Phương pháp tự rèn luyện kỹ năng viết tiếng Anh học thuật: Phần 1

Phần 1 cuốn sách Phương pháp tự rèn luyện kỹ năng viết tiếng Anh học thuật giới thiệu tính chất và tiến trình viết học thuật; cung cấp tổng quan về đoạn, thảo luận một cách chi tiết các đoạn,... Mời các bạn cùng tham khảo nội dung chi tiết.

í^ Ý lt ln HCADEMIC ENGLISH ANSWER KEY T h i r d E d l t i o n Luyện Ky năngviẽt TiếngAnh Học thuật HÓHGĐƠC (Giới thiệu) Ạ U ổ c Ạ n u c ế L n n ^ s k íM * H NHÀXUẨTBẢN HỐNGDỨC a ỹ m LUYỆN KỸ NĂNG VlẾT TlẾNG ANH HỌC THUẬT ACADEMIC WRITING ENGLISH NHÀ XUẤT BẢN VĂN HÓA H N G ĐỨC LỜ I G IỚ I TH IỆ U Bạn đane cầm tay ấn Writing Academic Engỉish, hay The Oshima Book ~ lấy theo tên hai tác aiả sách - giáo trinh thuộc hàng kinh điển kỹ viết học thuật Có thể nói khơng lời ràng người dạy người học inôn Viết cấp độ nâno cao sử dụng trực tiếp gián tiếp cung đà nghe nhác đến giáo trình VVriting Academic English có mặt trontĩ hầu hết chương trình dạy kỹ viết nâng cao cho sinh viên trường đại học chuvcn n"ữ ngành đòi hỏi cấp độ thông thạo cao môn viết tiếng Anh luật, báo chí, văn chương v.v Sức hấp dẫn \Vriting Academic English không tham vọng tác già muốn trở thành ‘ giáo trình lý thuyết/ thực hành tu từ cấu trúc câu mang tính tồn diện dành cho sinh viên học tiếng Anh ngoại ngữ cấp độ đại học dự bị đại học nước nêu trinh bày chi tiết với đầy đủ phần định nghĩa, liệt kê tiểu nục tập thực hành Chương cunu cấp tổng quan đoạn Chương đề cập đến cấu trúc đoạn paragraph structure) câu chủ đề (topic sentence) Bạn đọc tìm thấy chương ìhững khái niệm mang tính sở ba phần đoạn [câu chủ đề (topic sentence), :âu hỗ trợ (supporting sentences) câu kết ỉuận (concỉuding sentence)], tính quán unity) tính mạch lạc (coherence), dạng thức làm (assignment ĩormat) Chương thảo luận cách chi tiết thành phần nêu chươnii 2: chương có trọng tâm tính qn (unity) chương bàn tính mạch lạc (coherence) Có thể hiểu tầm quan trọng chúng việc hình thành đoạn văn chuẩn mực tác giả dành trọn chương cho mồi vếu tố Chương giới thiệu phương pháp tổ chức ý đoạn văn theo trật tự thời gian (chronological order), theo mức độ quan trọng (order of importance), theo trật tự hợp lý (logical order) theo dạng thức so sánh - tương phản (comparison - contrast) úng VỚI trật tự đoạn văn mẫu để minh họa, theo sau câu hỏi để hình thành nhận thức tính chất loại tập thực hành Bạn đọc tìm thấy bảníi kê tác từ ngữ chuyến mạch đặc trưng cho trật tự để tham khảo áp dụng Chương chương - giới thiệu phương pháp hồ trợ cự thể cho câu chủ đề đoạn Đánh giá tầm quan trọng chi tiết hỗ trợ cho câu chủ đề, tác giả cho vấn đề lớn mà học viên gặp phải viết họ thường không chứng minh luận điểm minh mà thay vào đó, chất đầy viết ý kiến khái qt hóa khơng có chi tiết mang tính kiện để hỗ trợ Các chi tiết hỗ trợ bao gồm nhiều loại khác nhau: ví dụ, số liệu thống kê, trích dẫn, diễn ý, tóm tắt v.v ■ Phần gồm chương, có trọng tâm kỹ viết tiểu iuận: Chương cung cấp tổng quan tiểu luận, nêu lên thành phần (đoạn mở đầu, đoạn kết thúc, đoạn thân từ ngữ chuyển mạch đoạn) tiến trình viết tiểu luận Chương thảo luận phương pháp tổ chức ý tiểu luận dựa trật tự nêu chương 5, phần Tuy tính chất loại trật tự tổ chức ý giống nhau, cần lưu ý phạm vi tổ chức ý chương toàn bải tỉểu luận khơníi í^iơi hạỉì ỏ đoạn nêu chương Từ thấy tiểu luận ta sử dụng nhiều trật tự tồ chức ý: trật tự tồn tiểu luận nhiều trậl tự khác cho đoạn thành phần ■ Phần gồm chương, có trọng tâm cấu trúc câu Đây phần thưởng thấ> đa số giáo trình viết, đơn giản khơng thể có viết tốt người viết phạrr nhiều lỗi “ ngữ pháp” cho dù ý tưởng có hay đến đâu Điểm khác biệt WritinL Academic English số giáo trình viết tên tuổi khác - chẳng hạn \Vriting Clearly chỗ giáo trình hướng trọng tâm vào ngữ pháp - theo đún< nghĩa hẹp từ - NVriting Academic English hướng trọng tâm vào cú pháf (syntax) với phạm vi thảo luận mệnh đề câu từ loại Sỗ vội vàng chi quan để cố gắng đến kết luận hướng trọng tâm tốt hơn, vỉ điều cịn tùy thuội nhiều vào đối tượng học viên sử dụng sách; riêng \Vriting Academic English, hướng trọng tâm cú pháp hợp lý xét đến đối tượng học viên nêu phần đầu giới thiệu ■ Phần phụ lục cung cấp liệt kê cách dùng dấu chấm câu (Phụ lục 1), từ ngữ chuyển mạch (Phụ lục 2), hướng dẫn cách làm viết điều kiện có áp lực thời gian (Phụ lục 3) ký hiệu sửa lỗi (Phụ lục 4) Ấn bàn lần thứ \Vriting Academic English bao gồm nhiều bổ sung cập nhật đề mục nội dung hình thức trình bày so với ấn lần thứ hai trước (chẳng hạn đề mục tái sẳp xếp sách gồm phần so với phần trước đây, mẫu tập tái biên soạn, mục tham chiếu xuất lề sách v.v ) Thêm vào đó, chúng tơi sưu tầm kết hợp bổ sung phần đáp án cho tập cuối sách để phục vụ việc tự học bạn đọc (cũng cần biết :ác tập cùa sách thường gây không khó khăn cho học viên - chí cho :ác vị giáo viên người ngữ) Cho dù bạn đọc sử dụng Writing Academic English với mục đích làm giáo trình loặc giáo trình thực hành, bạn thấy nội dung sách đáp ứng đầy đủ cho nhu cầu 5ạn môn viết - đặc biệt viết đoạn văn viết tiểu luận Chắc chẳn bạn khơng cảm hấy ngạc nhiên khó hiểu giáo trình lại tái nhanh lại lược đánh giá cao HÒNG Đ ÚC Contcnts P re fa c e To íhc SHidení PART I W riting a Paragraph The Process o f Academic VVriting Introduction The Writing Process, Stage I: Prevvriting Step 1: Choosing and Narrovvinií a Topic Step 2: Brainstorm iniĩ The Writỉng Process, Stage II: Planning (Outlining) Step ỉ; Making Sublists Step 2: W riting the Topic Scntence Step 3: O u tlin iim The Writing Process, Stage lỉỉ: \Vriting and Revising Drafts Step 1: W riting the First Rouuh Draft Step 2: Revisine Content and Organization Step 3: Prooíreading the Second D Step 4: W ritiim the Finaỉ C o p y Revievv VVhat Is a Paragraph? An Overview introduction Paragraph S tructiire The Three Parts o f a Paragraph Unity and Coherence The Pinished Assiíinment Pormat Writing on a Com puter Hovv to Write a T itle The Topic Sentence Posỉtion o f Topic Sentences The Two Parts o f a Topic Sentence \Vriting Topic Sentences The Concludiniỉ Sentence Revievv Unity and O utlining Unity Paragraph Outlining The 'Tarallel Form" Rule The ” Equivaỉent Value” Rule: Outlinesvvith Details Revievv Coherence 44 46 48 48 53 54 55 56 58 Introduction 58 Repetition o f Key Nouns 59 Use o f Consistent Pronouns Transition Signals Types o f Transition Signals Logical Order Review 60 61 62 69 71 Kinds o f Logical O rder Introduction Chronoìogical Order Topic Sentences for Chronological Order Transition Signals for Chronological Order Logical Division o f Ideas/Order o f Importance Transition Signals for Logical Divisiono f ideas Transition Signals for Ordero f Importance Topic Sentences for LogicalDivision/Order o f Importance Two Topic Sentence Tips Comparison/Contrast Transiíion Signals for Comparison/Contrast Revievv Concretc Support I 74 74 75 76 77 79 80 81 81 82 83 84 85 89 Introduction Facts versus Opinions Concrete Supporting Details Examples/Extended Examples Statistics 89 90 91 93 95 Revievv 98 Part 6S WriÊỉfig íìn Essí\y CAUSF Ị^copỉc movc inio nevv areas and cỉcar land tbr vìíiricuirc hv cuttinii down trecs EPPECT The irec roots no lonucr ỉìold ĩhe soi Ị jii place CAUSL The tree rooís doĩi‘ĩ hoid the soil in place lT F ÍX T The topsoil washes avvay diiriim heavv rains CAUSE The topsoil \vashes av\ay durinu heavv rains I V nPPECT There is no uood soil 10 urovv crops in CAUSE Therc is no i;ood soìl to Iirovv crops in ỉ-í'Ỉ'RCT Pcoplc inove to ncvv areas and clear ỉand bv cuttiníj, down trecs, Manv o f the most common cause and eíTect siriicture vvords are listed in thu rolỉovvinự chart Learn to usc ditTereni Oỉies so thai VOLI don't aỉvvays use hecause in your senieiiccs CAUSE S T R U C TU R r NVORDS SL-NTF.NCE CONNFXTOKS CLAUSE CONNECTOKS SUIỈORDINATORS COOKDINATORS lor bccaubc ị siỉicc Ị ị as O T ỈIT R S i Ị i 1 to result rVoiii to bc the rcsult oi' diic to bccausc of thc eíĩcct o f the consequencc o f as a result oỉ' as a consequence o f Note: The sentence numbers correspond to the chart numbers Examples In the Ỉ980s and 1990s, the u.s Government passed nevv immiíiration laws, for many peopỉe vvere conccrned about illegal immigration Because/Siiầcc/As most iỉlei;al immiízrants enter the United States seeking employment, a 1986 law tried to counteract’ this by ílniriii" employers vvho hire iỉlega! immigrants counteract: cancel the effects o f “ íining: charging a tlnancial penalty 154 Ten years ỉcr, ;ì ỉau ÌÌ!' ÌI 1P,U LOvcnvỉìor.i :j-s?sĩancc to in'ìmiL'.ranLs rcsuU cd íroiĩi/was the rcsuỉi o ĩ sonìc peopỉc's CiV;ceni ibou: iho Ci\sl o f iínmigrants ĩo taxpayers l'he United StaK's has úJu",i\s wuịc(^” ìc.': pc(>pỉc ^vhr- icave íheir h o iììclar.ii bccaiise ()f/duc‘ to \vnr or piMca! porsccL:,Vi.' Not onh’ iilogai biì' aỉsií ici:a' )iiìr::ỉ:;r:v::s ỉcit '' h' cííccis • lW )ỉavv As H re siiit o f/A s :-í :;^c 11 conscquencc oi líìc 1^)96 ỉa\v, íciiaỉ Iiììniii:rariíỉ> Vs) ici PAU bccome U.S citízens vvcro Hi) ỉonucr cỉig;bỉc tbr certaiĩì boncíỉỉs FJF riC T STRljC'l ’ÙRF W( )RDS ii C L A l Sh C(^NNF^' n')RS Ị s tN T íN a ; ịcONNECTORS TORS ỉ as a 'csult as a :onsequence íhercbrc ; ị v n n c K 1COORDiNA I IỊ se ! Ị Ih llS ■ cons:quentlv hencí , ■ ; SUBOKDiN I > ! ATORS ' Ị I \ ^ ■ ■ to resuỉĩ \n cause ! t í )havca c o n ìo Í ^ í ì c r t 15 ihe cati^e r ■ ĩhc fi'! ! ! ! ị : ' Exỉiĩiplcs ĩhc ỉ 906 lavv eliniinaĩcd inany bcncílts i’or iiai immii^ranis v^íiu haj not 0CC0ÌT5C :itizens; as ii result/as íỉ conscqucnce/ Uỉercíore/ ttìias/ conscqiiiMiỉẩy/ 'Íiícnci: nost o f í hem appỉied ỉbr citi/cnship VVclfare assistance íb r im n ìig n is was rcstricícci ?Ỉ0 cven in v n m rìts 'Vi',.' vcre poor and nccdy coưỉd not rcceive aid rhc ne\v lau rcsuỉícd in/caiiscd an ìnìireJiate íncrcasc I.ì ihe nunibcr -ìí ipplications for ciíi/cnship rhc ncv\ law also had an ícct iíì/ìưTc( itJ suider.ts and busincsspeopic 'isas vvho overstaycd thcìr ViSa time )verstavirm a vi;sa bccarnc ì eaiise */’4 íor bcinu baiTcd^ rrcíĩ.! v ỉ.'iìlted ílalos íor ihree or IHÍMC scars m m s ẳ Ẽ HeaĩỉniitiìỊỊ Causc Siructurc H :ìrds S'1'ỈP i Undcrỉinc the part or tlìc scntencc thai sĩaĩcs a causc STÍP Circỉe the vvord or vvords that introduce thc cause STIP Be abỉe to discuss íhc use GÍ each structure vvord or phrase thaĩ you havc cled What kind o f urammaticaỉ struclure ĩolỉovvs cach one? Notice especìally the dirterence betwec!ì liìc lise o f hccuKse and hecause of ‘ persecuion: bad treiìient becausc o f racc, reỉigion, or poỉitics ^ barrcd: )rohibited from entering 155 Part II W ritin g an Essay Example The Computer is a learning tooỉ Ịsince it helps child ren to m aster maiÌỊ and lanm iaụe skiỉls Due to the ability o f computers to keep records o f sales and inventory, niany big department stores rely on them A inedical Computer system is an aid to physicians because o f its a b ility 10 interpret data from a patient’s history and provide a diagnosis.’ (How vvould you re\vrite this sentence Iising hecouse instead of hecause q/7) War, famine, and ethnic vioỉence have caused a ílood o f reíugees in the past fifty years Hollyvvood movies are knovvn for their special effects because American audiences seem to demand them Since European audiences seem to prefer inovies that explore psychological or p hiloso p hical issues, European m ovies are generaỉỉy q u ie te r and m ore thoLight provoking Smoa results from chemical air pollutants being trapped under a ỉayer o f \varm air The patient’s death vvas the result of the doctor’s negligence." Little is known about life on the ocean floor, for scientists have only recently developed the technology to explore it One effect o f prolonged vveightlessness is the loss o f muscỉe tons,' which can be a problem for astronauts vvho spend long periods o f time in space PRACTICE Recogniiing Effect Striicture Words STEP Underline the part o f the sentence that states an eííect STEP Circle the vvord or vvords that introduce the etTect STEP Be able to discuss the use o f each structure vvord or phrase What kind o f grammatical structure íollovvs each one? Hovv is the sentence punctLiated? The períormance of electrlc cars is iníerior to the períormance of cars with conventional internal combustion engines; consequently some improvements must be made in them if they are to become popular Hovvever, electric cars are reliable economical, and nonpolluting; thereíore, the government is spendỉng miíỉions of dollars to improve their technoỉogy Electric cars use relatively inexpensive electricity for power; thus, they cost ỉess to operate than cars that use gasoline The cost of gasoline is rislng; as a result some automoblle manuíacturers have begun to produce electric models His refusaỉ to attend classes resulted in his dismissal from the school The cause of the patient’s death was the doctor's negỉigence It has been documented that heavy cigarette smoking affects the heart as well as the lungs Cold water Is denser than warm water and wi!l thereíore sink Fresh water is less dense than salt water, so it tends to íloat on the suríace of a body of salt water diagnosis: identiíication o f a disease or illness “ negligence: carelessness ' music tone: healthy elastic quality 156 Chapíer Patterns o f Essay Organization Practice using structure words from the charts on pages 154 and 155 to vvrite sentences PRAG TiCE Caiềse and Effect Slrucíure Words STEP Declde \vhich sentence in each item is a cause and which is an eíĩect Write for cause or E for eíĩect next to each sentence c STEP Combine the sentences in each item into a new sentence thai shovvs a cause and effect relationship Use a different structure vvord or phrase in each new sentence, and circle the word Example E The death raíe among vvomen from lung cancer is increasing c Women are smokin^ rnore BecauseỊ vvomen are smoking more, their death rate from lung cancer is increasinạ or The increase in the death rate o f vvomen from lung cancer is Ịthc resuỉt ofị their smokiníỉ more _ Cancer is increasing in industrialized nations _ Air pollution and the Iise o f chemicals in food are increasing in these countries The saltiest vvater is found at the bottom o f the ocean _Salt water, being denser than fresh vvater, sinks Heat energy is carried by electrons _ Metals have many free-moving electrons _ Metals are good conductors o f heat Some biisinesses have ílexible workinẹ hours _ Productivity has increased _ Absenteeism has declined _ Radiation escaped into the atmosphere _ The Chernobyỉ nuclear power pỉant had no coníìnement Shell _ Operators at the Chemobyl plant disregarded safety rules The nucỉear reactor undervvent a meltdovvn 157 r ’iễrí ì ì 'V^riting ajj Esscìy Dur ng a vvCi'íhe» p-^icnìicníìH k:ìo\^'p as rii N ino, a ínass i>r vvarm vvater :lo\vs cast\vard a :ross ihc ,'aci ìc \;ccan U'VV,';C Sriit:: Amcnca _ _ The tcniperatuĩ: o f nt' ^aĩcr ctTihc í\ :'si 'jfp c rii rises as nuỉch as 10“ F _ W eaíher aroi; id I iC H o riJ cnanucs _ Diirirm an LI Nỉno íh.' _ ỊCỈ s - r c : ' ■ ;;-t!ercnt paĩĩcrn _ Kieav) rains taỉỉ ìn somc nre:>>t':hc vvorlơ _ Devastatirm íloods and muJsỉ’dcs iìanpcn 10. _ Thousands o f peooỉc _ Drought happens in ollicr pans oTiho wc'rỉ:i tÌ tlN « PRACTICE Choose one o f thc simiiesĩcd topics '.hat f:!Ỉ!o and v^nĩc an essav ihaí discusses ii in íernis o f cause and eííect íJsc ^'iock r: r.ỉ':i!n orízanization or a combination o f hoth lí'you use block rar:ni?r.(!0 ;^ ÍX 5cn a transilion parauraph betwecn the 1\V0 bỉocks in the bocly o f ihe cssay\ PoỉloNv ihcse stcps to SỈÍCCOSS: ì Writc y o u r ihesis siaternciâ V''; napor Brainstorm by Lising onc or ir.c p'V‘.vr’í]ím iccnniques ihat you prefer H in f D iv id c vDLir papcr inío ÍVVO Cv^ii iììns List the causes in thc íìrst co iu m n and tlìc Tects in the sccond coỉuỉì^-n Th>jn brainstorn; ỉbr itíeas and dcU',; ÍO support each cause and elTcct w ite an W rite y o ijr firs ro im íì tíra íỉ íro rn v o u r OLiíìine Bc sure to use a v a rie ty Trom your hrainsU r n in g activiíy o f cause an J etĩecí struc AĨQ 'vvords, nn j bcgir eacỉi paragraph wiih a transilion cxpression Revise y ju r rc auh draft as VÓ ỈÌLỈVC Icarncd Ask a classmate to check your llnal essay againsl th;: Pccr £dii!íig Cnciir, watcr S(?iỉ) country íi'creasinu ỉníìion \Vorld retugces Any scieníiílc causc and eỉTect pỉienomenon such as uỉobaỉ \varmlnạ, Stress Anv sociaL cconomic or poỉiticaỉ probỉem in another coiintry or thc United States ' jet stream: hiíỉh-speed, hiíĩh-altitude air current 158 El Nino, ctc iife expectancy in a Chapter Patterns o f Essay Organization Comparỉson and Contrast Order A very common and useíul method o f essay organization is comparison and contrast You practiced vvriting paragraphs using comparison and contrast in Chapter 5, pages 8385 The techniques for \vriting comparison/contrast paragraphs and essays are essentially the same; the main difference is in the size of the topic Because the topic o f an essay is much larger, you will need to leam some advanced pattems o f organization As you read the íollovving modei essay, study its organization Then ansvver the \vriting technique questions that follow M O DEL Comparison and Contrast Essay Japan and the USA-Different but Aiỉke The cuỉture of a place is an Integra!^ part of its society vvhether that place is a remote Indian viHage in Brazil or a highly industrialized City in VVestern Europe The culture of Japan íascinates Americans because, at first glance, it seems so different Everything that characterizes the United States-newness, racial heterogeneity.^vast^ terrltory, iníormallty, and an ethic of individualism^-is absent in Japan There, one finds an ancient and homogeneous® society, an ethic that emphasizes the importance of groups, and a tradition of fonmal behavior governing every aspect of daiiy ỉìving, from dNnking tea to saying hello On the surtace at least, American and Japanese societles seem totalỉy opposite ỈO One obvious difference is the people, Japan is a homogenous soclety of one nationality and a few underrepresented minority groups, sụch as the ethnlc Chinese and Koreans All areas of government and soclety are controiled by the Japanese majority In contrast, aỉthough the United States is a country with originally European roots, its llberal immigration policies have resulted in its becoming a heterogeneous society of many Ị ethnicities-Europeans, Atricans, Asians, and Latinos Alỉ are represented in all areas of American society, including business education, and politics other areas of difference from Japan involve issues oí group interaction and sense of space VVhereas Americans pride themselves on individualism and iníormaỉity, Japanese vaíue groups and íonmallty Americans admire and reward a person who rises above the crowd; in contrast a Japanese proverb says, 'The nail that sticks up gets hammered down." In addltion while Americans’ sense of size and scale developed out of the vastness of the North American continent, Japanese genius lies in the dimlnutive and miniature/ For example America builds alrplanes, whl!e Japan produces transistors In spite of these differences, these two apparently opposỉte cultures share several 25 important experiences Both, for example, have transplanted cultures Each nation has a "mother" integral: necessary for completeness heterogeneity: variety vast: very large ethic o f individualism: belief in the value o f the individual person over the group homogeneous: characterized by sameness; consistency diminutive and miniature: very small 15^ Part 11 W ritin g an Essay society-China for Japan and Great Britarn for the United States-that has Iníluenced the daughter in countless ways: in ỉanguage, religion, art, literature social customs, and ways of thinking Japan, of course, has had more time than the United States to work out 30 its unique interpretation of the older Chinese culture, but both countries reílect theỉir cuỉtural ancestry Both societies, moreover, have developed the art of business and commerce, (Of buying and seỉling, of advertislng and mass produclng, to the hlghest levels Few sighíts are more reassuring to Americans than the tens of thousands of bustling^ stores seen In 35 Japan, especiaỉly the beautituỉ, well-stocked department stores To American eyes, they seem just like Macy's or Neiman Marcus at home In addition, both Japan and America are consumer societies The people of both countries love to shop and are enthuslasitic consumers of convenience Products and fast íoods Vending machines seỉling everythiing from íresh flowers to hot coffee are as popular in Japan as they are in America, and fa:st40 food noodle shops are as common in Japan as McDonald's restaurants are in America A final similarity is that both Japanese and Americans have always emphasized tthe importance of work, and both are paylng penaltles for their commitment to it; increasỉing stress and weakening tamily bonds Americans, especially those in business and ill Ihe protessions, regularly put in twelve or more hours a day at their jobs, just as many 45 Uapanese executives Also, while the normal Japanese workweek is six days, rriíany Americans who want to get ahead^ voluntarily work OỈA- ‘"aturday and/or Sunday/ in addition to their normal five-day workweek Japan and America: different, yet alike Aỉthough the two societies differ in rruany areas such as racial heterogeneity versus racial homogeneity, Indívidualism versus 50 group cooperation, and intoimal versus íonmal torms of behavlor, they share more tthan one common experience Purthermore, their differences probably contribute as muctti as their similarities tovvard the mutual interest the two countries have in each other It wiill be interesting to see where this reciprocal fascination leads In the íuture ỊVriting Techniqụe Quesíions In vvhich paragraph(s) are the simiỉarities discussed? In vvhich paragraph( s) are Ih differences discussed? Is the organization o f this essay similar to cause aind effec block or chain style organization, discussed earlier in this chapter? What is the íunction o f the fourth paragraph? Comparỉson Struciure Vocabuỉary The Tirst key to writing successÍLil comparison and contrast essays is the a p p ro p r ia use o f comparison and contrast structure vvords These are words that introduce: points < comparison and points o f contrast The following table lists some o f Ihe vvords and phrases used to discuss simiỉlarities ' bustling: busy “ get ahead: vvin promotions and higher salaries 160 Chapter What is a Paragraph? an Overvievv COMPARỈSON STRUCTURE WORDS SHNTBNCE CLAUSB CONNECTORS CONNr-CTORS SUBORDỈNATORS COORDỈNATORS/C ORRELATIVE C0NJUNCT10NS similarly as and likevvise just as bolh and also not only but also too neither nor OTHERS like (-*- noun) just ỉike (-f noun) similar to (+ noun) (be) similar (to) (be) the same as (be) the same (be) alike (be) similar (to) to compare (to/with) Examples Human vvorkers can detect malfunctions in machinery; likevvise/similarly, a robot can be programrned to detect equipment malíunctions Human workers can detect malíunctions in machinery; a robot can also Human vvorkers can detect malíunctions in machinery; a roboí can, too Robots can detect malfunctions in machinery, as/just as human vvorkers can (Note: Use a comma when as and jiist as show comparison even when the dependent clause follows the independent clause.) Robots and human vvorkers/Both robots and hurpíin Hoỉkers/Not only robots but also huinan \vorkers can detect m«ifu.iCíions in machinery Neither robots nor human vvorkers are inĩallible/ Robots, like/just like/similar to human workers, can detect malfunctions in machinery Robots are similar to/are the same as human vvorkers because they can both detect malĩunctions in machinery In their ability to detect malfuncĩions in machinery, robots and liuman vvorkers are the same Robots and lìuman vvorkers are alike/are similar because they can boíh detect malfunctions in machinery Robots can be compared to/be compared with human vvorkers in their ability to detect malíunctions in machinery A C TIC E ng Comparisoiĩ Structure Words A Add comparison structure vvords to connect the íollovving comparisons The items ontain both sentences and short phrases You should vvrite one complete new sentence )r each item and use different comparison structure vvords in each new sentence The ems compare the systems of government o f Great Britain and the United States "allible: perfecí; without errors 161 Part II VVriting an Essay Example The United States has a democratic form o f government Great Britain has democratic form o f government The United States has a democratic form o f govemment, iust as Great Britain does The United States operates under a tvvo-party system Great Britain operates und( a tvvo-party system The British Parliament has tvvo separate houses, the House o f Commons and xì House o f Lords The United States Congress has two separate houses, the Sena and the House o f Representatives The U.S House o f Representatives = the British House o f Commons The U.S Senate = the British House o f Lords, The members o f the U.S House of Representatives are elected by district T members o f the British House o f Commons are elected by district The method o f choosing cabinet members in the United States The method choosing cabinet members in Great Britain (Use the structure phrase the SQìĩìe.) In Great Britain, the cabinet is appointed by the prime minister The U.S presid appoints the cabinet The British monarch has the right to veto’ any lavv passed by Parliament The L president has the right to veto any law passed by Congress B Now vvrite five sentences o f your own, coĩĩiparing two things with vvhich you familiar Use a different comparison signal in each sentence Possible top bicycles and motorcycles; two cities; tvvo siblings,‘ tvvo friends; tvvo cars; sports; two sports stars; tvvo teachers; two classes; two restaurants Contrast Structure Vocabuhry Contrast structure words fall into tvvo main groups according to their meaning ĩirst group shovvs contrast in the sense o f concession or unexpected result The se< group shoNvs contrast in the sense o f direct opposition The clauses connected b> vvords in the second group are reversible This means, for exam ple, that whỉỉe whereas may be placed at the beginning o f either clause vvith no change in meaning: * veto: cancel ^ siblings: brothers and sisters A Chapter Patterns o f Essay Organizatỉon / am :horí, whereas my brother is rl and Whereas / am short, my brother is raiỉ are both possibỉe and are equal in meaning !t is n)t aỉvvays possible to this vvith vvords from the first group For example, the subordinctor even though must be placed at the beginning o f the clause it began to rain in the íblloving sentence: \Ve corìtinued our hike even though it began to rain It vvould not make senie to vvrite Even ihough we contỉnued our hike, it began to rain Notice that bitt and however belong to both groups CONIRAST STRUCTURE WORDS-CONCESSỈON (UNEXPECTED RESULT) SENTENCE c o n n e :to r s hovvever nevenheess nonetheliSS CLAUSECONNECTORS OTHERS SUBORDỈNATIONS COORDINATORS aỉthough but even though though despite (+ noun) yet in spite o f (+ noun) still Examfies it bigan to rain; hovvever/nevertheless/nonetheless/still, we continued our hike Wecontinueđ our hike aỉthough/even though/ though it began to rain It bigan to rain, buưyet \ve continued our hike Des)ite/In spite o f the rain, we continued our hike CONTl AST STRUCTURE W0RDS-D1RECT OPPOSITION SENTEMCE :0NNEC10RS hoNvever in contrast in (by) conparison Dn the othe hand on the conrary CLAUSE CONNECTORS SUBORDINATORS COORDĨNATORS while but Nvhereas OTHERS differ from compared (to/vvith) (be) diíĩerent (ữom) (be) dissimiỉar to (be) unlike 163 Part II VVriting an Essay Examples The term rock music commonỉy refers to miisic styles aữer 195^ that vvere iníluenced primariỉy by white m usicians: h ow ever/ir contrast/in comparison/on the other hand, rhythm-and-bỈLieí music styles were infỉuenced primarily by bỉack musicians CROSS-REPERENCE Look at both Concession Clauses and Contrast Clauses on page 220-221 for addiUonal examples of contrast sutxỉrdinators Innovation in rock music comes not just from the United States on the contrary, the Beatles and the Rolling Stones were fron Great Britain, and the music style knovvn as reggae came fron the Caribbean island o f Jamaica (Note: On íhe contrar contrasts an untnith and a truth.) The term rock music commonly reĩers to music styles aíter 1959 thí vvere influenced primarily by white musicians, vvhile/vvhereas rhythm and-blues music styles were iníluenced prìmarily by black musicianí (Note: Use a comma vvith whiỉe and whereơs even vvhen th depenđent clause follows the independent clause.) The term rock /?W5/C commonly refers to music styles ìer Í959 thi vvere iníluenced primarily by white musiclans, but rhythm-and-blue music styles vvere inAuenced primarily by black musicians Early Tock music diíĩers from later styỉes in that later styles make Uí o f electronics to produce new sounds Compared to/Compared vvith earlier rock styles, later styles have harder sound The punk, rap, grunge, and techno styles o f the '90s are very differe from/dissimilar to/uTifike the rock music played by Elvis Presley in tỉ ’50s, but they have the same roots PUAC ! K ỉ A Add contrast structure vvords to connect the following items The items conta both sentences and short phrases You should vvrite one complete new sentence each item, and use a dỉíĩerent contrast signal in each nevv sentence Example The govemment o f the United States/thè gơvêrnment o f Gre Britain/dissimilar several aspects The govemments o f the United States and Great Britain arc dissimilar in several aspects The chief cxecutive In Great Britain is called the prime minister The ch executive in the United States is caỉled the president ỉn the United States, the president fuifiỉỉs the íunctions o f both political leader c head o f State These two functions are separate In Great Britain In other words, Great Britain has both a monarch and a prime minister The Uni States has only, a president 164 Chapter Patterns o f Essay Organization The president o f the United States may be o f a different political party than the majoríty o f Congress The British prime minister is the head o f the political party that has the most seats in Parliament The Unit^;d States has a Nvritten constitution Great Britain has no vvritten conslitution In the United States, elections are held on a regular schedule, no matter lìovv popular or unpopular the govemment is In Great Britain, elections are held vvhenever the prime minister ỉoses a vote o f coníĩdence.^ The members of the U.S Senate are elected The members o f the British House o f Lords are appointed or inherit their positions As you can see, the two systems o f govemment differ in several major aspects They are both democracies B Novv vvrite five sentences o f your ovvn, contrasting tvvo things vvith vvhich you are íamiliar Use a đifferent contrast signal in each sentence Possible topics: computers/humans; English/your first language; taking public transportation/ driving your own car, city life/country ỉife; schooỉs in tvvo countries; the cost o f ỉiving in tvvo countries; íamiỉy ỉife in tvvo countries Organiiatioĩi for Comparỉson and Contrast Order Just as there are tvvo vvays to organize a cause and eíĩect essay, there are at ỉeast tvvo vvays lo organize a comparison and contrast essay You may use block organization or point-by-point organization One type o f organization is illustrated in each of the foỉlowing modeỉs Study each model very carefully Notice hovv the thesis statement tells the reader vvhat type o f organization vvilỉ be used In block organization, you discuss alỉ o f the simiỉarilies in One block (vvhich can be one or more paragraphs), and all o f the differences in another block (vvhich can be One or more paragraphs) The essay on Japan and the United States on pages 159-160 ìs an exampỉe o f block organization In point-by-point organization, you make a sentence-by-sentence comparison o f the ĩeatures in any order that seems appropriate for the topic You might even use order o f importance (most important ĩeature ĩirst or last.) Suppose you needed to compare two jobs You might compare them on these points: salary, fringe beneílts" opportunities for advancement, and workplace atmosphere I f you use block organization, your outline might look like this: vole orconíldcncc: votc ofapproval íVinge bcncíìts: employmenl benefits other than salary (vacation time, Health insurance, etc.) 165 Part 11 Writing an Essay Block Organiiatìon Thesis One way to decide betvveen tvvo job offers is to evaluate vvhiat Statement the similarities and differences are before making a decision I The salary and fringe beneĩits ofjo b X and job Y are almost the same A Salary (job X and job Y) B Pringe benefíts (job X and Job Y) II Although the salary and íringe beneíìts are equal, there are big differeĩnces in the areas o f vvorkplace atmosphere and opportunity for advancemenit A Workplace atmosphere 1.jo bX job Y Opportunity for advancement JobX Job Y Conciusion O f course, you could discuss the differences ĩirst and the similarities last It is more usual, hovvever, to discuss similarities fĩrst l f you used point-by-point organization to compare the same tvvo jobs, your outline might look like this; MODEL Point-by-Poỉní Organiiation Thesis One vvay to decide betvveen two job oíĩers is to make a Statement point-by-point comparison o f their íeatures I The saỉaries o f job X and job Y are approximateỉy equal A Job X's salary B job Y's salaĩ7 II Job X offers the same tVỉnge benefits as jờb Y A job X's fringe benetlts B job Y’s fringe benefits III In contrast to Job Y, Job X oíTers good opportunities for advancememt A Job X's opportunities for advancement B Job Y ’s opportunities for advancement IV Unlike the high-pressure and competitive atmosphere at Company X, the atmosphere at Company Y seems congenial’ and supportive A Atmosphere at Company X B, Atmosphere at Company Y Conclusion congenial: friendly 166 Chapter Patterns o f Essay Organízation Wiíh both types o f organization, as you discuss each íeature o f job Y, refer back to the same ĩeature o f job X and use comparison and contrast structure vocabulary to shovv whether they are the same or diíĩerent In other vvords, it is not sufficient simply to describe each job or each íeature; you must constantly refer back and forth to make the similarities and differences cỉear Like jobX , job Y In contrast to job X, job Y Job X and job Y both have VVBITING PRACTICE Choose one o f the suggested topics and vvrite an essay using comparison/contrast organization Use either point-by-point or block organization Follow these steps to sLiccess: ! Brainstorm by íreevvriting, clustering, or listing all o f the ideas that come into your mind (Him: Diviđe yoiir paper into columns List the similarities in the first columa and the differences in the second.) Decide vvhether to use point-by-point or block organization Brainstoim for speciíic supporting details Make an outline Refer to the outlines on page 166 to guide you Write your fĩrst rough draít from your outline Be sure to use comparison and contrast structure vvords Revise your rough draft as you have leamed Ask a classmate to edit your vvork, using the Peer Editing Checklist on page 146 Topềc Siềggesíỉons Two cuỉtures, or one aspect of two cuỉtures such as famiỉy lỉfe, schools, child-raising practices, courtship and marriage customs, etc Living at home and living avvay from home Tvvo family members, tvvo friends Two cỉasses, tvvo teachers, two restaurants, tvvo jobs you have had High schooỉ and college or university Public schools and private schools _ _ Four common patterns o f essay organization in English are • Chronological order • Logical division o f ideas • Cause and effect order • Comparison and contrast order With each pattern, use special transition signals and structure vvords to lielp your reader understand your ideas and íoliovv your discussion, O f course there are other patterns o f organization in academic vvriting such as deĩinition and argumentation Also, o f course that you may need to use a combination o f patíems at times, especially for long essays or term papers 167 ... Iníormation 10 0 10 1 10 8 11 2 11 3 In-Text Citations 11 4 A List o f Works Cited 11 4 Review PART II 10 0 11 5 NVriting an Essay 11 7 The Essay 11 8 Writing an Essay 11 8 The Introductory Paragraph 11 9 The... Clauses 17 0 Independent Clauses 17 1 Dependent Claưses 17 1 Cỉaiise Connectors 17 1 Kinds o f Sentences 17 3 Simple Sentences 17 3 Compound Sentences 17 3 Complex Sentences 17 8 Compound-Complex Sentences... Comma Splices 18 9 Stringy Sentences 19 0 Revievv 19 3 >un Clauses 19 6 Introduction 1% Types o f Noun Clauses 19 7 Sequence o f Tenses 19 8 That-Clauses Subjunctive Noun Clauses 10 18 6 19 8 200 W^/i-Word