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Ashis Banerjee Emergency Clinical Diagnosis 123 Emergency Clinical Diagnosis Ashis Banerjee Emergency Clinical Diagnosis Ashis Banerjee Royal Free NHS Foundation Trust London, United Kingdom ISBN 978-3-319-50717-0    ISBN 978-3-319-50718-7 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-50718-7 Library of Congress Control Number: 2017932743 © Springer International Publishing AG 2017 This work is subject to copyright All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made Printed on acid-free paper This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland Introduction The demands on emergency departments are rising worldwide Simultaneously, the scope of practice of emergency medicine continues to expand This is fuelled by an ageing population, complex medical presentations, rising patient expectations, difficulties with access to primary care facilities, and the desire for second opinions in the case of diagnostic delay or failure in primary care settings Diagnostic failure is the leading source of clinical complaints and of medico-­legal litigation involving emergency departments The emergency practitioner not only needs to be proficient in the evaluation of common high-­ stakes conditions, but also has to be aware of malignant disease and rarer conditions that can present to the emergency department and facilitate their diagnosis and subsequent management This ensures more effective communication with specialists receiving referrals In particular, the new diagnosis of cancer is increasingly being made in the emergency setting Once the correct diagnosis is made, it is recognised that treatment protocols and referral pathways can vary widely and that local guidance is more appropriate Diagnostic accuracy, however, remains a universal common concern This book aims to provide the emergency practitioner with diagnostic aide-memoires and checklists as part of the front-line diagnostic armamentarium v Contents 1 Cardiovascular Emergencies��������������������������������������������������������    1 2 Respiratory Emergencies��������������������������������������������������������������   45 3 Musculoskeletal Emergencies ������������������������������������������������������   69 4 Metabolic and Endocrine Emergencies ��������������������������������������  127 5 Dermatological Emergencies��������������������������������������������������������  143 6 Ocular Emergencies����������������������������������������������������������������������  157 7 ENT and Maxillofacial Emergencies��������������������������������������������  167 8 Gynaecological Emergencies��������������������������������������������������������  179 9 Neurological and Psychiatric Emergencies���������������������������������  185 10 Toxicological Emergencies������������������������������������������������������������  221 11 Emergencies in the Elderly ����������������������������������������������������������  231 12 Gastrointestinal Emergencies ������������������������������������������������������  235 13 Renal and Urological Emergencies����������������������������������������������  261 14 Haematological and Oncological Emergencies ��������������������������  271 15 Infectious Disease Emergencies����������������������������������������������������  279 16 Paediatric Emergencies ����������������������������������������������������������������  283 vii Cardiovascular Emergencies Chest pain A good focused history is essential to the adequate assessment of chest pain It is important to rapidly exclude potentially life-threatening causes of chest pain to avoid adverse clinical outcomes.This should be preceded by an ABCD (airway, breathing, circulation, disability) assessment Once cardiac chest pain is determined to be likely, early risk stratification should be achieved in order to guide choice of further management The PQRST history for chest pain provides a basic framework for history taking: • Provokes: deep breathing, coughing, movement, physical exertion, cold weather, emotional stress, heavy meal, sexual intercourse • Palliates: rest; position; food; antacids; over the counter or prescription drugs • Quality: burning, stabbing, crushing, dull, aching, sharp, heaviness, tightness • Region: central, lateral; localization by the patient’s finger(s) is useful to determine the site of pain • Radiation: back, neck, upper limb • Severity: graded from to 10 • Timing: duration of symptoms; time of onset Associated symptoms of relevance include: Systemic: fever, chills, fatigue, sweating Cardio-pulmonary: dyspnoea, palpitations, ­syncope or near syncope Gastrointestinal: nausea and vomiting, heartburn Red flags in chest pain assessment include: • • • • • • Severe dyspnoea Severe or ongoing pain Exertional chest pain Haemoptysis Syncope Multiple cardiovascular risk factors (three or more usually) • Abnormal vital signs associated with haemodynamic instability • Signs of hypoperfusion Focused assessment for patients presenting with possible cardiac chest pain includes • History of pain characteristics and associated symptoms • Presence of cardiovascular risk factors • History of cardiovascular disease, including ischaemic heart diseasse, and any previous treatment for coronary artery disease (coronary revascularization, including thrombolysis, percutaneous coronary inter­ vention, and coronary artery bypass grafting) • Any other previous investigation/treatment for chest pain © Springer International Publishing AG 2017 A Banerjee, Emergency Clinical Diagnosis, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-50718-7_1 1  Cardiovascular Emergencies • Response to glyceryl trinitrate should not be used to confirm the diagnosis of cardiac chest pain in isolation Known risk factors for coronary artery disease Non-modifiable Kawasaki’s disease Structural lesions of coronary arteries: ­anomalous origin of left coronary artery from pulmonary artery; coronary artery ostial stenosis after neonatal arterial switch repair of D-­transposition of great arteries Prothrombotic defects • Genetics: family history of premature ­coronary heart disease in first degree relative-­ Physical examination in the presence of susbefore 55 years of age in men (fathers, sons, pected cardiac chest pain  includes: or brothers) and 60 in women (mothers, • Evaluation of haemodynamic status daughters, or sisters) • Signs of sympathetic activation (pallor, • Age: over 45 years’ age in men and over sweating, tachycardia) or vagal activation 55 years’ age in women (vomiting, bradycardia) • Male sex • Signs of complications:pulmonary oedema, cardiogenic shock Potentially modifiable • Signs of non-coronary causes of acute chest pain: aortic dissection (asymmetrical • Hypertension pulses, differential blood pressure between • Other cardiovascular disease left and right upper limbs, acute aortic • Diabetes mellitus regurgitation), pericarditis (pericardial fric• Cigarette smoking: tobacco use tion rub) • Physical inactivity: lack of exercise • Weight, height and calculation of body • Obesity mass index, and waist circumference may • Heavy alcohol consumption help identify patients at risk of cardiac • Metabolic syndrome (central or abdominal chest pain obesity, hypertension, elevated fasting • Levine’s sign of the use of the clenched fist plasma glucose, high serum triglycerides, to indicate the site of discomfort may indilow HDLcholesterol levels, cate cardiac chest pain microalbuminuria) • Dyslipidaemia: elevated total cholesterol (>4.9 mmol/L); elevated LDL-cholesterol (>3.0 mmol/L); HDL-cholesterol Causes of acute chest pain (20 min) angina at rest • New onset angina • Recent destabilization of previously stable angina • Post-myocardial infarction angina Features of chest pain which are notcharacteristic of myocardial ischaemia (AHA/ACC guidelines for NSTE Acute Coronary Syndromes, 2014) • Pleuritic pain (sharp or knife-like pain ­provoked by respiration or cough) • Pain localised by the tip of one finger, especially at the left ventricular apex or costochondral junction • Pain reproducible with movement or palpation of chest wall or arms • Brief episodes of pain lasting a few minutes or less • Constant pain persisting for many hours 14  Haematological and Oncological Emergencies Presentations of sickle cell crisis • Bone crisis (vaso-occlusive crisis) • Acute chest syndrome: low grade fever, non-­productive cough, shortness of breath, haemoptysis, acute chest pain, signs of consolidation, new infiltrate on chest xray • Acute splenic sequestration: pallor; lethargy; hypotension; rapid splenic enlargement • CNS complications: stroke, presenting with hemiparesis, monoparesis, aphasia/ dysphasia, cranial nerve palsies or coma • Acute anaemia, presenting with pallor, tachycardia, tachypnoea, jaundice, enlarged spleen/liver, S3 gallop, congestive heart failure: bone marrow suppression (viral or other infections); sequestration of blood in the liver or spleen; increased intravascular haemolysis (hyper-haemolytic crisis) Precipitants for sickle cell crises include • • • • • • • Infection Dehydration Hypoxia Acidosis Sedatives Alcohol Excessive physical exercise Categories of oncological emergencies • Metabolic: malignant hypercalcaemia (osteolytic metastases; humoral hypercalcaemia); acute tumour lysis syndrome (abrupt and massive release of cellular metabolites into the circulation after rapid lysis of malignant cells, producing the metabolic triad of hyperkalaemia, hyperphosphatemia, hyperuricaemia; secondary hypocalcaemia; acute kidney injury); SIADH • Neurological: metastatic spinal cord compression; brain metastases (raised intracranial pressure; seizures) 277 • Cardiovascular: malignant pericardial effusion (cardiac tamponade); superior vena cava obstruction • Haematological: hyperviscosity syndrome (triad of bleeding, including mucosal bleeding-­epistaxis, bleeding gums gastrointestinal bleeding, and purpura; visual disturbance, including central retinal vein occlusion, retinal haemorrhages and papilloedema; and focal neurological signs); hyper-leukocytosis (leukostasis; WCC >100,000/cu mm.; CNS manifestations, such as headache, blurred vision, visual field defects and papilloedema; and lung manifestations, including effort dyspnoea, hypoxaemia and respiratory distress); DIC • Infections: febrile neutropenia; septic shock • Chemotherapy agent side effects Extravasation injuries: vesicants (anthracyclines; vinca alkaloids, mitomycin C); irritants (taxanes; platinums; epipodphyllotoxins; topoisomerase I inhibitors) Gastrointestinal: mucositis; enteritis with diarrhea and dehydration; obstipation Causes of hyperviscosity syndrome • • • • Myeloma (especially IgA) Waldenstrom’s macroglobulinaemia Polycythaemia vera Hyper-leukocytosis Features of hyperviscosity syndrome • Neurological: confusion; ataxia; nystagmus; vertigo; coma • Visual disturbance: blurred vision; amaurosis fugax; central retinal vein occlusion • Genitourinary and gastrointestinal bleeding Risk factors for tumour lysis syndrome The metabolic triad of tumour lysis syndrome comprises hyperuricaemia, hyperkalaemia and hyperphosphataemia • Tumour related: rapid progression; large tumour burden 278 14  Haematological and Oncological Emergencies (LDH >1500 IU/ml, WCC >50 × 103/L); extensive bone marrow involvement; high tumour sensitivity to cancer chemotherapy agents • Host factors: intravascular volume depletion (dehydration); pre-existing hyperuricaemia; obstructive uropathy; chronic kidney disease; concurrent potentially nephrotoxic medication • Mechanical obstruction of bowel • Metastatic disease: cerebral; liver • Metabolic complications: hypercalcaemia; hyponatraemia • Meningeal irritation: raised intracranial pressure • Sepsis: gastrointestinal; systemic • Cardiac: myocardial ischaemia; congestive heart failure • Anxiety Features of malignant spinal cord compression  (extradural tumour growth; peri-tumoral oedema and thecal compression; pathological fracture with angulation of the spinal cord; tumour induced spinal arterial occlusion) Emergency presentations and manifestations of acute leukaemia  include • Back pain is the most common initial symptom, preceding neurological symptoms in 95% of cases In cervical region compression, subscapular pain is noted, in the thoracic region thoracic pain, and in the lumbosacral region lumbosacral or hip pain The back pain can be multi-segmental or band-like, and is increasing in severity, with poor response to analgesic medication The pain is increased on lying on the back • Radicular pain • Motor: progressive weakness (heaviness of legs), gait abnormalities; paraparesis (thoracic level compression) • Conus medullaris syndrome (upper lumbar spine compression): distal lower limb weakness, saddle anaesthesia, overflow incontinence of bladder and bowel) • Loss of bladder and bowel function is generally a late sign • The spine should be considered to be unstable unless proven otherwise Checklist for causes of nausea and vomiting in patients with cancer • Medication: cancer chemotherapy; opioids • Mucosal irritation: NSAIDs; gastro-­ oesophageal reflux • Bone marrow failure (secondary to infiltration), presenting with features of the triad of anaemia (fatigue, effort intolerance, pallor, congestive heart failure), thrombocytopenia (spontaneous mucosal and skin (petchiae, purpura) bleeding) and neutropenia (recurrent infections; neutropenic sepsis) • Visceral infiltration: Hepatomegaly, splenomegaly, lymphadenopathy (ALL) Mediastinal mass with superior vena cava syndrme (T-ALL) Gingival hyperplasia (monocytic subtype of AML) Bone and joint pain, occasionally with limp (ALL) Testicular swelling • CNS involvement: chloroma (myelosarcoma)- orbit, spinal extradural compression with cauda equina syndrome; intracranial haemorrhage; leukaemic meningitis (meningeal syndrome) • Leukostasis (CNS: stroke; pulmonary: infiltrates, hypoxaemia) • Constitutional symptoms: fever; weight loss • Spontaneous tumour lysis syndrome (mature B-ALL) Infectious Disease Emergencies Sepsis definitions SYSTEMIC INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE SYNDROME 15 May not be hypotensive if vasopressors or inotropes are being used Causes of fever of unknown origin CRITERIA: Requires two or more of the following: • Temperature >38 C or 90 beats/minute in the absence of beta-blocker • Respiratory rate >20 breaths/minute or paCO212,000/cu.mm, 10% immature forms (left shift) SEPSIS • SIRS in a patient with a confirmed source of infection SEVERE SEPSIS • Sepsis in the presence of organ dysfunction and hypotension (3 s; hypotension • Disability: unresponsiveness; hypotonia or hypertonia; excessive crying, weak cry, high pitched cry; poor suck and swallow; poor response to the environment; tremors; jitteriness; seizures • Temperature >38 or 18 h prior to delivery); meconium stained amniotic liquor; abnormal presentation; cord prolapse; prolonged labour or precipitate delivery; analgesia before or during delivery (narcotic use within 4 h of delivery) • Foetal/newborn: preterm (41 weeks); low birth weight (4200 g); birth trauma; need for resuscitation • • • • • • • • • • • • Apnoea; tachypnoea Respiratory distress Lethargy Irritability Seizures Poor feeding Abdominal distension; vomiting Fever; hypothermia; temperature instability Jaundice Hepatosplenomegaly Congestive heart failure Hypoglycaemia; hyperglycaemia Causes of neonatal respiratory distress • Upper respiratory tract obstruction: nasal (posterior choanal atresia): pharyngeal 16  Paediatric Emergencies 290 (Pierre-Robin syndrome); laryngeal (vocal cord paralysis, laryngeal web or cyst); tracheal (tracheomalacia; vascular ring); cystic hygroma • Lower respiratory tract obstruction: meconium aspiration; aspiration of gastric contents • Alveolar disease: respiratory distress syndrome; pneumonia; pulmonary oedema; congenital heart disease • Pulmonary compression: pneumothorax; repaired omphalocele; congenital diaphragmatic hernia; congenital lobar emphysema Causes of neonatal cyanosis • Cardiac lesions: • Reduced pulmonary blood flow and intracardiac right-to-left shunt: critical pulmonary stenosis; tetralogy of Fallot • Normal or increased pulmonary blood flow, intracardiac mixing: hypoplastic left heart syndrome; transposition of the great arteries; truncus arteriosus • Pulmonary lesions • Primary parenchymal lung disease: aspiration syndromes; respiratory distress syndrome; pneumonia • Airway obstruction: choanal atresia; tracheal stenosis • Extrinsic compression of lungs: pneumothorax; congenital diaphragmatic hernia; pleural effusion • Hypoventilation: central nervous system lesions; sedation; sepsis; neuromuscular disease • Cyanosis with normal paO2: methaemoglobinaemia; polycythaemia Features of congestive heart failure in neonates • • • • • • Tachypnoea Tachycardia Poor or slow feeding Sweating or colour change with feeding Hepatomegaly Poor weight gain Presentations of neonatal seizures • Subtle seizures (without tonic or clonic movements of the limbs): ocular phenomena (tonic eye deviation upwards or to one side; nystagmoid eye movements; sustained eye opening); oro-bucco-lingual movements (chewing, lip smacking, sucking); alternating limb movements (boxing, pedalling, rowing, swimming); autonomic phenomena (sudden changes in skin colour); apnoea with tonic stiffening of the body • Clonic seizures: focal or multi-focal clonic limb movements • Tonic seizures: tonic stiffening of the body • Myoclonic jerks Causes of neonatal seizures • Transient metabolic disturbances: hypoglycaemia; hypocalcaemia; hyponatraemia • Inborn errors of metabolism (inherited and persistent metabolic disturbances) • Hypoxic ischaemic encephalopathy (perinatal asphyxia) • Focal cerebral ischaemic injury: neonatal arterial stroke; dural venous sinus thrombosis • Intracranial haemorrhage: subarachnoid haemorrhage; subdural haematoma; intraventricular haemorrhage • Central nervous system infections: congenital encephalitis (intrauterine infection with CMV, toxoplasmosis); bacterial meningitis (Group B streptococcal; Escherichia coli) Features of neonatal hypoglycaemia • • • • • • • • • Lethargy; apathy Weak or high-pitched cry Hypotonia Tremors; irritability Apnoea Cyanosis Poor feeding; vomiting Seizures Coma 16  Paediatric Emergencies Causes of neonatal hypoglycaemia • Increased utilization of glucose (hyperinsulinism): diabetic mother; large for gestational age infant; discordant twin; islet cell hyperplasia; insulin-producing tumours; erythroblastosis foetalis; maternal betasympathomimetic therapy • Reduced production/ stores of glucose: prematurity; intrauterine growth retardation • Increased utilization and/or decreased production: perinatal stress (sepsis; shock; hypothermia; respiratory distress); defects in carbohydrate metabolism (glycogen storage disease; galactosaemia; hereditary fructose intolerance); endocrine disorders (adrenocortical insufficiency; hypothalamic deficiency; glucagon deficiency); disorders of amino acid metabolism; maternal therapy with beta blockers Causes of neonatal jaundice • Increased production of bilirubin: haemolytic disease of the newborn (Rhesus or 291 ABO isoimmunisation); haemolytic anaemias (red cell defects; G6PD defi­ ciency); acquired drug-­induced haemolysis; extravascular blood (cephalhaematoma); polycythaemia • Reduced conjugation of bilirubin: galactosaemia: familial non-haemolytic jaundice; Gilbert’s disease; α-1 antitrypsin deficiency • Obstruction to biliary flow: biliary atresia; choledochal cysts; cystic fibrosis; tumour; band; increased enterohepatic circulation of bile: duodenal atresia, annular pancreas, meconium plug • Mixed: sepsis; intrauterine infections: respiratory distress syndrome Causes of eye discharge in the neonate • Conjunctivitis: gonococcal (purulent discharge, tense oedema of eyelids, chemosis); chlamydial (watery discharge) • Dacryocystitis: redness, swelling in region of lacrimal sac; green discharge • Dacryostenosis: unilateral watery discharge, with crusting .. .Emergency Clinical Diagnosis Ashis Banerjee Emergency Clinical Diagnosis Ashis Banerjee Royal Free NHS Foundation Trust London,... 2017 A Banerjee, Emergency Clinical Diagnosis, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-50718-7_1 1  Cardiovascular Emergencies • Response to glyceryl trinitrate should not be used to confirm the diagnosis of cardiac... to the emergency department and facilitate their diagnosis and subsequent management This ensures more effective communication with specialists receiving referrals In particular, the new diagnosis