in the center o f the citv, @ it is verv easv to mv shopping _ ì Students can attend day classes and _ Students can live in dormitories or í have finished my math homevvork but I have studied English for six years yet My adviser suggested a word Processing class for Some students not like to Nvrite term papers nor The instructor gave us eight vveeks to vvrite our term papers yet 174 Chapter 10 Types o f Sentences Most students had not even chosen a topic nor _ The instructor vvas very upset for 10 My roommate scored very lìigh on the English placement test so B For each pair o f sentences belovv, choose a coordinator that best fits the meaning and join the two independent clauses to form a compound sentence Use each FAN BOYS coordinator once Write your new sentences on a separate sheet o f paper, and punctuate them correctly Example Nuclear accidents can happen Nuclear poNver plants must have strict safety Controls Niiclear accidents can happen, so nuclear povver plants must have strict saíetv Controls The accident at the nuclear power plant at Three Mile Isỉand in the United States created fears about the safety o f this energy source The disaster at Chernobyl in the former Soviet Union confirmed' them Solar heating systems are economical to operate The cost o f installation is very high Energy needs are not going to decrease Energy sources are not going to increase (Use nor and question word order in the second clause, deleting the vvord noí.) Buming fossil íuel causes serious damage to our planet We need to develop other sources o f energy Ecologists knovv that burning íossil fuels causes holes in the ozone layer Peopỉe continue to it Poorer nations especially wịlỉ continue this harmful practice They don't have the money to develop "clean” energy sources All nations o f the world must take action Our children and grandchildren wiỉl suffer the consequences c On a separale sheet o f paper, write sevcn compound sentences o f your ovvn, using each coordinator once 2, Compouĩui Seníences with Conjuncíìve Adverhs A compound sentence can also be íornied as follows: I independent clau se ; co n ju n ctive adverb, + independent cỉau se Notice the punctuation: a semicolon íoỉlovvs the firsí independent clause, and a comma follows the conjunctive adverb Also, just like the FAN BOYS coordinators, conjunctive adverbs express relationships betvveen the clauses The following chart shovvs the coordinators and conjunctive adverbs that express similar meanings confirmed: proved that they vvere correct 175 Part lfl Sentence Structure C o m p o u n d S e n te n c e : w ith C O IIju n c iìv e A d v e rb s C0NJUNCT1VE ADVERBS COORDINATORS besides íurthermore and moreover also hovvever but nevertheless yet nonetheless or otherwise SENTENCE Community colleges offer preparalion for many occupations; moreover, they prepare students to transfer to a fouryear coilege or university Many community colỉeges not have dormitories; hovvever; they provide housing referral services Students must take fmal exams; otherwise, they vvill receive a grade o f incompỉete accordingly consequently hence so therefore Native and nonnative English speakers have different needs; thereíore, most schools provide separate English classes for each group thưs PRACTICE A Add another independent clause to each independent clause that follows to íorm compound sentences Be sure to add a complete clause containing a subject and a verb Circle the conjunctive adverb and add punctuation Notice that some o f these sentences are from Practice 3A on pages 174-175 Example The college campus is ỉocated in the center o f the city; |therefore,| it is verv easv to mv shopping _ Students can attend day classes m oreover _ Students can live in dormitories othervvise I have fínished my maữ homevvork hovvever have studied English for six years nevertheỉess The instructor gave us eight vveeks to vvrite our term papers nonetheless M y roommate scored very high on the English placement test consequentỉy 176 Chapter 10 Types of Sentences B On a separate sheet o f paper, combine the pairs o f sentences in items 2, 4, 5, and írom Practice 3B on page 175, using conjunctive adverbs Instead o f Coordinators Punctuate your new sentences correctỉy Exampĩe Nuclear acGÌdents can happen Nưcỉear power piants should have strict saíety Controls Nucỉear ơccicients can happerì: thereiịre, nucỉear power plants should have strict saieív controỉs c On a separate sheet o f paper, write four compound sentences, using each o f these conjunctive adverbs once: /uríherm ore, however, iherefore, and oíhenvise i Compound Senteuces with Semicoỉons A compound sentence can also be formed with a semicolon alone; Independent clause; independent ciause My older brother studies law; my younger brother studies medicine Poland was the first Eastern European country to turn away from communism; others soon followed This kind o f compound sentence is possỉbỉe onỉy vvhen the two ỉndependent cỉauses are closely reỉated in meaning Ị f they aren't closely related, they shouỉd be vNTÌtten as tvvo simple sentences, each ending vvitlì a period PRACTICE5 Compound SetUences Wỉíh Semicoỉons A Place a semicolon betvveen the two independent clauses in the íolỉovving compouncl sentences The American way o f ỉife apparentỉy does not foster’ marital happiness hair o f aỉl American marriages end in divorce Motherhood causes some vvomen to qiiit their jobs others continue vvorking despite having young children to care for Three hundred guests attended his vvedding two attended his íuneral B Write three compound sentences o f yoiir ovvn, using a semicolon to jo in the independent clauses PRAGXrCE Comhiniỉĩg Simpie Seníences Use what you have learned about forming compoưnd sentences to improve the followỉng mini-essay, vvhicli contains many short, simple sentences Combine sentences vvherever possibỉe Try to use each o f the three methods at least once There is not just one correct vvay to combine the sentences: there are many possible vvays ĩoster: encourage 177 Part III Sentence Structure Robots robot is a mechanical device that can períorm boring, dangerous, and dlfficult tasks ^First of all, robots can pertorm repetitive tasks vvithout becoming tired or bored ^ h e y are used in automobile íactories to weld‘ and paint “^Robots can also íunction in hostile environments ^ h e y are useíul for exploring the ocean bottom as welí as deep outer space ®Finally, robots can pertorm tasks requiring pinpoint accuracy ^!n the operating room, robotic equipment can assist the surgeon ®For instance, a robot can kiỉl a braln tumor ®lt can operate on a fetus“ with great precislon ^°The íield of artiíicial intelligence Is giving robots a limited abiỉity to think and to make decisions ^^However, robots cannot think conceptually '^Robots cannot íunction independently ^^Humans have to program them ^^They are useless (Use otherwise to combine sentences 13 and 14.) ^^heretore, humans should not worry that robots wi!l take over the world-at least not yet Wríting Technìque Questỉons What is the main idea o f each paragraph? What sentences State the main ideas? What method o f organization is used to develop the first paragraph? Complex Sentences A complex sentence contains one independent clause and one (or more) dependent cỉause(s) In a complex sentence, one idea is generally more important than the other One The more important idea is placed in the independent clause, and the less important idea is placed in the dependent clause There are three kinds o f dependent clauses: adverb, adjective, and noun The follow ing chart presents an overvievv o f them You vviỉl study all o f these kinds o f clauses in greater detaiỉ in Chapters 11,12 and 13 DEPENDENT CLAƯSES ADVERBSCLAUSES A dependent adverb clause begins Nvith an adverbiaỉ subordinator such as when, while, because, although if, so that etc Although women in the United States could own property, they could not vote until 1920 In the United States, women could not vote untiỉ 1920 although they could own property Notice that there are two possible positions for an adverb clause: beíore or after the inđependent cỉause I f it comes beíore the independent clause, it is foỉỉowed by a comma (sentence 1) I f it comes after the independent clause, no comma is used (sentence 2) ' weld: join metaỉ by applying heat " fetus: unbom baby 178 Practicc 4: Reason Ciauscs, pp 217-218 A Ansvvers may vary Sample ansvvers: (Bccause) r-luropeans experienccd hardship and dep riva tio n d u rin g and a fte r W o rld W ar 11, they are Iiscd to conserving Lr^uropean nations arc try in ii to reduce the level o f carbon d io x id e in the atmosphere (because) it causes global vvarming (S ince) coal poHutes the a ir and gives o f f a lot o f carbon d io x id e , most European nations have svvitched to naturaỉ gas 01* nuclear povver to produce e le c tric ity In the U nited States, in conlrast, 56 percent o f the nation's e le c tric ỉty is generated bv b iirn in g coal (because) coal is cheap and p le n tiíu l The p a iiia m e n ta ry system in Europe is diíTerent (as) a European head o f g overnm ent has more pow er than an A m erican president to force in d ustry to make e n v iro n m e n t-ĩrie n d ỉy changes B Ansvvers vvill vary Pnicíice 5: Rcsult Cỉaiises, pp 218-219 A.Ansvvers may vary Sample ansNvers: The A n cie n t Peru e xh ib it was (so popuỉar tlìat) it was ỉieỉd o ver ío r tvvo weeks The artiTacts vvere o f (such h istoric value that) anthropologists fro m several Iin ive rsitie s came to study them riìe exhib lts were (so precioiis Ihat) a museLim guard vvas posted in every room C o m p ute r graphics alỉovved the e xhibit's curators to present the ỉives o f anciení Peruvians (so re a listica lly that) you felt that you vvere there 'I here vvere (so m any exhibits tlia tì V.'C Cúưiơnì see all o f them B A nsw ers w ill vary Pracíicc 6: Purpose Clauses, pp 219-220 A.Ansvvcrs may vary Saiĩìple answers: C hem icals arc used in many ĩood Products (so tlia t) they vvill stay fresh ỉonger M ust riỉìcis uso LỈìcinical íc i1 ili/c rs and pesticidcs (in orcler ihat) ihey can increase food crops (In o rd er *.liar) they can produce organic crops, some Tarmers use o n iy naturaỉ pest controỉ methods í^cơplc pay m orc fo r orí;anic íarin produce (so thai) they can avoid food w ith chem icals Tỉìcy preTer eating orgaiìic íbod (in order that) ihey might avoid potenti health risks B Ans\vers vvill vary 323 Practice 7: Concession (Unexpected Result) Clauses, p.220-221 A Ansvvers m ay vary Sample ansNvers; Beethoven vvrote some o f the Western w orỉd's greatest m usic (tlio u g h ) *he 3Ccanìe to ta lly d e a f in m id -life (A ỉth o u g h ) globaỉ w a rm in g is a real problem , governm ents havc been s>ỉov [0 take action (Even though) K orea is a sm all country vvith fe\v natural resoiirces, it an econom ic superpovver b‘ccm ing A braham L in co ln became one o f the great presidents o f the U nited Statỉesthouí>h he came fro m hum ble origins (A lth o u g h ) scientists knovv vvhy earthquakes happen, they are s till not a b b to p re d ict íhem (Even though) fax machines appeared o n ly recently, they are novv the pìreened means o f tra n sm ittin g business documents B Ansvvers vviỉl vary Practice 8: Contrast (Direct Opposition) Adverbial Clauses, p 222 A Ansvvers m ay vary Sample ansvvers: (W h iỉe ) the W est Coast suffered a severe drought, the East Coast had hỉea'y in ía ll The Northvvest in fa ll averages hundreds o f inches ann u ally, (vvhereasO lic Southvvest averages less than tNvelve inches per year The a ir is p ollute d in in d ustria l areas, (w h ile ) the a ir is clean in m any num aieas (\V hereas) smokers cla im the rig h t to smoke in p u b lic places, nonsm ok.er cla in i the rig h t to clean air s C ollege graduates vvith degrees in technology are in dem and, (w h ile ) Giraiuates vvith degrees in m usic are not The most recent spacecraữ landed in the desert, (vvhile) e a rlie r spaceshiip spỉashed dovvn in the ocean B Ansvvers w ill vary NVriting Practice, pp 224-225 A A nsw ers m ay vary Sample ansvvers: I bought aỉl o f m y textbooks as soon as I got iTiy class schedule T om rode the subw ay as far as he could A s I had the rig h t q u a liílc a tio n s and d id w e ll in the interview s, the c o m ip n y hired me I study in the lib ry in order that I can Lise the com puters there to nny ìiath problem s s A fte r com plete m y bachelor's degree, I vvill study fo r a master's degrcee I registered fo r m y cỉasses early so that I vvould kn o w m y schedule A serious student spends lim e stud yin g because he/she wants to succeed T o m wanted to becoine a d octor although his grades w eren’t good eno)ug to gct into m edical school 324 Even ihoLigh it is aíiainst th cir parents' vvishes, niany youníí couples p reíer liv in g together 10 P o lliitio n becomcs a problem w herever there arc a lot o f autom obiles I C ity liv in g is stressÍLiỉ, \vhereas co un try liv in g is peacetul 12 A singỉe person Icads a careĩree life , w h ile a m arried person has a lot o f resp onsibiỉities B “ A H a rro w in g E xperience” Ansxvers may vary Sample parauraph: Scveral years a " , vvhiỉe I was d riv in g íovvard M ia m i from Tampa, a tire on rny old Toyota blew OLit As soon as ỉ reaỉized my problem, broLight my car to a stop on the side o f tỉu ‘ hiíỉhvvay W h ile was checking the dainaged tire, a man stopped his car A lth o u ^ h he c oLild noi help m e , ỉ w a s g la d h e vvas there Beíore he left, he t o ld m e tlia t he vvould n o tify the higỉnvay palroL A fte r he ỉeft, I felt nervoLis again because it vvas dark, foggy, and \vjndy XVhenever savv a car approaching, thoiight it was someone Corning to help me A íte r an hour had passed, savv the íla shing lights o f a tow truck, and m y heart sang songs o t'jo y lỊe Ịo re the d riv e r w o u ld tovv my car lo M ia m i, had to pay h im since I d id n 't carry insuranee Novv, vvherever I decide to go, double check in y car before I leave Even th UL’J i I carry insurance, stiỉỉ don't vvant to have such a frig h te n in g experience again Editing Practice, Adverbial Ciauses, pp 225-226 C o n ectio n s may vary Sam ple corrections: ( D A lot o f people enjoy surííng the Net (2) They look fo r interesting W ebsites and chat vviíỉi people aỉl o ver the vvorld (3) Hovvever, some people spend so many hoLirs o n -lin e that they are Internet addicts (4 ) A ltho u gh an average person spends about eight to txvelve lìOLirs por vveek, an addict spends eiglìt to twelve hourẳ per day on-line (5 ) W hen addicts spencl s o m u c h t i m e i nteracting witli the Computer, it can: a f f e ct their l iv e s n e g a t i v e l y ( ) They become social recluses because they stop going out and ta lk in g to people face-to-face (7 ) Thev avoid re a l-liíe situations, p re fe rring instead ío be in a đ im ly lit roonì w ith o n ly the oỊovving screen to ỉig ht up th e ir lives (8 ) Internet a dd ictio n n egatively affects not o nly the addicts themselves, but aỉso the people uroiind them (9 ) Por exam ple, John‘s marriage to M arta broke up because he insistcd on spencling so many hours on the Nel (10) As SOI as he a rrive tl hiìe fro !ìi work, he \vas at his Computer ( I I ) As soon as he íìnished dinner, he vvouỉd disappear into hls Computer room again (12) He paid so ỉittle altention to her that she fm ally divorced him 325 (1 ) A s college students are especiaỉly tech n oỉo g icalỉy skille d , they can easily become nonstop N et-surfers.* (1 ) M a n y coỉleges provide com puters at several locations around campus so that students can use them at any tim e day o r n ig ht (1 ) A s a rcsult, students can spend too m uch tim e s u rfin g the N et instead o f ’ surĩing" th e ir textbooks (1 ) Last semester, nine freshm en at B erkshire C ollege ílu n ke d out because they became Internet addicts (1 ) ỉn short, even though the Internet is an excellent source o f in ĩo rm a tio n and entertainm ent, we m ust not let it take over o ur ỉives 326 C li i ì p t c r 13: R c liitiv e C ỉa iis e s P riic tlc c 1: R e s tric tiv c and N o n rc s tric tiv c Cỉauscs, pp 229-230 (Nỉ