Nhutng cdng trinh dd da lam giiu them kho tang cic cdng trinh kien tnic cd dai tren the gidi, sanh ngang h i n g vdi nhiing kim tuf t h i p Ai Cap, vUdn treo Babylon (Ludng Ha), den[r]
(1)VAN HOA - LiCH SLf
NGHE THUAT KIEN TRUC VA TAO HINH CUA NGir^l MAYA CO DAI
^¥\ r\idc nha h i n g hai
^ !> Christcpher Cdlumbus (1451-^ • (1451-^ 1506) p h i t hien chau My, tren "vuing dat mdi" niy da tiing tdn tai cic nen van minh cd kinh, nic rd ciia ngUdi Indian, trdng dd cd nen van minh cua tpc ngUdi Maya cd dai Nen van minh Maya la mpt nhUng nen van minh cd trinh dp p h i t trien cac d Tan the gidi Tuf nhutng the ky sau cimg trUdc Cdng nguyen den the ky IX sau Cdng nguyen, nen van minh Maya p h i t trien manh me d b i n did Yucatan (lanh thd cua Mexicc, Guatemala, Honduras, Belize va El Salvador nay) Nhieu trieu dai vdi biet bao vi vua ngii tri d cic phd' ldn nhU: Copan, Tikal, Palenque, Uxmal, Chichen Itza Trong sud't q u i trinh tdn tai ciia minh, ngUdi Maya da dat dUdc nhieu tiiu ndi bat ve van hdi, nghe thuat, khda hpc tu nhien Trong bii vie't niy, tic gia chi di sau nghien cufu, tim hieu ve nhiing tUu nghe thuat kien tnic va nghe thuat tao hinh ciia ngifdi Maya, qua dd de thay dUdc sufc lac ddng manh me, sing tae cua hp qui trinh tdn tai va p h i t trien NhUng thinh tiiu ve kien tnic, dieu khac, hdi hpa la mdt nhutng bing chufng cu the chufng minh cho thdi ky phat trien dinh cac ciia ngUdi Maya cd dai
1 Nghe t h u a t k i e n true
Gid'ng nhu kien tnic Hy Lap - La Ma cd dai, kien tnic Maya cd h i n g
Nguyen Tuan Binh Khoa Lich sii, Dgi hgc Sii Pham Hue nghin nam tudi v i dUdc d i n h gii l i mpt nen nghe thuat dpc dio va hiem cd Trong sud't chieu dii cua nen van h o i Maya, nhUng trung tam tdn giio, thUdng mai v i chinh quyen nha nUdc da dUdc xay dufng d cic phd' ldn, bao gdm Chichen Itza, Tikal, Copan, Uxmal Cic cdng trinh kien tnic cua ngUdi Maya da ghi lai da'u an nhUng thdi ky phat trien huy b e i n g cua dan tdc Do tfnh chat cua ddi sd'ng xa hdi, kien true Maya chiu i n h hUdng td tdn giid, tin ngUdng Thdng qua sii quan s i t ve nhieu yeu td' phui bdp va nhUng net nghe thuat dac sac, cic di tich cua kien tnic Maya l i chia khci quan trpng de nghien ciiu suf p h i t trien ciia nen van minh
(2)02 SO 11-2009 CHAU MY NGAY NAY Mdi mdt t h a n h phd cila ngUdi M a y a
la mpt q u a n the kien t n i c so (j t r u n g t a m t h i n h phd' la mpt q u a n g tru'dng ldn Day la dia diem t u hpp cua mpi ngudi t r c n g c i c dip le hdi C i c q u i n g tru'dng la trpng t a m thiet ke xay diing t h a n h phd' Bao q u a n h q u i n g trifdng la cung dien c i c kim tii t h i p den thd, s i n bdng Ben ngoai t r u n g t a m t h i n h phd' l i nhutng ngdi nha g i i n di ciia ngifdi d i n "Tgi khu
trung tdm cua thdnh phd Tikal cd mgt qudng tru'dng rgng ldn, la ndi cd hdnh nghi le rgng khodng 2,5 knr Qudng tritdng ndy d hai phia Dong Tdy cd xdy diing kim tii thdp, phia Bdc co thdnh bdo ve kieu Hy Lap cd Cdch xa nhdng cong trinh ndy, cd khodng dd't rgng chdng 16 km- ldm ndi nhd d, cd the d ditdc td - 4,5 van ngiidi"''^'
Cac cdng t r i n h kien t n i c ciia ngUdi Maya dUdc x i y dufng t r e n mdt c i i nen b i n g p h a n g cao hdn m a t da't Nd chiem vi tri tai t r u n g t a m va tuf t r e n cac n h i n xud'ng de t a n g t h e m cam giic kinh sd ciia mpi ngUdi ddi vdi nhUng kien t n i c tdn giao Ddng thdi, nd cung guip cho n h i i n g ngudi t h a m gia hdat ddng tdn g i i o n h i n t h a y ro n h u n g nghi t h d c d a n g tien h a n h d tren nen cao Kien t n i c cua ngUdi Maya cd nhUng net ddc d i o nha't la ky t h u a t xay t h i p vdi nhutng khdi da n a n g t r e n d m h ddi "Nhdng cot, titdng
ldn vdi diidng net ciing xudt hien tren dinh dot cao ditdi dnh ndng mat trin choi chang gdy cho ngiidi mgt cdm gidc bl che ngii ndng ne"'^' iMac du
thieu nhiing cdng n g h e tien tien n h u cac cdng cu kim loai, rdng r o c nhu'ng vdi ngudn n h a n luc p h o n g phii, ngUdi M a y a da xay dufng n e n cac cdng t r i n h kien t n i c dac s i c ciia m i n h
Tat c i c i c loai da p h u c vu cho viec xay d u n g deu dUdc lay tif cac md da d dja p h u d n g NgUdi M a y a t h u d n g suf
d u n g d i vdi, mdt loai d i m e m va de che bien'^' P h a n ldn n h i i n g t a n g da r i e n g le suf d u n g t r o n g cdng t r i n h deu nhd, t r p n g lUdng dii cho mdt ngUdi thd cd t h e m a n g vac T u y n h i e n , de tao a n tUdng d m a t t i e n cdng t r i n h nhU: hac t h a n g , h i n g l a n can, ngUdi M a y a c u n g suf d u n g c i c t a n g d i ldn N h i m t a n g k e t ca'u cdng t r i n h , p h i n ldn vuta cua ngu'di M a y a l i da vdi difdc nghien, ddt va t r d n cd n h i i n g t i n h chat cua x i m a n g n g i y n a y Viia dUdc suf d u n g phd bie'n che viec td tu'dng Ben c a n h dd hp diing m d t h d n hdp d i vdi hoac da't dUdc n g h i e n n i t t r p n l i n vdi d i d a m l a m n g u y e n lieu xay dufng De che lap ldp da b e n t r o n g , ngudi M a y a quet mdt ldp vuta m d n g va td sdn len be m a t Cdn da voi dUdc ded gpt va t h a c h cao dUdc diing de td hdac l i t m a t b i n g M a t c h i n h dien cua cac cdng t r i n h k i e n t n i c dUdc t r a n g tri b i n g hoa v a n va n h i i n g bufc bich hpa ve t r e n cac p h i e n d i Del vdi nhUng ngdi n h i b i n h thUdng, n h i i n g cdt gd, gach sd'ng va l i t r a n h la cac vat lieu xay diing c h u ye'u
Theo lich p h a p M a y a , s a u 52 n a m , tiic la mdt t h e ky t h e o each gpi cua ngUdi M a y a , cac d e n thd va kim tii t h i p dUdc suta chiia va xay dufng lai Q u a t r i n h xay dufng thUdng dUdc tien h a n h t h e o m e n h l e n h cua ngUdi c i m q u y e n mdi hoac p h u c vu cho n h i i n g suf kien c h i n h t r i q u a n t r p n g Tuy nhien, quy t r i n h xay dufng lai t r e n d i n h cua cdng t r i n h cu la mpt viec l a m binh t h u d n g Vi du, cdng t r i n h N o r t h Acropolis d T i k a l dUdc xem n h u la tdng t h e cua 1.500 n a m cua suf bie'n ddi k i e n tnic''"'
(3)Loai hinh kien triic thd nhdt Id Idu ddi, cung dien
Cac lau dai, cung dien dUdc xay dufng d n h i i n g k h u dat b i n g p h i n g thudc t r u n g t a m ciia t h a n h phd' "Cung
dien thitdng cd rdt nhieu phong, nhieu cda vdo vd cda sd Cdc vdm gid vd cdc vdm vien Id net chu dgo nghe thugt kien true cua ngitdi Maya Ho khong xdy trdn nhd phdng Xung quanh tiidng la sit ket hdp hdi hda gida nghe thugt kien true vd dieu khdc Sii phdi hdp gida cdc ditdng net, mdu sdc, dnh sdng cung vdi cdc hinh ve, cdc titdng ddp ndi dd mang lgi hieu qud cao cho cdc cong trinh"^^\ Loai
hinh kien t n i c cung dien cd m a t d t r u n g t a m cac t h a n h phd' ldn cua ngUdi Maya nhU: Cdpan, Tikal, Palenque, Chichen Itza, Uxmal
Loai hinh kien true thit hai Id kim tu thdp bgc thang
Kim tuf t h i p b i c t h a n g cua ngUdi Maya (gpi la El Castillo) dUdc suf d u n g n h u c i c den thd te t h a n linh Kim tuf t h i p d day k h d n g dd sd nhU kim tuf t h i p d Ai Cap, nhUng lai la mpt cdng t r i n h kien t n i c dUdc c h a m t r d cdng phu, tao n e n mpt p h o n g each kien t n i c dac sac Mdi k i m tuf t h a p deu cd nhutng hac t h a n g t h i n g dufng - "day la
cdy cdu ndi lien the gidi thdn linh vdi the gidi trdn ttic"'''^\ Cac vi t h a n se tii
thUdng gidi xud'ng t r a n gian b i n g nhUng c i i t h a n g n a y Dd c u n g la phUdng tien de cac p h a p sU c i u mUa t h u a n gid hda
Cac kim tuf t h a p cila ngudi M a y a m a n g t r e n m i n h nhUng da'u a n ndi len sii hieu hiet cd b a n va c h i n h x i c ve thien v a n hcc cua nhutng ngUdi s a n g tad chiing, tuf sii bd' t r i de'n so' lUdng b i c da NgUdi M a y a xay dufng kim tuf t h a p thed n g u y e n t a c : mdi hac t h a n g tUdng iing vdi mpt ngay, mdi t a n g tUdng ling vdi mdt t h i n g , bae t h a n g
cac nha't t r e n d i n h la thii 365 cua n a m , va la b a n thd c i c vi t h i n T r e n m a t p h i n g d d i n h kim tuf t h i p , ngUdi M a y a xay den thd v i dufng cic bufc tUdng t h a n h n h Hp q u a n niem day la ndi g i n nha't de budc len thien dudng K h e a n g da't rdng n i m t r i i dai dudi c h i n kim tuf t h i p la ndi d i n chiing t a p t r u n g h a n h le, cung te v i ca miia t r o n g c i c le hdi
Mdt t r o n g nhUng kim tii t h a p ndi tie'ng nha't cua ngudi M a y a l i kim tuf t h i p K u k u l c a n (ten M a y a cua vua Quetzalccatl) d t h i n h p h d Chichen Itza Cdng t r i n h cao 24m, cd d i y h i n h vudng, mdi c a n h d i i 60m Tren dinh cua kim tuf t h a p la den thd cac 6m NgUdi M a y a da xay dufng bd'n c i u t h a n g d bd'n hUdng d a n den ngdi den Bd'n cau t h a n g cd tdng cdng la 364 hac t h a n g (91 bac/1 cau t h a n g ) , cdng vdi n e n cua den thd la 365 hac, tUdng trUng cho 365 n g a y t r o n g mpt n a m theo lich cua ngUdi Maya T i n g t r e n cumg ciia k i m tuf t h a p K u k u l c a n la den thd t h i n r a n K u k u l c a n {Ran
Long Vii), dUdc hieu tUdng b i n g mdt
cen v a t cd ca nhutng dac t i n h cua chim va r a n T r c n g ngdi den cdn cd ngai v a n g h i n h bao c h a u My dUdc dee tuf d i , sdn m a u dd, t r i n g ngpc bich ciia t h i n K u k u l c a n M a t ngoai ciia kim tut t h i p dUdc td diem b a n g nhieu hoa v a n dUdc sap xep c i u ky tao nen cac d i i b a n g ngang, p h a n butc tUdng t h i n h nhutng k h d a n g c i c h deu n h a u NhUng bae t h a n g di len cua kim tuf t h i p deu n h i n t h a n g ve c i c hUdng chfnh Bae, c h i n h N a m , chinh Ddng va chfnh Tay Vao budi s i n g , i n h m a t trdi se chieu t h a n g vac p h i n d i u den p h i n dudi cua bufc tUdng t h a n r a n dat t r e n chdp dinh, tUdng trUng cho suf thutc t i n h cua t h i n r a n Kukulcan
(4)54 SO 11-2009 CHAU MY NGAY NAY
vdi bdc thang dd that ddi, cd the di len phdng md tren dinh Nhdng phdng md deu cd phdn trang tri ben tren khd uy nghi Trong so'dd, cd mgt kim tii thdp ldn nhdt, diidc ggi la kim tii thdp sd 4, cao 70m Nhdng kim tit thdp ndy thitdng dung ldm ndi chon cdt cua ngiidi quyen quy, ben cd nhdng do vdt chon theo rdt xinh dep, de cung cdp cho ngitdi chet dn udng vd sd dung qua the gidi ben kid"^\
Logi hinh kien true thd ba la sdn bdng
Tai cic phd' Maya cd rat nhieu s i n bdng dUdc xay dufng vdi dien tich ldn, cd hinh chut I hoa vdi cac biic tudng bad quanh San bdng dUdc tim thay tai phd' Chichen Itza cd hai biic tudng dii 83m, cac 8,2m, chay scng Sdng Khdang cich giiia hai bufc tudng l i 27m Chfnh giiia san bdng la mdt khoanh da't cd hinh chut nhat dai 135m va rdng 68m San bdng dUdc dung de chdi mdn "bdng da" cua ngUdi Maya Mdn chdi bdng n i y khdng ddn thuin la mdt mdn the thao ma cdn l i mdt nghi Id tdn giio Theo quan niem cua ngUdi Maya, "sdn bdng titdng
triing cho the gidi, qud bdng mang hinh dnh cua mat trdi, mat trdng"^'^\
Tai hai d i u san bdng cd xay hai den thd Nhiing ngudi tham gia thi da'u deu dpi mu ciing, dec gang tay, dec cac tam da de bao ve hai ben hdng va d i u gdi Cic ciu thu dimg vai, dau gdi va hdng de dUa mdt q u i bdng lam b i n g cac su, nang khoang kg, qua nhiing cil vdng bing da dUdc g i n vid hai phia cua s i n bdng Dpi trUdng cua dpi thua cudc se bi dem te than Trong sd pbii dieu cham khic tren tudng, cd nhUng phii dieu mieu t i canh nhUng ngUdi thi dau hi chat dau
Logi hinh kien true thid tU la nhung ngoi den
NgUdi Maya da xay dufng cac ngdi den va dUdc suf dung nhu cac cdng
trinh mai tang danh cho nhutng ngUdi quyen quy Tieu hieu cho loai hinh kien tnic la den De Tang (Temple of the Inscriptions) Ngdi den dUdc xay dufng vao the ky VII sau Cdng Nguyen d t h a n h phd' Palenque (phfa Nam Mexico nay) Den dUdc xay dufng mpt phan tren ddi dd'c dutng Phfa hen den De Tang la lang md ciia vi vua vi dai nhat Palenque, Hanab Pakal Ong la vi vua thii X cua vUdng trieu Palenque Nam 615 sau Cdng Nguyen, dng len ngdi vua mdi 12 tudi Sau mdt suf nghiep lau dii, Hanab Pakal bat d i u khdi cdng xay dufng ngdi den vao khoang nam 675 Nam 683, vua Pakal hang ha, thp 80 tudi Cdng trinh dUdc Chan Bahlam, trai cua vua Pakal, tie'p tuc xay dufng va hoan t h a n h vao khoang nam 700
(5)vi v u a q u i cd' P a k a l cd t h e giao tiep vdi nhUng ngudi cdn sd'ng t h a m gia cac nghi le dien r a t r o n g den d phfa tren met c i c h t h u a n tien'^°'
Cd t h e ndi, den De T a n g vdi l a n g md P a k a l l i mdt cdng t r i n h cd dai ndi tie'ng nha't cua ngudi M a y a , vufa cd gia tri ve m a t n g h e t h u a t , viia cd g i i tri ve m a t lich suf Cdng t r i n h giiip chiing ta hieu biet hdn ve b i n c h a t xa hdi Maya cd dai va t h e gidi q u a n cua hp Lang md v u a P a k a l da chufng m i n h mpt each day du xa hpi ngUdi M a y a cd suf p h a n h c a giai cap va ciing chufng minh c i c kim tuf t h i p vufa l i den thd t h i n linh, vufa la l a n g md v u a chiia
2 N g h e t h u a t t a o h i n h
Nghe t h u a t dieu k h i c cua ngUdi Maya dat de'n t r i n h dp r a t cac "Mgt
trong nhdng net ddc triing nhdt cua nghe thugt Maya la sii kheo leo diidc cdc nhd dieu khdc vd tgo hinh ke't hdp vdi cdc nhd kien true; sit hdi hod cua nen trang tri vd ti le cdc hinh, cdch thdc sd dung tiidng phdn dnh sdng vd bdng tdi dd xep nhdng nhd dieu khdc Maya vdo so'nhdng ngiidi gidi nhdf^^^\
Vdi nhufng n e t c h a m k h a c cua khdng gian ba chieu, n g h e t h u a t dieu khac da di vao cudc sd'ng t h u d n g n h a t ciia nhutng ngUdi d a n M a y a TrUdc cufa n h a la n h i i n g biic tUdng, m a t na dap ndi h i n h i n h c i c vi t h i n d i y quyen n a n g p h d trd cho cudc sd'ng ngUdi M a y a C h a t lieu b a n d i u la gd, sau t h a y b a n g da vdi N h i i n g h i n h hda van c h a m ndi t r e n tUdng, t r e n cac cufa vao, cot d i bd'n m a t vdi nhUng h i n h khac ndi la nhutng cdng t r i n h dieu khac cd g i i tri, chiing td t a i n a n g cua nhiing n g h e n h a n M a y a cd xUa Dieu khac n h a m p h u c vu m u c dich tin ngUdng thd ciing ( t r e n c i c bia md), ca t u n g c i c vi v u a va k h a n g d i n h ngudn gd'c t h a n t h i n h cua hp Bia md t h u d n g
cd h i n h cdt m a t m a n g chan dung vi vua d m a t trUdc va c i c chU tUdng h i n h d m a t sau"^'
N i p day q u a n t i i vua P a k a l d den De T a n g la m e t t r d n g nhiing s i n p h a m t i n h x i d nha't cua nghe t h u a t M a y a cd dai T r e n n a p day q u a n tai, ngudi M a y a c h a m k h a c h i n h a n h cua n h a v u a P a k a l vac gid p h u t lam chung, m e t cen r a n sieu n h i e n h i hdc mieng tUdng trUng che cdng vao the gidi k h i c , ndi d cua tien n h a n N h a vua a n v a n n h u mpt n a m t h i n Maize, mdt vi t h a n t h u d n g dUdc lien tUdng den suf h i n h t h a n h t h e gidi va hdi sinh Phfa s a u P a k a l la met cay to ldn tUdng trUng cho t h e gidi vdi r a n trdi d a n g q u a n t r e n c i n h Tren ngpn cay la m e t chim sieu nhien d a n g dau, tUdng trUng cho S h a m a n giio va ma t h u a t Toan bd t h d n g diep ngu y vua P a k a l vao liic lam chung dang dUdc t i i sinh nhU mdt vi t h i n va td tien dUdc s u n g kinh"^'
Sd vdi dieu khac, nghe t h u a t hdi hpa cua ngUdi Maya cung k h i cdng phu Suf h i i hda t r e n nen t r a n g tri va ti le c i c h i n h ve, c i c h thufc suf dung dp tUdng p h a n giUa i n h s i n g va bdng tdi la mdt n h d n g net dac trUng cua nghe t h u a t Maya C i c t i c p h a m hdi hpa hien cdn lai r a t ft C i c n h a khao cd da tim t h a y d di tich B o n a m p a k nhiing bufc bich hpa t r e n tUdng vdi ve dep trUdng tdn D i y la mdt trdng nhiing biic bich hpa cd dien cd g i i tri nghe t h u a t cao Nien dai s i n g t i c bich hpa v i o k h o i n g the ky VI den the ky VIII sau Cdng nguyen, dUdc thiic hien tren v i c h tudng mdt ngdi den vdi m a u s i c sac sd difdng net re r i n g NhUng butc bich hpa n a y cho tha'y cupc sd'ng sinh ddng cua ngUdi M a y a nhU: c i n h q u a n chien t h a n g trd ve, d a n nep ed'ng p h a m , xet xuf t u nhan "Cdc bdc tranh
(6)56 SO 11-2009 CHAU MY NGAY NAY
sdnh chung vdi cdc bdc tranh cua Italia thdi ky Phuc hiing Chung cho thdy khd ndng phdi cdnh vd tinh cdm sdng dgng bd cuc"'^""
Nghe thuat trang tri dd gd'm cua ngUdi Maya cung dUdc biet den vdi ding ve lich lam ket hp'p vdi nhieu hinh i n h mau sic phcng phu Nhieu tic phim gdm difdc tim thay cic hang ddng, cic ham md va day l i dd vat ciia cic nghi le hien te, mai ting
Ben canh dd, nhU nhieu tdc ngUdi khic d Trung My, ngUdi Maya rat Ua thich nhiing s i n pham bang da quy Bing suf kheo leo ciia minh, nhiing ngUdi thd Maya da che tic nhieu trang sufc tinh xic va vat dung hang ngiy Tai cic kim tuf thip, h i m md ciia \'ua chiia dUdc phii diy chau b i u va cic
do vat lim tii da quy kham ngpc trai,
cac vdng nhan bang ngpc bich Tai lang md Pakal d Palenque cic nha khac cd 'da tim thay mdt chiec mat na k h i m da ngpc bich d quan tai va cic dd vat khic che tac bang ngpc bich, xa cut d trcng io quan Cic n h i nghien cufu da cho rang "nghe thudt cua Maya mang
phong cdch dgc biet cua Ai Cap, Trung Qudc vd An Dg''^'^'
Tdm lai, ben canh nhutng tiiu ve van tii, khoa hpc tii nhien, nhutng cdng trinh kien tnic, dieu khic va hdi hpa cua ngUdi Maya la nhUng cdng trinh mang tinh nghe thuat cac Nhiing quin the kim tii t h i p d Tikal den De" Tang v i lang md vua Pakal d Palenque kim tut t h i p Kukulcan va san bdng d Chichen Itza khdng chi cd y nghia ve mat nghe thuat ma cdn mang y righia ve mat tdn giio, tin ngUdng, Nhiing cung dien dUdc thiet ke cao sang, \d vdi hing tram biic phii dieu, cham khic diy tinh dan tdc d ben trdng Nhutng kim tii t h i p den thd vdi ding ve ben ngdai thoit,ma ben chiia day van tuf cd mac du trai qua hang ngin nam vin dufng siing suing
ciing sdng niii NgUdi Maya cd dai, vdi b i n tay va khdi dc binh di, da khac phuc mudn v i n khd khan, tay khdng tao dufng nen nhutng cdng trinh kien tnic, da vie't nen nhiing trang sii hao humg cua dan tdc vdi mdt nghi lufc sieu pham Nhutng cdng trinh dd da lam giiu them kho tang cic cdng trinh kien tnic cd dai tren the gidi, sanh ngang h i n g vdi nhiing kim tuf t h i p Ai Cap, vUdn treo Babylon (Ludng Ha), den thd Parthedn (Hy Lap), Van Ly TrUdng Thanh (Trung Qud'c) Chfnh vi vay, vao t h i n g nam 2007, phd' cd Chichen Itza cua ngUdi Maya da dUdc the gidi binh chpn la mdt bay ky quan the gidi mdi Vdi trinh dp phit trien cao each day hdn 2000 nam, nen van minh ciia ngudi Maya that sU ding dUdc ca the gidi qua khii, hien tai va ca mai sau phai ngUdng mp •
Chu thich:
1, Maya architecture {ivww.en.ivikipedia.org)
2, Rossemarie Burgh, Richard Cowendish, Ky quan kien true the gi&i (Ban dich cua Phong Dao) Nha xuat ban
My thuat Ha Noi, 2004 trang 150
3, Biii Dep fbien scan) Di sdn the gidi tap 8, tai ban lan thii hai Nha xuat ban Tre, Ho Chi Minh, 2005, trang 37
4, Maya architecture (www.en.wikipedia.org) 5, Nen van minh Maya (www.vi.wikipedia.org) 6, Nguyen Kim Anh, Le Thi Thu Ha, Nen vdn minh
Maya viing Trung Mv Tap chi Chau My Ngav nay, so
8, 2'007, trang 44, ' ' ' • 7, Le Phvuig Hoang Ha Bich Lien, Trin Hong Ngpc Cdc cong
trinh kien true noi tie'ng lich sii the'gidi co trung dai
NTia xua't ban Giao due Ha Noi, 1998 trang 151
8, Rossemarie Burgh, Richard Cowendish Ky quan kien
true the gi&i (Ban dich cua Phong Dao), Nha xuat ban
My thuat Ha Noi 2004, trang 151,
9, Nguyen Kim \nh Le Thi Thu Ha Nen vdn minh
Maya viing Trung My Tap chi Chau My Ngav nav, so'
8,-2'007, t r a n g
10, Chris Scarre 70 ky quan the gidi cd dai Nha xuat ban My thuat, Ha Noi, 2003, trang 76-77
11, Henri Lehmann Cdc nin vdn minh thdi tien Colomh (Ban dich cua Trinh Thu Hong) Nha xuat ban The gidi Ha Noi, 2003 trang 75
12, X Carpusina, V, Carpusin Lich sU vdn hoa the
giai (Ban dich ciia Mai Ly Quang, Dang Tran Hanh,
Hoang Giang Le Tam Hang) Nha xua't ban The gidi, Ha Noi 2002 trang 262
13, Chris Scarre, 70 ky quan the gidi co dai Nha xuat ban My thuat, Ha Noi, 2003, trang 77
14, Henri Lehmann, Cdc nen vdn minh thdi tien Colomb (Ban dich cua Trinh Thu Hong) Nha xuat biin The gidi, Ha Ngi, 2003, trang 77