Tạp chí Khoa học Ngoại ngữ - Quân sự (No 19 – 5/2019)

Một số bài viết trên tạp chí như: the effects of using mock conferences to teach interpretation skills to the 4th year cadets of the English Department at Military Science Academy; investigating the effects of task repetition on fluency and accuracy in English oral performance of low level adult students: A case study at Vietnam Air Defence and Air Force Academy; application of sense relations to teaching English vocabulary...

COUNCIL OF DIIRECTORS Chairman DANG TRI DUNG, Major General, Prof PhD Vice-Chairman NGUYEN TRONG HAI, Senior Colonel, Assoc Prof PhD Councilors TRAN NGOC TRUNG, Senior Colonel, PhD PHAM QUANG HAI, Senior Colonel, MA No 19 (5/2019) ISSN 2525 - 2232 MA ĐUC KHAI, Senior Colonel, Assoc Prof PhD TRINH THI THUY, Senior Colonel, PhD EDITOR-IN-CHIEF NGUYEN TRONG HAI, Senior Colonel, Assoc Prof PhD LINGUISTIC THEORIES NGUYEN THI THU THUY - Root modality in English and Vietnamese from the Force Dynamics framework DEPUTY EDITOR-IN-CHIEF NGUYEN THU HANH, Lieutenant Colonel, PhD EDITORIAL BOARD DUONG VAN TUYEN, Senior Colonel, MA BUI THI THANH LUONG, Senior Colonel, PhD LE CONG PHAT, Colonel, MA TRAN THI MINH THUC, Lieutenant Colonel, PhD NGUYEN THU HANH, Lieutenant Colonel, PhD DOAN THUC ANH, Lieutenant Colonel, PhD DO TIEN QUAN, Major, PhD LANGUAGE TEACHING METHODOLOGY TRAN LE DUYEN, LE THI CHUYEN - The effects of using mock conferences 14 to teach interpretation skills to the 4th year cadets of the English Department at Military Science Academy LUONG THI PHUONG - Investigating the effects of task repetition on fluency 26 and accuracy in English oral performance of low level adult students: A case study at Vietnam Air Defence and Air Force Academy NGUYEN THI HA THUONG - Application of sense relations to teaching 38 English vocabulary NGO PHUONG ANH, DAO THI HONG THUY - Learner autonomy in 47 learning English reading skills ADMINISTRATION OFFICE Head of Office NGUYEN TUAN ANH, Major, MA Administration Staff HOANG THI BAC, Major, MA DISCUSSION NGUYEN THU HANH, PHAM THI HOAI PHUONG - An investigation into the 58 impacts of out-of-class English activities on the English major students’ achievement at Military Science Academy NGUYEN THI THU, Captain, MA NGUYEN VAN TIEP - An investigation into students’ engagement in English 68 speaking activities at Political Academy HEAD OFFICE TRINH VIET DUNG - Constructivist teaching – a new approach in the modern 78 education NGO NGOC HAI, Major, MA Address: 322E Le Trong Tan, Dinh Cong, Hoang Mai, Ha Noi Phone: (+84) 966.297.878 Email: tapchikhnnqs@gmail.com TRAN LAN HUONG - An investigation into the factors that hinder the participation 86 of the second-year English-major students in English speaking lessons at Thuong Mai University Website: hvkhqs.edu.vn NGO THI HUONG GIANG - The critical period for second language acquisition 98 - teacher’s role in helping learners overcome age-related differences THE PERMIT ON PRESS PUBLISHING NGUYEN XUAN NGHIA - How input-enhanced authentic videos support English 105 listening comprehension: A discussion from an interactionist perspective No.200/GP-BTTTT dated 19/04/2016 by Ministry of Information and Communications NỘI DUNG Tình thái tiếng Anh tiếng Việt, nghiên cứu dựa khung lý thuyết lực; Hiệu việc áp dụng hội thảo mẫu vào giảng dạy dịch nói cho học viên năm thứ Khoa tiếng Anh – Học viện Khoa học Quân sự; Ảnh hưởng việc lặp lại nhiệm vụ tới độ trôi chảy độ xác kỹ nói tiếng Anh học viên cấp độ thấp: Một nghiên cứu tình Học viện Phịng khơng-Khơng qn; Ứng dụng lý thuyết mối quan hệ ngữ nghĩa giảng dạy từ vựng tiếng Anh; Năng lực tự chủ việc học kỹ đọc tiếng Anh; Nghiên cứu ảnh hưởng hoạt động ngoại khóa tiếng Anh sinh viên tiếng Anh Học viện Khoa học Quân sự; Nghiên cứu mức độ tham gia hoạt động nói tiếng Anh sinh viên Học viện Chính trị; Giảng dạy kiến tạo - phương pháp tiếp cận giáo dục đại; Nghiên cứu yếu tố hạn chế tham gia nói sinh viên năm thứ Khoa tiếng Anh học nói tiếng Anh trường Đại học Thương Mại; 10 “Thời điểm vàng” cho sự tiếp thu ngôn ngữ thứ hai - vai trò của giảng viên việc giúp người học vượt qua khác biệt về độ tuổi; 11 Sử dụng video đời thực có thích, phụ đề để nâng cao kỹ nghe hiểu tiếng Anh: Thảo luận từ góc độ lý thuyết tương tác 目录 英越语的基本情态类型—基于驱力理论的研究; 示范研讨会在军事科学学院英语专业本科四年级口译教学 中的应用效果; “重复任务”对初级英语学习者口语表达的流利度及准确度所产生的影响—以防空空军学院 为例; 语义关系理论在英语词汇教学中的应用; 论英语阅读技能学习中的自主能力; 英语课外活动对 军事科学学院英文专业学生的影响研究; 政治学院学生英语交际活动中的参与层级研究; 建构教学法— 现代教育的新切入口; 影响贸易大学本科二年级学生参与英语口语课堂交际活动的因素研究; 10 二语习得 的“黄金期”—兼谈教师在帮助学生超越年龄限制中的作用; 11 如何通过带有字幕注释的实况视频提高英语学 习者听力水平—基于相互作用理论的视角。 СОДЕРЖАНИЕ Базовая модальность в английском и вьетнамском языках - её исследование в рамках теории о силе; Эффект применения типовых диалогов в преподавании усного перевода для студентов четвёртого курса факультета английского языка Академии Военных наук; Влияние повторности поставленных заданий на чёткость и точность в навыке говорения на английском языке учащихся базового этапа: ситуативное исследование в Академии Противо-воздушная обороны; Применение теории о семантических отношениях в обучении лексике английского языка; Самостоятельность в обработке навыка чтения на анлийском языке; Исследование по теме влияния внеаудиторных мероприятий на англоязычных студентов Академии Военных наук; Разработка мер для вовлечения учащихся в устную речь на английском языке на примере Военно-политической академии; Конструктивное преподавание - новый подход в современном образовании; Исследование факторов, ограничивающих активность в устной коммуникации у студентов второго курса факультета английского языка на уроке по развитию речи в институте торговли; 10 “Золотой промежуток времени” для овладения вторым иностранным языком - роль помощи преподавателя учащимся в преодолении возрастной разницы; 11 Реально бытовые видеоклипы с резюмированием и субтитрами для улучшения навыка аудирования на английском языке у студентов: Дискуссионный момент с точки зрения теории интеракции SOMMAIRE Principales modalités en anglais et en vietnamien à la lumière de la dynamique des forces; Efficacité de l’application des siminaires simulés dans l’enseignement de l’interprétation pour les cadets de 4e année du Département d’Anglais, Académie des Sciences Militaires; Effet de la répétition des tâches sur les facilités et l’exactitude de la production orale chez des cadets d’anglais de niveau débutant: le cas de l’Académie de Défense et de Forces aériennes; Application de la théorie sémantique dans l’enseignement du vocabulaire anglais; Autonomie dans l’apprentissage de la compréhension écrite en anglais; Etude sur l’influence des activités extrascolaires en anglais sur les étudiants d’anglais à l’Académie des Sciences Militaires; Etude sur le degré de participation aux activités de production orale en anglais à l’Académie des Sciences Politiques; Enseignement constructiviste - une nouvelle approche de l’éducation moderne; Facteurs limitant la participation des étudiants de 2e année d’anglais au cours de production orale à l’Université de Commerce; 10 “Âge d’or” pour l’acquistion de la deuxième langue - rôle de l’enseignant dans le fait d’aider les apprenants à surmonter les obstacles d’âge; 11 Utilisation des videos authentiques sous-titrées pour l’amélioration de la compétence de compréhension orale des apprenants d’anglais: Discusssion sous l’angle de la théorie interactive LINGUISTIC THEORIES v ROOT MODALITY IN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE FROM THE FORCE DYNAMICS FRAMEWORK NGUYEN THI THU THUY* * Vietnam National University of Agriculture,  thuthuy.hn0508@gmail.com Received:15/11/2018; Revised: 10/04/2019; Accepted: 28/04/2019 ABSTRACT This study aims to describe, analyze, compare/contrast English and Vietnamese root senses of modal verbs from Cognitive linguistics perspective, more specifically in terms of force dynamics framework The study is both descriptive and contrastive in nature The main aim of the research is to find similarities and differences between English and Vietnamese root senses (including obligation, permission, ability and volition) of modal verbs from force dynamics The main data used in this study are taken from the two corpora: one in English with 500,000 words in 91 social science texts and the other in Vietnamese with 500,000 words in 119 social science texts The data collected are then quantitatively and qualitatively analyzed in order to find similarities and differences between English and Vietnamese root senses of modal verbs in terms of force dynamics Keywords: cognitive, contrastive analysis, corpus, force dynamics, root modality INTRODUCTION Modality realized by modal verbs is an interesting, but complicated linguistic phenomenon in both English and Vietnamese Up to now, modality in the English language has been studied by a number of researchers such as Langacker (2013), Talmy (2003), Johnson (1987), Taylor (2002), Pelyvás (2006) and some others Modality in the Vietnamese language has been investigated by a number of Vietnamese researchers such as Nguyễn Thị Thuận (2003), Bùi Minh Toán & Nguyễn Thị Lương (2010) etc However, there has been almost no research on discussing and analyzing root senses of modal verbs in English and Vietnamese from Cognitive perspective, more specifically in terms of force dynamics Therefore, this study is an attempt to describe, analyze, compare/contrast English and Vietnamese root modality (including obligation, permission, ability and volition) as realized by modal verbs from force dynamics The study mainly follows the narrow definition of modality defined by Lock (1996, p.193), i.e “A narrow definition of modality encompasses only modal auxiliaries and their uses” Modals in this study mainly refer to Langacker’s study (2003, p.3), i.e modals “are grammaticized grounding elements, in which the ground - the speech event and its participants - are ‘offstage’ and subjectively construed’ and have ‘two crucial properties: (1) they are force- dynamic and (2) the event marked by the complement remains potential rather than actual’ (Langacker, 1999, p.308) KHOA HỌC NGOẠI NGỮ QUÂN SỰ No 19 (5/2019) v LINGUISTIC THEORIES The study is primarily an empirical investigation of modality phenomenon (modal verbs) based on two corpora: one in English with 500,000 words in 91 social science texts and the other in Vietnamese with 500,000 words in 119 social science texts on the ground that it is a rich resource for the researcher to find examples of root senses of modal verbs in English and Vietnamese to serve the purposes of the study The data collected are then quantitatively and qualitatively analyzed so as to find similarities and differences between English and Vietnamese root senses of modal verbs in terms of force dynamics in case that English is considered as a source language and Vietnamese as a comparative one THEORETICAL BACKGROUND In this study, the Cognitive Linguistics (CL) is considered as a theoretical background since the CL account “differs radically from traditional perspective by emphasizing that language is a reflection of general cognitive processes, not a separated/ isolated system with its own systems of rules” (Tyler, 2008, pp.459-60) In comparison with formal approaches, CL “stands out by resisting the imposition of boundaries between language and other psychological phenomena … Rather than a distinct, self-contained entity (separate “module” or “mental faculty”), language is viewed as an integral facet of cognition” (Langacker, 2013, pp.7-8) Cognitive Linguistics is “an approach to language that is based on experience of the world and the way we perceive and conceptualize it.” (Ungerer & Schmid, 1996, xxi) Some Cognitive researchers such as Mortelmans (2007, p.881) argue that ‘the cognitive linguistic concepts of force dynamics, … have proved to be highly powerful tools to discover common cores in a wide variety of modal expression types’ Therefore, the researcher based on the notions of force dynamics (opposition) proposed by Talmy (2003); Langacker (2013); Johnson (1987); Taylor (2002) to discuss and analyze the root senses of English and Vietnamese modal verbs Root KHOA HỌC NGOẠI NGỮ QUÂN SỰ No 19 (5/2019) modals exhibit more clearly the force – dynamic character of modals, especially those involving notions like obligation and permission And ‘root modals generally convey force-dynamic relationships in the domain of social interaction’ (Langacker, 1999, p.308) ‘Ranging in degree from the absence of a barrier (may) to compulsion (must), the force is generally manifested socially in the case of root modals, mentally with epistemic modals.’ (Langacker, 2011, pp.46-85) According to Langacker (2011, pp.46-85), “root modals are aimed at effective control – determining what happens in the world itself’, which is exemplified in: Root modals: You {may/should/must} report the theft The Notion of Force Dynamics Force dynamics, defined by Talmy (2003, p.409), ‘refers to how entities interact with respect to force, which includes the exertion of force, resistance to such a force, the overcoming of such resistance, blockage of the expression of force, removal of such blockage and the like.’ Force dynamics emerges ‘as a fundamental notional system that structures conceptual material pertaining to force interaction in a common way across a linguistic range: the physical, psychological, social, inferential, discourse, and mental-model domains of reference and conception.’ (ibid.) Johnson (1987) argues that image schemas emerge from bodily experiences and perceptions It is plausible that force dynamic concepts have similar origin, for example in our experience of things colliding into each other (and of ourselves colliding into things) Moreover, ‘we conceptualize forcedynamic interactions in terms of a figure-ground contrast; we focus on what happens to a ‘privileged’ entity, the Agonist.’ (Taylor, 2002, p.528) “Force dynamics” pertains to the representation of force interaction and causal relations occurring between certain entities within the structured situation’ (Talmy 2000, pp.1-8) LINGUISTIC THEORIES Force-dynamic Parameters: This long conception of forces and their interaction, according to Mulder (2007, p.296) results in basic force-dynamic patterns: (a) The Agonist’s intrinsic tendency toward rest is overcome by a stronger Antagonist, which forces it to move (b) The Agonist’s tendency toward rest is stronger than the force opposing it, consequently, the Agonist remains in place (c) The Agonist’s inherent tendency toward motion is opposed by the Antagonist, but the Agonist is stronger entity And (d) The Agonist has a tendency toward motion but the Antagonist is stronger and blocks it Features of Force: Johnson also provides the following schemata which represent five of the most common force structures that operate constantly in our experiences (Johnson, 1987, pp.45-48): (i) Compulsion is visualized in Figure below Here the dark arrow represents an actual force vector and the broken denotes a potential force vector or trajectory Figure Compulsion (Johnson, 1987, p.45) (ii) Blockage can be seen in Figure below The relevant gestalt can be represented as a force vector encountering a barrier and then taking any number of possible directions Figure Blockage (Johnson, 1987, p.46) (iii) Counterforce in Figure Here two equally strong, nasty, and determined force centers collide face-to-face, with the result that neither can go anywhere v Figure Counterforce (Johnson, 1987, p.46) (iv) Removal of restraint in Figure 4.The relevant schema is thus one that suggests an open way or path, which makes possible an exertion of force Figure Removal of Restraint (Johnson, 1987, p.47) (v) Enablement seen in Figure The gestalt is represented, then, only by a potential force vector and an absence of barriers or blocking counterforces Figure Enablement (Johnson, 1987, p 47) The ‘strength’ of force, hence also of the modality can vary, for example, must is a highstrength modal, whereas should is low-strength (Taylor, 2002, p.406) In all of these indications of force opposition, the subject of the modal represents the Agonist, while the Antagonist is usually only implicit in the referent situation, without explicit mention (Talmy, 2000, p.441) From the cognitive perspective, accounts in the force dynamic framework take root modality to include both deontic and dynamic meaning Root modality (root sense or non-epistemic modality), deals ‘with obligation, permission, ability, volition, …’ (Incharralde, 1998, p.1) Therefore, in what follows in this study, root modality including KHOA HỌC NGOẠI NGỮ QUÂN SỰ No 19 (5/2019) v LINGUISTIC THEORIES obligation, permission, ability, and volition of modal verbs will be discussed and examined with respect to the sociophysical realm that includes physical interaction as well as social relations, practices, and institutions (cf Johnson, 1987) METHODOLOGY The data for the study include two corpora, one in English with about 500000 words (91 social science texts) and the other in Vietnamese with about 500000 words (119 social science texts) Each academic corpus contains journal articles, collected from different categories of social science such as psychology, education, culture, social science, economics, law, and linguistics The data are chosen according to these four criteria: authenticity, accessibility, reputation and variation The study was conducted with the help of corpus-aided analysis of English and Vietnamese social science texts in order to find out the frequency and KWIC (key word in context) concordance of a certain modal verb A text analysis softwareConcordance programme: TextSTAT-2 was used to process the data Searches were done for the key lexical elements selected These include English modal auxiliaries (can/ could, may/might, will/ would, shall, should/ought to, need and must/have to) and Vietnamese modal verbs nên, cần,phải, có thể, sẽ, định, toan, dám In response to each concordance search, the programme provides a list of all the occurrences of the word (e.g can/could) within a co-text of 50 words to the right and 50 words to the left The results of data processing are stored in the database for sorting and analyzing The computer - aided analysis was also combined with the manual analysis However, the manual analysis was sometimes preferred to the computeraided analysis when identifying the modal devices for its more individualistic character After extracting the data from the corpus, a descriptive method will be used at first to exploit KHOA HỌC NGOẠI NGỮ QUÂN SỰ No 19 (5/2019) all root modality as realized by modal verbs used in English and Vietnamese social science texts in terms of force dynamics Basing on devices processed in the corpus, the researcher distinguishes four senses of roots namely obligation, permission, ability, and volition) within 5545 examples of modal verbs in English and 5301 examples of modal verbs in Vietnamese Cognitive Framework The first cognitive framework for the comparison between English and Vietnamese modal verbs is the strengths of force As observed by Langacker (1999, p.308) that the properties of modal verbs are force-dynamic, and potential and the force dynamics are “inherent in the conceptualizer’s mental activity, hence subjectively construed in the strong sense”, different speakers/conceptualizers use different modal verbs with different strengths of force in different contexts In terms of strengths of force, Taylor (2002) claims that must has high strength of force while should has low However, with regard to other modals such as can, could, may, might, will, would, shall, he does not put any ranking Therefore, the researcher suggests that the study use the low-median-high values of modal verbs proposed by Halliday (1994) to serve the purpose of the study Table below shows the categories of low-median-high force dynamics, which is adapted from Halliday’s (1994, p.620) three values of modality and Rezzano’s (2004, p.109) categories of analysis of modal verbs Table Categories of Low – Median - High Force Dynamics in the English and Vietnamese Levels of Forces English Modal Verbs Vietnamese Modal Verbs Low may, might, can, could Median will, would, shall, should/ought to nên, không nên, sẽ, định, muốn, dám High must, cannot, have to, need phải, cần, cần phải, buộc phải, LINGUISTIC THEORIES Force dynamics has direct grammatical representation that most uniquely characterizes the grammatical category of modals as a whole, both in their root (basic) and in their epistemic usages Secondly, for the purpose of the study, the four root senses (obligation, permission, ability, and volition) are identified as main categories for comparison between English and Vietnamese modal verbs Two main aspects for this comparison are form-meaning pairings and force dynamics which mainly focuses on the behaviour of the Agonist in relation to the Antagonist While the Agonist has a natural disposition towards either rest (or inaction) or motion (i.e change), the Antagonist is able to exert a force on the Agonist (Taylor, 2002) In the discussion that follows, in the indications of force opposition, the Agonist is represented by the subject of the modal verb, whereas the Antagonist is usually implicit in the referent situation, without explicit mention The unnamed Antagonist can be anything from a person issuing a specific instruction, a legal proscription, moral or ethical considerations, or a physical impediment (Taylor, 2002) The force interaction between the Agonist and the Antagonist may come from different sources In root modals, the force can be derived from “emanating from the laws of physical world, from the psychological world of intentions, desires, and plans, or from the psychological world of norms, laws, regulations, and moral values” (Taylor, 2002, p.406) (should, ought to, need, have to, must) and Vietnamese modal verbs (nên, cần, phải) are used to indicate root modality, which is usually subjective in that the speaker/writer/conceptualizer is the one who obliges (ii) Secondly, nên in Vietnamese and should in English have low strength of force while phải in Vietnamese and must/have to in English have high strength of force (iii) Thirdly, in terms of forces, cần in Vietnamese and need in English are stronger than nên and should, but weaker than phải and must/have to Differences: The first difference lies in the frequency of modal verbs denoting obligation senses As can be seen from Table 2, the total number of English modals denoting obligation is much lower (744 tokens with 21.72% out of all root modals) than that of Vietnamese (898 tokens taking up 48.65% of all roots) Table Distribution of English and Vietnamese modals in the modality of obligation Modal Senses Obligation RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 4.1 Obligation in English and Vietnamese Form In English: Agonist + must/have to/need/had better/should/ought to VP In Vietnamese: CN + nên/cần/phải + VP Meaning Similarities: (i) Firstly, both E modal verbs v Total English Modals Vietnamese Tokens % Modals Tokens % must 196 5.72 phải 607 32.88 have to 109 3.18 nên 150 8.13 shall 16 0.47 cần 141 7.64 ought to 0.18 should 246 7.18 had better 0 need 171 4.99 744 21.72 898 48.65 In other words, the Vietnamese writers/ conceptualizers use much more modals denoting the irresistible high compelling force (i.e, phải with 607 tokens equal to 32.88%) than their counterparts However, the English writers/ conceptualizers use modals with median force value with the highest frequency (i.e, modal should with 246 tokens taking 7.18%) KHOA HỌC NGOẠI NGỮ QUÂN SỰ No 19 (5/2019) v LINGUISTIC THEORIES The second difference lies in the strengths of forces in the two languages In Vietnamese, there are three levels of strength of obligation (or forces) in nên, cần, and phải (Thuận, 2003) For example, for nên, the three levels are: Weak obligation (e.g không nên) However, in English, the levels of forces range from the highest (i.e, modal must with irresistible internal compelling force and have to/have gotto with external compelling force)) to median (i.e, need) and to low (i.e, ought to/should) The third difference lies in the collocation of the two languages In Vietnamese, modals nên, cần, phải can go with another modal verb to make different shades of meaning The fourth difference lies in the form of negatives and interrogatives in the two languages In English, the negative form is modal verb + not (e.g, can not) In interrogatives, take inversion without to (e.g., Could you?) However, in Vietnamese, in negatives, không is placed before the modal verb (e.g., không nên) And in interrogatives, the modal verb can be placed between có …… khơng? or … chưa? 4.2 Permission in English and Vietnamese Form In English: Agonist +can/could/may/might + VP In Vietnamese: CN + có thể/khơng thể + VP Meaning Similarities: In both languages under study, when expressing the modality of permission the speaker/writer/conceptualizer construes that in this case there is no barrier or no blockage to prevent the action/event/state of affair from performing The modality of permission usually implies an authority, or deontic source – which may be a person, a set of rules, or something as vague as a KHOA HỌC NGOẠI NGỮ QUÂN SỰ No 19 (5/2019) social norm – responsible for granting permission (cf Depraetere & Reed, 2006) In this case, the speaker/conceptualizer (typical “permission giver”) is not strong enough or does not find it necessary to mobilize a force that is strong enough to prevent, 1987) In contrast, if the permission granter does not allow the action/event/state of affair to exert or the Antagonist impinges on the Agonist or into the designated process, the image schema of BLOCKAGE (Johnson, 1987) Table Distribution of Permission realized by Modal verbs in English & Vietnamese Corpora Modal Senses Permission Total English Modals Vietnamese Tokens % can 144 4.21 could 64 1.87 may 421 12.30 might 170 4.96 799 23.34 Modals Tokens % 257 13.92 75 4.06 332 17.98 Differences: The first difference can be seen from Table that the total number of English modals denoting permission is much higher (799 tokens taking up 23.34% of all roots) than that of Vietnamese (with 332 tokens equal to 17.98%) In other words, the Vietnamese writers/ conceptualizers use fewer modals denoting permission than their counterparts in English The second difference is that in Vietnamese, the strength of force or the force interaction between the Agonist and the Antagonist expressed by is lower than that expressed by phải/ cần/nên, whereas in English the strength of the force expressed by can/could/may/might is often considered as being lower than that expressed by must/have to/need or ought to/should May in case of not, has construction: (= Agonist) may not VP (Talmy, 2000, p.447) In this case, the Antagonist now impinges on the Agonist Therefore, may not indicates ‘an authority’s blockage to the expression of the subject’s tendency’ (Talmy, 2000, p.441) LINGUISTIC THEORIES The third difference lies in the collocation of the modals The distinctive feature of Vietnamese is that modal verb can go with another modal verb to express different shapes of senses, e.g, + phải = phải; + cần = cần; + nên = nên, etc Có thể (for permission) and (not permitted/ allowed) in Vietnamese have neutral shades of meaning Note that the formality of (for permission) in everyday conversation depends on the actual context, and it usually goes with another modal device, such as in “Thưa thầy, em vào không ạ? – May I come in, teacher?” as in Table As can be seen the table above, the total of modals denoting ability in English (634 tokens taking up 18.52%) is much higher than that in Vietnamese (with 162 tokens equal to 8.77%) Table Distribution of Ability realized by Modal verbs in English & Vietnamese Corpora Modal Senses Ability English Modals Form In English: Agonist + {can/may/could} VP (Talmy 2000, p.445) In Vietnamese: CN + có thể/khơng thể + VP Meaning In both English and Vietnamese, this ability is inherent in the participants (or the doer/ Agonist), because of their physical (and perhaps mental) abilities/skills/conditions, the speaker indicates the ability on the basis of grounds that are internal to (the participant/doer/Agonist) the situation or the State of Affair (Linden, 2012).In this case, as the property of being inherent in the situation or in a participant is what motivates the internal consistency of the dynamic category, ‘the Antagonist is out of the way of the Agonist’ (Talmy 2000, p 445) Therefore, the Agonist (as subject of the clause) is free (able)/strong enough to perform the action The sense of may/can/could for ability in English and of in Vietnamese matches precisely the image schema for ENABLEMENT (Johnson 1987) The first difference lies in the frequency of “ENABLEMENT” modals in the two languages Vietnamese Tokens % Tokens % can 268 7.83 125 6.77 could 214 6.25 37 2.00 may 152 4.44 634 18.52 162 77 Total 4.3 Ability in English and Vietnamese v Modals In another word, it can be inferred from this result that the Vietnamese writers use much fewer modals denoting ability than their counterparts The second difference seems to be that in English, can for ability is more common than may (= ability) and could often covers past ability of can, whereas in Vietnamese, for ability can be used in present, past and future time, since Vietnamese language has no tense system (Hoàng Văn Vân, 2005) as English or other European languages The third difference lies in the collocation of the two languages in the way that the modal verb in Vietnamese can go with another modal (e.g + = sẽ) to make different shades of meanings However, in English modal verb can cannot go with another modal auxiliary 4.4 Volition in English and Vietnamese Form In English: S + will/would/shall + VP In Vietnamese: CN + định/sẽ/muốn/toan/dám + VP Meaning KHOA HỌC NGOẠI NGỮ QUÂN SỰ No 19 (5/2019) v LINGUISTIC THEORIES From the analysis of will, would, shall in English; sẽ, định, toan, dám and muốn in Vietnamese, it can be said that English and Vietnamese modal verbs share some similarities in expressing volition In all these indications, the doer (the subject of the clause/Agonist) intends to perform some typical purposeful action (which remains potential) The speaker/conceptualizer is involved and there is force of volition and responsibility However, there are some differences between English & Vietnamese in expressing volition The first difference is the frequency of modals denoting volition It can be seen from Table that the total number of modals denoting volition (1247 tokens with 36.42%) in English is much higher than that in Vietnamese (with 454 tokens equal to 24.60%) More specifically, modals denoting volition rank the highest in terms of frequency in English, whereas Vietnamese modals of volition rank the second, only after the obligation Table Distribution of Volition realized by Modal verbs in English & Vietnamese Corpora Modal Senses Volition English Modals Tokens % will 650 18.98 shall 17 0.50 580 16.94 would Total Vietnamese 1247 36.42 Modals Tokens % 180 9.75 định/ toan 0.43 muốn 251 13.60 dám 15 0.82 454 24.60 The second difference is that in English, will and shall are used for volition or strong obligation and would (the past form of will) can be used for past volition, whereas in Vietnamese can normally be used for future intention or willingness or volition, which will happen after the speaking time The third difference is that while in English, will/shall/would in the case of not expresses refusal 10 KHOA HỌC NGOẠI NGỮ QUÂN SỰ No 19 (5/2019) by the subject of the clause, in Vietnamese, in case of không (sẽ không) can express a negative statement, or a refusal in everyday conversation (e.g, Tôi khơng tha thứ cho tội dối trá) Moreover, in Vietnamese, there appeared with a very typical collocation of modals, i.e three modals co-occurred in one sentence (sẽ + nên + phải = nên phải) Sẽ cần phải can be called a special case of modality in Vietnamese language since three modal verbs go together, which expresses the combination meaning of future inclination, necessity and strong obligation An example is in “Trong bối cảnh toàn cầu hóa hội nhập quốc tế ngày sâu rộng, thể lệ tài cần phải có thay đổi phù hợp với thông lệ, chuẩn mực quốc tế, doanh nghiệp muốn tiếp cận để thu hút vốn thị trường tài thiết phải thực lành mạnh hóa cơng khai hóa tài mình” (VEco 94) CONCLUSION The study has presented a comparative/ contrastive analysis of English and Vietnamese root modality (including obligation, permission, ability and volition) as realized by modal verbs in terms of force dynamics The results of the study show that English and Vietnamese share some similarities in expressing root modality: Firstly, it can be said that root modality is a universal linguistic phenomenon existing in both English and Vietnamese languages Both English and Vietnamese writers use modal verbs with different levels of strengths of force in either sociophysical areas or/and reasoning domain to perceive and conceptualize the entity/proposition/ event In the two languages under study, different categories of modal senses such as obligation, permission, ability, volition are realized by different modal verbs For instance, in English the modality of permission can be expressed by a number of modal verbs such as may, might, can, could A given modal verb can express different meanings For example, in Vietnamese, modal v DISCUSSION THE CRITICAL PERIOD FOR SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION - TEACHER’S ROLE IN HELPING LEARNERS OVERCOME AGE-RELATED DIFFERENCES NGO THI HUONG GIANG* *Naval Academy,  ngogianghvhq@gmail.com Received: 13/3/2019; Revised: 14/5/2019; Accepted: 17/5/2019 ABSTRACT It has been postulated that there is a critical period for language acquisition that limits the ultimate level of competence attainable by older learners of a second or a foreign language The results of several of studies examining the linguistic competence of learners who began acquisition of their second language (L2) at different ages indicate that, indeed, there is a negative correlation between age of acquisition and competence in an L2 such that individuals who begin acquisition after approximately 15 years of age are much less likely to attain native-like levels of competence than individuals who begin prior to this age This article presents some hypotheses about correlation between age and second language acquisition (SLA) together with some pedagogical implications with the hope to facilitate second language teaching and learning in general Keywords: language acquisition, age, language environment, teaching methods, learning strategies INTRODUCTION There is a controversial issue relating to the age at which second language learning should start It is commonly recognized that in second and target language contexts, it is advisable to start language learning process as soon as possible However, there is still disagreement regarding the problem of when to start or what is best way to learn a language in foreign contexts A number of empirical studies have been designed to investigate the questions of optimal age to learn a language both in the second and foreign language contexts From the view of 98 KHOA HỌC NGOẠI NGỮ QUÂN SỰ No 19 (5/2019) education practice, it is of great importance to understand as far as possible how maturational effects interact with environmental factors in the acquisition of foreign/ second language (Wode, 1981) It has significant credibility for approaches to second language instruction and implications for foreign language learning and teaching This paper is intended to confirm that there is a critical period for L2/FL acquisition In doing this, different hypotheses will be considered and then the age effects on second language acquisition (SLA) will be discussed in detail in order to clarify that age has effects on: 1) rate of learning, in which we will see DISCUSSION v who is faster in language acquisition, early learners or late learners; 2) eventual learning outcome, in which we will see who is better in achieving the target language Pedagogical implications for language teaching in foreign language contexts will also be discussed DIFFERENT HYPOTHESES ABOUT AGE AND SLA There have been different hypotheses about the correlation of age of acquisition and the degree of ultimate attainment of the second/foreign language Among these hypotheses, Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH), propounded by Lenneberg (1967) suggests that primary language acquisition occurs during a critical period which ends at about the age of puberty and must occur before cerebral lateralization is complete, and Robertson (2002) claims that second language acquisition will be relatively fast, successful and qualitatively similar to first language only if it occurs before the age of puberty The second common hypothesis is the Sensitive Period Hypothesis (SPH), which shares the same view of a heightened sensitivity for natural language input in an early phase of life with CPH However, these two versions entail different interpretations of the workings of maturational constraints (Hyltenstam & Abrahamsson 2003) Fundamental Different Hypothesis (FDH), which came from Bley-Vroman (1989), states that, whereas children are known to learn language almost completely through (implicit) domainspecific mechanisms, adults have largely lost the ability to learn a language without reflecting on its structure, thus they have to rely mainly on alternative, problem-solving mechanisms to learn a second/ foreign language They can no longer rely on the innate mechanisms to acquire the language implicitly It implies that only adults who have high level of verbal ability are expected to be fully successful at second language acquisition (DeKeyser 2000) A number of empirical studies have been designed to investigate the question of optimal age to learn a second language to check these hypotheses Evidence for these hypotheses has been accumulating The popular belief that adults are much worse at learning a second language has been refined in a number of ways by different empirical studies However, many studies prove that children have an advantage in ultimate attainment, not in rate of learning (e.g Krashen, Long, & Scarcella, 1979; Slavoff & Johnson, 1995); the decline of language learning ability does not suddenly occur around puberty but seems to take place gradually from age or to 16 to 17 and beyond (e.g., Bialystok & Hakuta, 1994; Johnson & Newport, 1989) From evidence of different studies, it is worth pointing out that “earlier is better” but not in every domain of second language acquisition and should not be taken too literally; there are maturational constraints for SLA, however, significant numbers of late learner individuals are able to achieve relatively high proficiency Quality and quantity of input as well as other factors such as motivation, language aptitude are crucial for both early and late learners who want to reach the nativelike competence in a foreign/second language It is also worth pointing out that later learners, including adolescents and adults, may achieve success in their second language acquisition Teaching experience and the methods teachers apply for their classes are other factors affecting considerably the final achievement in the language acquisition of learners AGE AND RATE OF LEARNING Although a lot of studies relating to the issue of age and learning rate have been carried out in order to decide who are better at second language acquisition, there are still some conflicting results While some studies have identified greater success obtained by older learners, others have indicated that younger learners have more advantages than their older counterparts KHOA HỌC NGOẠI NGỮ QUÂN SỰ No 19 (5/2019) 99 v DISCUSSION The critical question is what studies of initial rate of L2 acquisition, in fact, are able to tell us about the existence of a critical period/ maturational constraints The problem is, in these laboratory studies, both children and adults were brought into the lab, taught some L2 knowledge and then immediately tested on what they had just learned It is just wondered that whether this procedure is reasonable for investigating the ability to acquire a second language Hyltenstam & Abrahamsson (2003) argues that such studies probably favour older learners because of their ‘teach and test’ formats where cognitive skills can obviously favour adult learners but not children Let us take an example of the context in Viet Nam, where English is a foreign language It can be easily realized that when the learning process includes formal instruction, adult learners may faster and better in some areas, even in pronunciation This does not mean that adults’ quality of pronunciation is better than children’s pronunciation This aspect will be discussed in the next part, focusing on the relationship between age and eventual leaning outcome AGE AND EVENTUAL LEARNING OUTCOME Johnson and Newport (1989) indicate that when factors other than starting age are controlled for, such as length of residence (LOR), motivation, or amount of formal instruction, Age of onset (AO), i.e., the age at which a learner starts to learn a second language, turns out to be the only relevant predictor for eventual proficiency in a second language In their study, a 276item grammaticality judgement test was use to investigate the grammatical intuitions of 46 adult Chinese and Korean L2 learners of English who had arrived in the United States between the age of and 39 Results showed that the youngest AO groups (3-7) performed within the range of native controls; for subjects with AO above 100 KHOA HỌC NGOẠI NGỮ QUÂN SỰ No 19 (5/2019) 7, there was a linear decline in performance up through puberty; from the age of 17 and above, the linear decline in performance with increasing age vanished Except for the overall poorer performance than that of the younger arrivals, the adult learners thus demonstrated a high degree of inter-learner variability, something that was absent among younger arrivals Johnson and Newport (1989) then concluded that their results support a maturational account, since the age effect is present during a time of ongoing biological and cognitive maturation and absent after puberty The Johnson and Newport (1989) study is problematic with the methods and materials used A minimum of five years was probably not enough for some learners to have reached their ultimate proficiency levels, and the length of the test (276 items) may have resulted in concentration difficulties (Bialystok and Hukuta, 1994, Kellerman, 1995) In a replication of the Johnson and Newport (1989) study, DeKeyser (2000) manages to avoid most of these methodological weaknesses A modified version of the grammaticality judgment test used by Johnson and Newport was distributed to 57 Hungarian L2 learners of English with 10 years of residence or more in the United States and with AOs between and 40 years In addition to his 200-item grammatical test, a language learning aptitude test was administered to the subjects DeKeyser’s results exhibited no significant correlations between test scores and variables such as LOR, years of schooling, or age at time of the test; only the predicted negative overall correlation between AO and grammaticality judgment scores was found All child arrivals (AO < 16) scored above 180 out of 200 (except for one who got 170), while most adult arrivals (AO > 16) scored below this 180 limit However, there was a certain overlap between the two groups: six of the late starters got relatively high test scores (over 175), and three of them got scores within the range of child arrivals (i.e., above 180) DeKeyser explains this result with the significant correlation between DISCUSSION v grammaticality judgment scores and aptitude scores among these successful adult starters; in the AO < 16 group, there was no correlation between grammatical competence and aptitude In other words, those late starters who performed near or within the range of early starters also had high verbal aptitude, which would have facilitated their L2 grammar learning Although DeKeyser’s (2000) study is viewed as an improvement and development of Johnson and Newport’s (1989) in many ways, it still has weaknesses First, he argued that only those adult starters who have high verbal analytical abilities will get scores within the range of child starters However, one of the three most successful adult starters did not, in fact, have a high score on the aptitude test The criterion for high aptitude was set at or higher, but this adult starter (the one who got 180/200 in the grammaticality judgment test) had an aptitude score of only Second, no native English controls were included in the study, it is difficult to relate the scores to native-like proficiency analytical verbal abilities, while younger learners tend to get success if they have high memory capacity Motivation and language dominance are also factors that connect age and success in foreign language contexts In general, learners who study a foreign language with intrinsic or extrinsic motivation (to learn the language in order to achieve a particular aim or aims) are probably to be more successful than the ones who learn a language without any motivation As regard to learning contexts, formal instruction seems a good predictor of success, being more relevant in foreign language situations For phonetic instruction, including suprasegmental and segmental training, authentic input and phonological feedback, and input enhancement techniques are crucial to the success of the learners For explicit grammatical instruction, or focus on forms, adult and adolescent learners get more benefit than younger learners because of their better analytical abilities These factors point to the fact that teaching is highly important in foreign language contexts The studies of Jonhson & Newport (1989) and DeKeyser (2000) deal with learners in the target language context, but not in the foreign language context like the one of learners of English in Vietnam As for the ultimate attainment in the foreign language context, the final success learners are able to attain as a function of their different age, several conclusions can be established In general, earlier is better for semantics if there is a high memory trait, whereas not-so-early is better for morphosyntax if there is a high analytical verbal ability trait (DeKeyser 2005) For pronunciation, however, explicit intensive instruction is the only factor related to success (Moyer, 1999), so both children and adults benefit from it Other factors are also predicted to have positive effects on the foreign language success: learner characteristics, and learning contexts One of the features that shows a high correlation with success in the foreign language context is learner’s aptitude In particular, older learners benefit from having high In foreign language contexts, both children and adults are probably be able to reach the nativelike competence in morphosyntax of their foreign language in perceptive skills as long as they receive massive formal instructions and practice, but not always in productive ones, especially in speaking Let us take some examples to illustrate the native-like competence in morphosyntax of some FL learners in an FL context Vietnamese advanced English learners, for example, have proved that their English grammar knowledge is at the level of the native’s and this knowledge is clearly demonstrated in their writing and reading skills However, they can hardly ever reach the native-like competence in pronunciation and in pragmatics with speaking skill since in Vietnamese environment most learners just get ‘drip-feed’ access to English in classroom and not have much exposure to the language in their real life The opportunity and the need to use English communicatively in their daily life is rare KHOA HỌC NGOẠI NGỮ QUÂN SỰ No 19 (5/2019) 101 v DISCUSSION They cannot avoid strongly non-native accent, the inappropriateness in language use together with tones of errors and mistakes in their speaking even when they are very fluent speakers of English In a word, there have been many arguments explaining different results of both adult and young learners in learning a second/ foreign language, either learner-based, or external-based such as type or amount of language input and instruction the learners receive However, there is no single variable that is able to explain all those results Nevertheless, even the picture which has been provided is not very conclusive, some pedagogical implications can be still drawn for language teaching in foreign contexts PEDAGOGICAL IMPLICATIONS It is obvious that in second language acquisition, learners at different ages are neurologically, cognitively and psychologically different Children are generally intrinsically better learners, while adolescents and adults are better at cognitive skills and self-discipline which facilitate their acquisition of a larger volume of comprehensible input within the same exposure time period, on the other hand, they may be more greatly affected by the other factors in foreign language acquisition The better teachers are aware of the difference in the acquisition process the more appropriately their teaching techniques and approaches may be applied in their teaching practice for learners of different age groups In language learning, children usually tend to direct their interest towards things that are easy for them to understand but are not consciously interested in language for its own sake Therefore, learning activities should involve exercises of classification, ordering, location, and conservation using concrete objects Therefore, teachers should use direct methods and try to provide a rich and stimulating environment with objects for them to play with Together with audio visual aids, all 102 KHOA HỌC NGOẠI NGỮ QUÂN SỰ No 19 (5/2019) kinds of sensory input are important Game-like language learning activities are an excellent, even essential, part of a programme of children’s learning activities Children in general learn well when they are active, and when activities are enjoyable, they are often willing to invest considerable time and effort in ‘playing’ with these activities (Ur, 1996) Adolescents are those who center their thinking on themselves generally start taking responsibility for their own lives, including their education, and the manner in which it is conducted (Ur, 1996) Their pattern of learning is normally influenced by the feelings of self-consciousness, about how the individual appears and what image is projected or perceived by their peers and their teachers This can result in anxiety, which will in turn hinder active experimentation with language use While it is normally believed that a successful language learner needs a certain amount of risktaking, adolescent learners often want to avoid making mistakes in their language They tend to be intolerant of ambiguity, and want to know the one right way, and ignore all other possibilities However, this is also the period when adolescents are starting to acquire a mature attitude which directs them towards the adult position of tolerance of ambiguity It is the teacher’s responsibility to understand their learners’ strengths and weaknesses and adjust their language instruction to be appropriate for their level, and engage them in activities or situations that require adaptation, by using teaching methods that make students actively involve in their own learning process, taking into account each individual’s own preferences over method and style When adolescents are getting older, they begin to realize that good learning costs much effort At this stage, motivation and commitment to learning are becoming conscious decisions made by learners If teachers look forward to their students’ progress in language learning, their instruction needs the positive cooperation of the students DISCUSSION v With much of life experience and information, adult learners generally change their style and pace of learning and relate new knowledge and information with their learning process Adults often feel embarrassed when they cannot master the target language and they may develop a sense of inadequacy after experiences of annoyance in trying to learn the language They want to immediately apply new information or skills to current problems or situations and are normally not willing to learn things that they think are useless In many ways adults are better than children as they are more demanding learners i.e they want to know how to function their new language as fast as possible They have greater cognitive maturity, better learning strategies and study habits, better focus and goal orientation, a longer attention span, the ability to make a greater variety of associations, and better short-term memory (Hammerly, 1991) However, they have much higher degree of anxiety, which prevents them from risk - taking in their language learning When teaching adult learners, it is crucially important for the teacher to provide practical, useful language and create interactive activities that engage them physically as well as mentally Also, the instruction should be able to maximize learning strengths that adult learners possess In short, it is teacher’s responsibility to be aware of differences in learning abilities and learner characteristics of their students at different ages in order to have appropriate teaching methods and techniques for conducting activities for their different classes and designing their teaching curricular appropriately CONCLUSION It may be right to conclude that there is no single or clear-cut answer to the question: ‘when should a learner start learning a second language?’ In addition, teachers alone cannot make this decision, which involve political, educational and economic aspects An alternative and more appropriate question should be ‘how should learners at different ages be taught?’ As Marinova-Todd et al., (2000) say that teachers can much to influence a student’s learning strategies, motivation and learning environment In today’s society with much more global movement of people and more accessible worldwide communication, L2/ FL is much more of a survival necessity rather than a school subject In the non English speaking countries, like Viet Nam, on the national level, English is perceived by the government as a necessary means for helping the nation to further open up, and an important cornerstone of global competition Teachers should play a crucial role in helping learners overcome age-related differences in order to get success in their L2/ FL learning./ References: Bialystok, E., & Hukuta, K., (1994) Confounded age: Linguistics and cognitive factors in age differences for second language acquisition In D Birdsong (Ed.), Second language acquisition and the critical period hypothesis (161-181) Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum Birdsong, D (Ed.) (1999) Second Language Acquisition and the Critical Period Hypothesis Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Bley-Vroman, R (1989) Learner-teacher partnership, language learning, and the language learning experience in the training of language teacher In Report on the Educational Improvement Fund 1988/89 (5-20) University of Hawaii, Office of Faculty Development and Academic Support DeKeyser, R (2000) The robustness of critical period effects in second language acqusition Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 22, 499-533 DeKeyser, R (2003) Implicit and explicit learning In C Doughty and M Long (Eds.), The Handbook of Second Language Acquisition (313-348) Oxford: Blackwell Hammerly, H (1991) Fluency and accuracy: Toward Balance in Language Teaching and Learning In Sharp, D (Ed.) Multilingual Matters 73 Multilingual Matters LTD, Clevedon Philadelphia Adelaide Hyltenstam, K and N Abrahamsson (2001) Age and L2 learning: The hazards of matching practical ‘‘implications’’ with theoretical ‘‘facts’’ TESOL Quarterly 35/1, 151-170 Hyltenstam, K and N Abrahamsson (2003) Maturational constraints in SLA In, Doughty, C & Long, M (Eds.) The Handbook of Second Language Acquisition (539-588) Malden, MA: Blackwell KHOA HỌC NGOẠI NGỮ QUÂN SỰ No 19 (5/2019) 103 v DISCUSSION Johnson, J & Newport, E (1989) Critical period effects in second language learning: The influence of the maturational state on the acquisition, Cognitive Psychology, 21, 60-99 Kellerman, E (1995) Age before beauty In L Eubank, L Selinker, & M Sharwood Smith (Eds.), The current state of interlanguage: Studies in honor of William E Rutherford (19-231) Amsterdam: Benjamins Krashen, S (1973) Lateralization, language learning and the critical period: Some new evidence Language Learning 23, 63-74 Krashen, S D., Long, M., & Scarcella, R (1979) Age, rate, and eventual attainment in second language acquisition TESOL Quarterly, 13, 573-582 Lennerberg, E.H (1967) Biological foundations of language New York: John Wiley and Sons Marinova-Todd, S., D Marshall, & C Snow (2001) Missing the point: A response to Hyltenstam and Abrahamsson TESOL Quarterly, 35/1, 171-176 Moyer, A (1999) Ultimate attainment in L2 phonology: The critical factors of age, motivation, and instruction Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 21/1, 81-108 Robertson, P (2002) The Critical Age Hypothiseis, Asian EFL Journal, Retrieved October 30, 2008, from Slavoff, G.R., & Johnson, G.S (1995) The Effect of Age on the Rate of Learning a Second Language Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 17/1, 1-16 Lightbown, P (2000) Classroom SLA research and second language teaching Applied Linguistics, 21, 431- 462 Ur, P (1996), A Course in Language Teaching, Practice and Marinova-Todd, S., D Marshall, & C Snow (2000) Three misconceptions about age and L2 learning TESOL Quarterly, 34, 9-34 Wode, H (1981) Learning A second Language Cambridge Theory Cambridge University Press University Press Gunter Narr Verlag “THỜI ĐIỂM VÀNG” CHO SỰ TIẾP THU NGÔN NGỮ THỨ HAI - VAI TRÒ CỦA GIẢNG VIÊN TRONG VIỆC GIÚP NGƯỜI HỌC VƯỢT QUA KHÁC BIỆT VỀ ĐỢ T̉I NGƠ THỊ HƯƠNG GIANG Tóm tắt: Các nhà nghiên cứu cho có giai đoạn quan trọng cho việc tiếp thu ngôn ngữ Người lớn tuổi học ngoại ngữ hoặc một ngôn ngữ thứ hai sẽ bị hạn chế về mức độ thành thạo so với người trẻ tuổi Kết số nghiên cứu kiểm tra lực ngôn ngữ người học bắt đầu tiếp thu ngôn ngữ thứ hai (L2) độ tuổi khác cho thấy, thực tế có mối tương quan tỉ lệ nghịch tuổi tiếp thu lực ngoại ngữ, hoặc ngôn ngữ thứ hai Khi người học bắt đầu tiếp thu ngơn ngữ sau đợ t̉i 15 thì có khả đạt mức độ lực giống người địa so với người bắt đầu học trước tuổi Bài viết trình bày số giả thuyết mối tương quan tuổi tác việc tiếp thu ngôn ngữ thứ hai, từ đó rút một số ứng dụng sư phạm với hy vọng góp phần tích cực vào việc dạy học ngoại ngữ tại Việt Nam nói chung Từ khóa: sự tiếp thụ ngơn ngữ, độ tuổi, môi trường ngôn ngữ, phương pháp dạy học, chiến lược học Ngày nhận bài: 13/3/2019; ngày sửa chữa: 14/5/2019; ngày duyệt đăng: 17/5/2019 104 KHOA HỌC NGOẠI NGỮ QUÂN SỰ No 19 (5/2019) DISCUSSION v HOW INPUT-ENHANCED AUTHENTIC VIDEOS SUPPORT ENGLISH LISTENING COMPREHENSION: A DISCUSSION FROM AN INTERACTIONIST PERSPECTIVE NGUYEN XUAN NGHIA* * Hanoi University of Science and Technology,  nghia.nx89@gmail.com Received: 20/4/2019; Revised: 14/5/2019; Accepted: 17/5/2019 ABSTRACT With the light that literature has shed on the merits of authentic videos, this paper aims to foreground two video input enhancement activities, namely annotating and captioning and argue that when embedded in authentic videos, annotations and captions aid EFL learners’ vocabulary acquisition and thus English listening comprehension To this end, annotations and captions are discussed on the theoretical grounds of Multimodality and the Interactionist Theory of Second Language Acquisition (SLA) The paper concludes with implications for language teachers as to the use of input-enhanced authentic videos for educational purposes in the listening classroom Keywords: listening comprehension, authentic videos, input enhancement, multimodality, interactionist theory INTRODUCTION Technologies seem to have come to aid listening skill earlier and with greater diversity than the other three macro English skills Robin (2011) lists broadcasts, tape recorders, and talking pictures as some of the electronic mediators to the teaching of listening skill before 1975 Since the 1980s, these devices have been either substituted or made more sophisticated, or naturally both, by an unending source of authentic audiovisual materials, which in turn came along with the advent of the Internet and Web 2.0 However, as authentic materials were historically created by and intended for native speakers in contrast to those created for pedagogical purposes, they are highly challenging in terms of grammatical, lexical, genre, and cultural contents (Garrett, 2009) Authentic videos are thus dismissed as less appropriate for learners at levels other than intermediate or above (Guariento & Morley, 2001) One may consider this a valid account for language teachers’ attempts to intentionally reduce the difficulty of authentic materials, but as Taylor (1994) puts it, materials can only be truly authentic when language is simplified by no means With this understanding, the paper highlights annotation and caption as two video input enhancement techniques that help create pedagogic videos without altering their authenticity First concepts around authenticity and its benefits for listening comprehension are summarized Then literature is reviewed on two KHOA HỌC NGOẠI NGỮ QUÂN SỰ No 19 (5/2019) 105 v DISCUSSION theoretical tenets – multimodality and Interactionist SLA – on which the discussion of annotation and caption is based At the end, recommendations are made for language teachers in regards to the use of authentic videos for pedagogical purposes in their listening classroom AUTHENTICITY Though authenticity was soon a subject of ample discussion in the 1970s as a result of the Communicative Language Teaching approach, it has remained ambiguous in the field of applied linguistics It is the concern over the multifacetedness of authenticity – whether it is associated with the text per se, the interaction between the teacher and the learner, the tasks chosen, etc (Gilmore, 2007) – that has led scholars yet to address it fully For example, Wallace focuses on the material aspect and defines authentic materials as “real life texts, not written for pedagogic purposes” (1992, p.145), while Tomlinson accentuates the task, referring to an authentic task as “one which involves the learners in communicating to achieve an outcome, rather than to practice the language” (2013, p.19) Morrow’s (1977) definition is used in this paper to summarize those varying lens: “An authentic text is a stretch of real language, produced by a real speaker or writer for a real audience and designed to convey a real message of some sort” (p.13) Authentic materials can be classified in different ways On the grounds of modality, Genhard (1996) classifies authentic materials into three categories: authentic audiovisual materials, which integrate both pictures and sounds; authentic visual materials, which are image-based and wordless; and authentic printed materials, which are presented on paper Concerning mainly authenticity level of the text, Campos (1992) proposes three types: authentic text, adapted or simplified text, and creative text An authentic text is not simplified or modified to any degree, and represent language used by native speakers in genuine situations for the fulfilment of their social 106 KHOA HỌC NGOẠI NGỮ QUÂN SỰ No 19 (5/2019) needs An adapted or simplified text is characterized by the simplification of language for the purpose of grammar and vocabulary introduction and reinforcement And, a creative text is created on the basis of the sequence of contents covered in a textbook This view is shared by Geddes and White (1978), who align Campos’s (1992) paradigm to only two categories of discourse: unmodified authentic discourse and simulated authentic discourse, with the former being “authentic text” while the latter encompassing “adapted text” and “creative text” The diagram below represents types of authentic materials in light of the three mentioned approaches Figure 1: Types of authentic materials (synthesized from Genhard, 1996; Campos, 1992; and Geddes & White, 1978) Authentic materials have been widely proved beneficial for L2 listening comprehension in a few ways First, learners yield constant exposure to real-life situations that are unachievable inside the textbook-based classroom Scholars such as Gilmore (2004) highlight the cultural contextualization of learning as the unique value of authentic materials, particularly authentic videos Second, learners have access to incremental linguistic gains This is enabled by frequent repetitions of lexical, grammatical and phonological features made by native speakers in an unexaggerated fashion (Devitt, 1997), which in turn strengthens the learner’s cognitive load and thus communicative competences (Sweller & Chandler, 2007) Also, a body of research (e.g Melvin & Stout, 1987; Christopher & Ho, 1996) DISCUSSION v has converged that authentic materials produce an inspirational and motivational environment for listening In brief, the advantages of authentic materials provide an impetus for the replacement of purpose-written materials In the sections below, literature around two concepts foundational to the discussion in this paper – Multimodality and Interactionist SLA – is reviewed MULTIMODALITY Kress and Van Leeuwen define multimodality as “the use of several semiotic modes in the design of a semiotic product or event, together with the particular way in which those modes are combined – they may for instance reinforce each other, fulfil complementary roles or be hierarchically ordered” (2001, p.20) It is the number of representational modes involved in presenting a piece of information that differs multimodality from unimodality, i.e the use of one single representational mode (within the scope of this paper, bimodality, i.e the use of two representational modes, is viewed a form of multimodality) If the traditional listening classroom relies mostly on aural texts, the cohesion of aural and visual materials has been in vogue, allowed by an abundant source of videos These sorts of materials also mirror the complementary nature of multimodality in that one semiotic representation carries one set of meanings while another a different set (Guichon & Cohen, 2016) In the listening comprehension classroom, multimodality is a notion that is inseparable from audiovisual materials for the latter’s representational essence, so the benefits of videos are shared by multimodality In his 2014 study, Woottipong stated that language teachers showed a particular liking for videos since multiple modalities were more appealing than audio-only instructions This view is echoed in Oura (2001) who found that audiovisuals engaged, motivated, and captured the learners’ attention significantly better than unimodal texts Another set of benefits of multimodality concern paralinguistic nuances, that is how intonation, pitch, prosody, and other nonverbal expressions align with the meanings being made This is because learners are immersed into a whole range of communication situations from numerous contexts (Harmer, 2007) According to Jones and Plass (2002), learners who were exposed to aural and visual listening outperformed counterparts given audio-only listening, and these individuals also bore a lower cognitive load INTERACTIONIST LANGUAGE ACQUISITION SECOND Amongst an array of theories underlying SLA, e.g Universal Grammar Theories, Cognitive Theories, Sociocultural Theories, Interactionist Theory is of paramount importance Originally, interaction is described by Ellis (1999) as “the interpersonal activity that arises during face-to-face communication”, and also as “the intrapersonal activity involved in mental processing” (p.3) The former type of interaction refers to direct conversational exchanges between two interlocutors, in which the less competent one (usually the learner) requests for the more competent counterpart’s (usually the native speaker) acts of repeating, explaining, modifying or enhancing linguistic inputs whenever communication breakdowns occur (Gass & Selinker, 1994) The latter is essentially about the kind of cognitive activity within the learner’s mind that engages deep mental processing in the wake of episodes of meaning negotiation or input modification requests Research shows that making linguistic inputs (lexis and syntax) and paralinguistic inputs (stress and intonation) salient during conversational interactions is how the more proficient interlocutor not only keeps the conversation going in a direction that mutual understanding is attained (Pica, 1994) but also facilitates delayed developmental effects on the learner’s cognition (Gass, 1997) Within the domain of CALL, Chapelle (2005) has reshaped the concept of “interpersonal KHOA HỌC NGOẠI NGỮ QUÂN SỰ No 19 (5/2019) 107 v DISCUSSION interaction” by adding a “between person and computer” facet to the existing “between people” one She also notes three benefit groups of interaction as opportunities for negotiation of meaning, acquiring enhanced input, and focusing attention on linguistic form, and aligns them to three types of interaction as shown in the table below: Table 1: Alignment of types of interaction to their benefits (adapted from Chapelle, 2003) Types of interaction Interpersonal interaction Intrapersonal interaction Benefits Between people (learner – native speaker) Negotiating meaning Between person and computer (learner computer) Acquiring enhanced or modified input Within the person (learner)’s mind Focusing attention on linguistic form in the input How interaction with computer promotes L2 acquisition in light of Chapelle’s (2005) conceptualization is indexed in the learner’s exposure to enhanced input displayed on the computer screen During this process, the learner notices input forms and makes form-meaning mappings, then gradually internalizes those connections via a course of intrapersonal activity This standpoint by Chapelle provides thrust for a good deal of research For example, Borrás and Lafayette (1994) found that accompanying aural input with L2 subtitles in listening lessons offered learners input of two modes, to the latter which they referred to decode the former in terms of not only general messages but also linguistic forms and meanings In another study, Grace (1998) put learners in contact with L1 translations and annotations of different types (e.g written and visual) to aid comprehension of vocabulary, and concluded that those enhanced inputs remedied miscomprehension and prompted noticing This line of research has also been extended to the area of reading comprehension, with Plass et al (1998) providing multiple forms of annotations to help with vocabulary and proving their encouraging effects on learners’ acquisition These findings mirror 108 KHOA HỌC NGOẠI NGỮ QUÂN SỰ No 19 (5/2019) the need and also potential for the introduction of Interactionist SLA into instructional design Given Long’s (1991) argument about the nature of the Interactionist Theory that only when noticed and comprehended can input become valid, instructional materials or CALL tasks should be designed in a way that key linguistic features are made salient, and enhancement of linguistic input is offered (Chapelle, 2007) In the next parts, I provide definitions of the two input enhancement methods – annotation and caption, and discuss them on the grounds of Multimodality and Interactionist SLA to illuminate how they support listening comprehension ANNOTATION AND CAPTION Annotations are explanatory notes added to demystify the meaning of an unknown word and come in three fundamental forms: written, visual/ pictorial, and audiovisual (Jones, 2004) Written annotations can be L2 definitions or L1 translations of the target word Visual/pictorial annotations, the representation in imagery, and audiovisual annotations, the support with both pictures and sounds, may potentially overload listeners if embedded in an existing audiovisual layer and seem to be a more appropriate for multimedia reading texts, so are not within the scope of the current paper Captions refer to “on-screen text in a given language combined with a soundtrack in the same language” (Markham & Peter, 2003, p.332) It is important to distinguish captions from subtitles which refer to “on-screen text in the same language of the viewers that accompany the second language soundtrack of the video material” (ibid.) In alignment with the nature of authentic videos as previously mentioned, that is language input should not be simplified or modified, the term “captions” is employed to address the matter under examination in this study Guillory (1998) classifies captions into two types: keyword captions and full captions, with the former highlighting DISCUSSION v only words that are either targeted or tough in their meaning, pronunciation, or morphological structure by themselves, and the latter displaying the entire spoken text DISCUSSION 6.1 Annotated and captioned videos are multimodal One of the arguments considered in the present paper is that annotated and/or captioned videos are multimodal In fact, a typical video is multimodal for its aural and visual representations (with the understanding that bimodality is a form of multimodality as mentioned earlier) A written annotation, when added to a video, makes it threefold in modality, i.e aural, visual, and textual In a similar vein, when captions, be they keyword or full, are inserted into a video, they radically switch it from a piece of two-modality material into that of three Figures and below illustrate this It is also important to note that annotations and captions can appear synchronously in a same video, and language teachers can use different dynamics, depending on their specific aims For example, instead of presenting the textual content in form of either annotations or captions, they may so with both by providing keyword captioning of a lexical item on the bottom of the screen and its definition or translation in an annotation bubble on the top Figure Annotation of “the Celts” Integrating annotations and captions into videos clearly signifies the plurality of semiotic modes in accordance with Kress and Van Leeuwen’s (2001) definition of multimodal materials These modes consolidate one another and provide complementary and mutual support as in the examples above: the annotated definition of “the Celts” and the captioned keyword “immense” (the textual modality) synchronize with the speaker’s speech (the aural modality) This in turn generates an eminently interactive product that aids learning to a great extent as indicated by literature regarding multimodality, i.e linguistic gains, paralinguistic subtleties, and motivational factors (e.g Woottipong, 2014; Harmer, 2007; Jones & Plass, 2002) 6.2 Annotated and captioned videos promote listening comprehension from the perspective of Interactionist SLA The other argument made about annotated and captioned videos in this paper is that they offer comprehensible input to facilitate listening comprehension According to researchers (e.g Kim, 2015), L2 listening comprehension is a complex process, involving two processes: a topdown process and a bottom-up process In the topdown process, learners mobilize their “schemata or background knowledge” to gain the gist and main ideas of the aural text, while with bottom-up processing, they are drawn to discrete words and phrases to decipher the meaning and content (Kim, 2015, p.16) Figure Keyword captioning of “immense” KHOA HỌC NGOẠI NGỮ QUÂN SỰ No 19 (5/2019) 109 v DISCUSSION Regarding top-down processing, annotated videos serve well on this, in that the annotated content goes beyond explanation of a lexical word to the level that is directed at activation of background knowledge and scaffolding of comprehension To the best of my knowledge, this is lacking in previous studies, so purposely made prominent in this report For example, in a video comparing the size of the Sun with that of other stars in the universe, I created an annotation with the question “Is the Sun the largest star in the universe?” to elicit the learners’ prior knowledge about this matter and prepare them for what was coming next in the video (Figure 4) This conforms to Kim’s (2015) analysis of the top-down listening process that processing prior knowledge paves the way for learners’ “grasp of incoming information” (p.16) Bottom-up processing is catalyzed by interactions with both annotations of individual words/phrases and captions With annotations, the matter of concern is whether definitions or explanations should be provided in L1 as in Figure or L2 as in Figure In actuality, the speed of an authentic video would not afford listeners time and space to read L2 definitions, so L1 translations seem to be the ideal option This can be elucidated by a body of research about the inextricable link between L2 words, L1 translations, and pictures (e.g Paivio, 1986) Take a further look into Paivio’s dual coding theory for an example The theory postulates that there are two information channels in the learners’ mind: an L1 verbal channel and Figure 4: Annotation of a question 110 KHOA HỌC NGOẠI NGỮ QUÂN SỰ No 19 (5/2019) a nonverbal/imagery channel The L2 verbal channel is formed and developed owing to the fact that the L2 word is connected to the image and L1 verbal subsystem existing in the learner’s mind This can be further illustrated from Figure 5, that is by the time listeners hear the word “the Celts” and the image depicting these tribes pop up on the screen, the L1 translation “người xen-tơ” allows them to assimilate “the Celts” with its meaning thanks to their consciousness of the L1 and visual cues Captions provide half of this route, in this regard, as far as keyword captions are concerned This means that when hearing and seeing the captioned word and the corresponding image on the screen, listeners make an interconnection and thus the form-meaning mapping In fact, literature has proved that watching videos with keyword captions made it easier for learners to understand the content for decreased cognitive load which would otherwise be heavy under full caption condition (Guillory, 1998) Above all, the described forms of annotations and captions result in interactive experiences between the learners and the computer rather than between the learners and native speakers as originally stipulated by Interactionist theory of SLA Put it differently, they constitute a technological platform for the learners to interact with enhanced inputs and benefit from them for lexical acquisition and comprehension of aural texts (Chapelle, 2003) Figure 5: Annotation of “the Celts” DISCUSSION v CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS The departure point for this paper is that authentic videos are beneficial for second language learners in listening comprehension, fundamentally thanks to genuine situations and linguistic and paralinguistic elements they provide On this premise, the paper revisits annotation and caption as two input enhancement activities that can be performed on authentic videos, and argues that they further aid learners’ linguistic gains and thus listening comprehension abilities From its discussion grounded on the theories of Multimodality and Interactionist SLA, the paper arrives at the following practical implications for language teachers who intend to use authentic videos in their listening classroom [1] Videos should be opted for with the perception that their authenticity is not reduced on any level [2] Annotations should expand from explanations and/or definitions of individual words/ phrases to posing of questions for prior knowledge activation and comprehension scaffolding as well When annotations are intentionally aimed at individual lexical items, they should be done so in L1 as opposed to L2 [3] Captions should be supplied in key words rather than in full for optimal learning experiences Perhaps, an experimental study is needed in the future to genuinely test the effect of these suggestions./ References: Borrás, I., & Lafayette, R C (1994) Effects of multimedia courseware subtitling on the speaking performance of college students of French Modern Language Journal, 78(1), 61-75 Campos, R O (1992) Authenticity in listening and written texts LETRAS, 1(25), 169-194 Chapelle, C A (2003) English language learning and 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London: Bloomsbury Academic Wallace, C (1992) Reading Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press Morrow, K (1977) Authentic texts and ESP In S Holden (Ed.), English for Specific Purposes (13-17) London: Modern English Publications Winke, P., Gass, S., & Sydorenko, T (2010) The effects of captioning videos used for foreign language listening activities Language Learning & Technology, 14(1), 65-86 Oura, G K (2001) Authentic task-based materials: Bringing the real world into the classroom Sophia Junior College Faculty Bulletin, 21, 65-84 Woottipong, K (2014) Effect of Using Video Materials in the Teaching of Listening Skills for University Students International Journal of Linguistics, 6(4), 200-212 SỬ DỤNG VIDEO ĐỜI THỰC CÓ CHÚ THÍCH, PHỤ ĐỀ ĐỂ NÂNG CAO KỸ NĂNG NGHE HIỂU TIẾNG ANH: THẢO LUẬN TỪ GÓC ĐỘ CỦA LÝ THUYẾT TƯƠNG TÁC NGUYỄN XUÂN NGHĨA Tóm tắt: Với việc nghiên cứu trước lợi ích video đời thực kỹ nghe hiểu Tiếng Anh, viết chứng minh thích phụ đề đưa vào video đời thực giúp người học cải thiện vốn từ vựng kỹ nghe hiểu Bài viết thảo luận tác dụng hai hình thức sở lý thuyết Đa phương thức Thuyết tương tác Lý thuyết thụ đắc ngôn ngữ thứ hai Ở phần cuối số gợi ý cho giáo viên sử dụng video đời thực có thích phụ đề vào mục đích giảng dạy Từ khố: nghe hiểu, video đời thực, thích, phụ đề, đa phương thức, lý thuyết tương tác Ngày nhận bài: 20/4/2019; ngày sửa chữa: 14/5/2019; ngày duyệt đăng: 17/5/2019 112 KHOA HỌC NGOẠI NGỮ QUÂN SỰ No 19 (5/2019) ... dạy kỹ nói tiếng Anh, Học viện Phịng khơng – Không quân Ngày nhận bài: 23/12/2018; ngày sửa chữa: 31/01/2 019; ngày duyệt đăng: 28/4/2 019 KHOA HỌC NGOẠI NGỮ QUÂN SỰ No 19 (5/2 019) 37 v LANGUAGE TEACHING... vựng Từ khoá: quan hệ ngữ nghĩa, giảng dạy từ vựng Ngày nhận bài: 18/4/2 019; ngày sửa chữa: 15/5/2 019; ngày duyệt đăng: 17/5/2 019 46 KHOA HỌC NGOẠI NGỮ QUÂN SỰ No 19 (5/2 019) LANGUAGE TEACHING... phân tích đối chiếu, khối ngữ liệu, lực, tình thái Ngày nhận bài: 04/12/2018; ngày sửa chữa: 06/01/2 019; ngày duyệt đăng: 28/4/2 019 KHOA HỌC NGOẠI NGỮ QUÂN SỰ No 19 (5/2 019) 13 v LANGUAGE TEACHING