Effect of income on nutrient intake case of households in the southeast region of vietnam 2000

UNIVERSITY OF ECONOMICS INSTITUTE OF SOCIAL STUDIES HO CHI MINH CITY THE HAGUE Vietnamese-Dutch Project for M.A Program in Development Economics EFFECT OF INCOME ON NUTRIENT INTAKE THE CASE OF HOUSEHOLDS IN THE SOUTHEAST REGION OF VIETNAM- 2000 A thesis presented by Nguyen Phuong Chi In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for Obtaining the Degree of MASTER OF ARTS IN ECONOMICS OF DEVELOPMENT Supervisors M.Sc Nguyen Hun Dung Dr Le Bach Mai ~"'•·-r= THU q) V1L~l" D J_ ~.?-· CERTIFICATION " I certify that the substance of this dissertation has not already been submitted for any degree and is not being currently submitted for any other degree I certify that to the best of my knowledge any help received in preparing this dissertation, and all sources used, have been acknowledged in this dissertation." ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First of all, I would like to express my acknowledgement to Dutch Lady Vietnam Food and Beverage Company for their sponsorship to my trip to the National Institution of Nutrition in Hanoi to finish this thesis I also convey my gratitude to the University of Economics - Ho Chi Minh City, the Institute of Social Studies The Hague and the National Institution ofNutrition for creating such good chance for me to the research I am deeply indebted to my supervisors, Mr Kees Voogd, the Innovation Manager and Mr Nguyen Huu Thiet, the Human Resource Manager of Dutch Lady Vietnam Food and Beverage Company; Mr Nguyen Huu Dung, the coordinator of the MDE program; Dr Nguyen Cong Khan, the director of the National Institution of Nutrition, Dr Le Bach Mai, the manager of the Public Nutrition Department and Dr Vu Quynh Hoa, staff of the National Institution of Nutrition for their valuable instructions, comments and suggestions during the process of writing the report Finally, I wish to express my thanks to my parents, relatives and friends for their spiritual encouragement and material support Without those sources, the thesis would have been made impossible I alone bear full responsibility for any errors remaining in the report Nguyen Phuong Chi Ho Chi Minh City, August 2003 ABSTRACT It is a fact that 75 percent undernourished children lives in India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Indonesia, Nigeria and Vietnam (Foster and Leathers, 1999) Still, developed countries like European and the United States give a lot of attention to this problem They increase incomes of the poor and food production per person to avoid malnutrition (Wolfe and Behrman, 1983) Unfortunately, Engel's law stated that as incomes grow, people would reduce the food spending proportion in their budget and increase the budget share for non-food commodities Besides, people often consume foods to suit their tastes and habits rather than to get more calories in their choice The thesis examines the effect of income on nutrient intake of households in the Southeast region of Vietnam in 2000 All the data is taken from The National Food and Nutrition Survey of the National Institution of Nutrition (NIN) in 2000 Regression result analyzes show that there is a positive effect of expenditure on calorie intake but the effect is rather low People have shifted their spending to animal foods such as meat, eggs, milk and milk products Gender does not have any correlation with calorie intake TABLE OF CONTENTS CERTIFICATION ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ~ ! ABSTRACT TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES LIST OF FIGURES ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1 PROBLEM STATEMENT 1.2 OBJECTIVES OF THE THESIS 11 1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS 11 1.4 RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS 12 1.5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 12 1.6 THE ORGANIZATION OF THE THESIS 13 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW AND EMPIRICAL STUDIES 15 2.1 CONCEPTS OF NUTRIENT INTAKE AND THE HOUSEHOLD 15 2.1.1 NUTRIENT INTAKE 15 2.1.2 HOUSEHOLD 16 2.1.3 HOUSEHOLD INCOME 16 2.1.4 l-IOUSEHOLD HEADSHIP 17 2.2 17 LITERATURE REVIEW THE THEORY OF CONSUMER CHOICE 18 2.2.1 2.1.1 The Traditional Model of Consumer Behaviour 18 2.2.1.1.1 Assumptions of the model 18 2.2.1.1.2 The Budget Constraint and The Budget Line 19 2.2.1.1.3 Indifference Curves 19 2.2.1.1.4 Income effect on Consumption 20 2.2.1.2 Criticisms on The Theory ofConsumer Choice 22 2.2.1.2.1 Advantages of The Theory of Consumer Choice 22 2.2.1.2.2 Disadvantages ofthe Theory of Consumer Choice 23 2.2.2 MODELS OF INTRA-HOUSEHOLD ALLOCATION 24 2.2.2.1 The Unitary Model ·.24 2.2.2.2 The Collective Model 25 2.2.3 EQUIVALENT LAWS OF ECONOMICS 26 2.2.3.1 Engel's Law 27 2.2.3.2 Bennett's Law 27 2 3 ·Slutsky's Law : 28 2.2.4 MEASUREMENT ERRORS OF NUTRIENT INTAKE 29 2.3 EMPIRICAL STUDIES 30 2.3.1 NUTRIENT INTAKE AND INCOME 30 3.1.1 Studies with low calorie income elasticities 2.3.1.1.1 Study ofBehrman and Wolfe (1983) 30 2.3.1.1.2 The study ofBehrman and Deolalikar (1987) 31 2.3.1.1.3 The study ofTimmer and Alderman (1979) 32 3.1 Studies with high calorie income elasticities 3 2.3.1.2.1 The study of Pitt (1983) 33 2.3.1.2.2 The study ofPinstrup-Andersen and Caicedo (1978) 34 2.3.2 NUTRIENT INTAKE AND HOUSEHOLD CHARACTERISTICS 35 2.3.2.1 Nutrient intake and household size and demographic structure 36 2 Calorie intake and household head 3 Calorie intake and female education 38 2.4 38 CONCLUSION CHAPTER 3: SOCIAL CONSUMPTION AND AND ECONOMICAL NUTRIENT INTAKE IN SITUATION, THE FOOD SOUTHEAST REGION OF VIETNAM: GENERAL PICTURE 40 3.1 SOCIAL AND ECONOMICAL SITUATION IN THE SOUTHEAST REGION OF VIETNAM 40 3.2 FOOD AND NUTRITION SITUATION IN THE SOUTHEAST REGION OF VIETNAM 41 3.3 SOME NUTRITIONAL PROGRAMS MALNUTRITION PROBLEMS IN VIETNAM 3.4 CONCLUSIONS IMPLEMENTED TO SOLVE 43 45 CHAPTER 4: ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK AND RESEARCH METHOD ••.••••••.•.•••••.••••••••••••.••••••••••••••••.•.•.••••••••.•.••.••••••.•••••.•••••••••••••••••••••.•••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 46 46 4.1 ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK 4.1.1 TRANSFORMING CONCEPTS INTO VARIABLES .46 4.1.1.1 The nutrient intake 46 4.1.1.2 Household income 47 4.1.1.3 Household characteristics 48 4.1.2 MODEL SPECIFICATION · 51 4.2 ~ESARCH 52 METHOD 4.2.1 DATA REQUIREMENT 52 4.2.2 DATA SOURCE : .'53 4.2.3 SAMPLE SELECTION , 53 4.2.3.1 The surveysites 53 4.2.3.2 Sample size and sampling , 53 4.2.4 METHOD OF ANALYZING DATA 54 CHAPTER 5: EFFECTS OF INCOME ON NUTRIENT INTAKE OF HOUSEHOLDS IN THE SOUTHEAST REGION OF VIETNAM IN 2000 55 5.1 FOOD CONSUMPTION PATTERN, NUTRIENT INTAKE AND HOUSEHOLD CHARACTERISTICS 55 5.1.1 FOOD CONSUMPTION PATTERN , 55 5.1.2 NUTRIENT INTAKE 58 1.3 HOUSEHOLD EXPENDITURE 60 5.1.4 HOUSEHOLD CHARACTERISTICS 61 5.1.4.1 Household size 61 5.1.4.2 Household head 62 5.1 Education 63 5.2 REGRESSION RESULTS 64 5.2.1 DESCRIPTION OF VARIABLES 64 5.2.2 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CALORIE INTAKE AND TOTAL EXPENDITURE, CALORIE INTAKE AND ENERGY ORIGINATED FROM ANIMAL PRODUCTS 67 2.1 Calories per capita and total expenditure of household 67 · 2 Calories per capita and calories originated from animal foods 68 5.2.3 REGRESSION RESULTS 70 CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSIONS AND POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS 77 APPENDIX 81 APPENDIX2 83 BI~LOGRAPHY ~87 LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1 : Income and expenditure elasticities of calorie demand Table 3.1: Mean share (%) of food groups in total calories consumed by a household by regions ····:······························································: 43 Table 4.1: List of variables and expected signs in relation with calorie intake 51 Table 4.2: Four forms of commonly used Engel functions .52 Table 4.3: Number of households by city/ provinces in the Southeast region 55 Table 5.1: Major food group- average intake (grams/household/day) 57 Table 5.2: Food consumption pattern by household expenditure quintiles in the Southeast region (grams/household/day) 59 Table 5.3: Energy composition in the Southeast region and the whole country 60 Table 5.4: Highest diploma obtained by gender in the Southeast region in 2000 64 Table 5.5: Percentage of female per household who gets the highest diploma by expenditure quintile in the Southeast regionin 2000 65 Table 5.6: Summary statistics 66 Table 7: Distribution of quantitative variables 667 Table 5.8: Calorie groups by mean total expenditure per household 68 Table 5.9: Daily calories per capita originated from animal foods by calorie groups and expenditure quintiles 70 Table A2.1: Multicollinearity test 84 Table A2.2: Heterokedasticity test 85 Table A2.3: Functional form test 85 Table A2.4: Autocorrelation test 86 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1: Matching Consumer Desires with Available Consumer Choices 21 Figure 2.2: Income-Consumption curve and its form 22 Figure 3.1 : Percentage of children under five suffering from mild underweitght and stunting (malnutrition level 1) 44 ·Figure 5.1: Average consumption level of other foods in the Southeast region (grams/household/day) 58 Figure 5.2: Total expenditure and food expenditure by quintiles in the Southeast region (1 000 dongs/person/month) 62 Figure 5.3: Histogram of quantitative variables with normal curve 667 Figure 5.4: The relationship between daily calories per capita and total expenditure per household 69 Figure 5.5: The relationship between calories per capita and calories from animal foods 70 Figure A2.1: Histogram of residual from the regression on linear function with unstandardized residual 87 Figure A2.2: Histogram of residual from the regression on linear function with standardized residual 87 ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ADB Asian Development Bank BMI Body Mass Index BRVT BaRia- Vung Tau em Centimeters FAO Food and Agriculture Organization GDP Gross Domestic Product GSO General Statistical Office HCMC Ho Chi Minh City kcal Kilocalories NGO Non Governmental Organization NIN National Institution ofNutrition OLS Ordinary Least Squares PEM Protein Energy Malnutrition SPSS Statistical Package for the Social Sciences UN United Nations us United States UNICEF United Nations International Children's Fund VER Vietnam Economic Review VSED Vietnam's Socio-Economic Development WB World Bank capita than those in rural area provided that households in urban area earn higher income and thus spend more on everything, including foods However, the findings from the study give an opposite result It may be because price level in urban area is more expensive than that in rural area and households in rural area may selfsupply foods as well Therefore, when energy intake of people is still low in general, policy makers and nutritional experts should encourage them to pay more attention to their food diets towards more nutritious and high-calorie foods wherever they live, either in rural or urban area The Southeast region has the rapid speed of urbanization and thus needs to pay much attention to calorie intake of households in urban areas, especially the poorest ones ' Emphasizing on households with large size Apart from income, household size is an important determinant of calorie consumption According to Ayalew (2000), large household size benefits from sharing household public goods and enjoying economies of scale due to saving resources on food consumption as well as the consumption of other items At the same time, household size may reduce calorie intake per capita, especially with limited resources In the Southeast region of Vietnam, the latter effect seems to dominate Therefore, households with large size should be focused on keeping from energy insufficiency Encouraging female education and providing nutritional knowledge for females In this study, the variables representing all levels of female education not have statistically significant effects on calorie intake, except for the level of finished primary school This finding is interesting since it suggests that females are not necessarily well educated but still can help the household to improve quality of food consumed and nutrient intake of members in the household Besides, the finding that further female education does not have a significant influence on calorie intake indicates that efforts to promote broad basic education as a way to fight malnutrition may be misplaced It might be more useful to focus on ' providing more specialized nutritional information, such as about the composition of diets, nutritious foods and how to have a balanced food pattern 79 This study has some limitations and thus further research will be needed First, one important determinant of food consumption and also of calorie demand is price of food Because the !actor price is not collected during the survey, it is difficult to interpret causes of low calorie intake in a particular region Furthermore, foods consumed are grouped aggregately and thus not show the substitution among one category of food but with big different quantities of calorie supplies Besides, it would be useful ·to focus especially on households who have the current energy intake per capita lower than 1,800 kcal to reduce the proportion of these households Finally, it would be more precise if further studies can find determinants of calorie intake of each individual in a household with different calorie demand based on his or her age, sex, level of activity and health status 80 APPENDIX REGRESSTION RESULTS WITH DOUBLE LOGARITHM FUNCTION AND SEMILOGARITHMIC FUNCTION Regression results from the double logarithm function Dependent variable is Ln Calorie per capita 1,031 observations used for estimation Regressor Coefficient Standard Error Coefficient T -Ratio[Prob] (Standardized) 7.182 077 -3.855E-03 015 -.008 -0.263[.793] 6.408E-02 007 300 9.666(.000] -7.250E-02 019 -.119 -3.917(.000] -.142 016 -.313 -8.847[.000] Ln Total expenditure 4.197E-02 010 149 4.168[.000] Not finished primary l.l06E-02 023 018 484[.628] Finished primary 3.443E-02 019 069 824[ 068] Finished secondary school 5.261E-03 018 010 290[.772] Constant Head sex (female =1) Ln of Calorie from animal products Ln Household size equivalent Area (urban = 1) 93.326 [.000] R-Squared 0.176 F-statistic F( 8, 1023) Adjusted R-Squared 0.169 S.E of Regression 27.269(.000] Among eight independent variables (excluding constant), four variables are significant at the five percent level and have the right signs: ln calorie from animal products, In household size equivalent, area and In total expenditure Finished primary school is significant at ten percent level Other variables (head sex, not finished primm'y, and finished secondary) arc insignificant at ten percent level 81 20728 Regression results from the semilogarithmic function Dependent variable is Calorie per capita 1,031 observations used for estimation Regressor Coefficient Standard Error Coefficient T -Ratio[Prob] (Standardized) Constant 1115.173 175.062 -2.361 33.376 -.002 -.071 [.944] 135.349 15.219 280 8.893[.000] Ln Household size equivalent -I 61.605 42.I09 -.I I -3.838[.000] Area (urban =1) -322.507 36.550 -.314 -8.824[.000] Ln Total expenditure 97.055 22.905 153 4.237[.000] Not finished primary 38.619 51.948 028 743[.457] Finished primary 82.312 42.945 073 1.917[ 056] Finished secondary 16.352 41.262 028 743[.447] Head sex (female =I) Ln of Calorie from 6.370 [.000] animal products R-Squared 0.166 F-statistic F( 8, 1023) Adjusted R-Squared 0.160 S.E ofRegression 25.460[.000] Among eight independent variables (excluding constant), four variables are significant at five percent level and have the right signs: In calorie from animal products, In Household size equivalent, area and In total expenditure Variable finished primary is significant at ten percent level Other variables (head sex, not finished primruy and finished secondruy) are insignificant 82 471.5480 APPENDIX2 REGRESSION DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND HISTOGRAM OF RESIDUAL Multicollinearity test As mentioned by Gujarati (1995), when some independent variables are highly correlated, the regression model faces a multicollinearity problem The consequence is that variance and covariance will be larger The confident intervals therefore will be larger, and R squared is spuriously high despite an insignificant t ratio In testing multicollinearity, Gujarati ( 1995) suggests the rule of thumb that a variable is to be highly collinearity if its variance inflation factor (VIF) exceeds 10 Table A2.1: Multicollinearity test Variable Linear function VIF 1/VIF Double logarithm Semilogarithmic function function VIF 1NIF VIF 1NIF Head sex (female =1) 1.10 0.9128 1.10 0.9104 1.10 0.9104 (Ln) Calorie from animal 1.15 0.8671 1.20 0.8350 1.20 0.8350 1.09 0.9153 1.14 0.8771 1.14 0.8771 Area (urban = 1) 1.38 0.7239 1.55 0.6451 1.55 0.6451 (Ln) Total expenditure 1.10 0.9058 1.59 0.6288 1.59 0.6288 Not finished primary 1.64 0.6105 1.71 0.5858 1.71 0.5858 Finished primary 1.74 0.5741 1.78 0.5622 1.78 0.5622 Finished secondary 1.51 0.6642 1.50 0.6647 1.50 0.6647 Mean VIF 1.34 products (Ln) Household size equivalent 1.45 1.45 The larger the value of VIF is, the more collinearity is The discussion of high or low value of VIF, according to Gujarati (1995: 339), is just in relative sense The 83 ' above VIF values are far from 10; or the existence and the degree of multicollinearity are expected to be not serious in the regression models Heteroskedasticity test In order to test heteroskedasticity, Cook-Weisberg test is applied by using fitted values of calorie per capita or ln of calorie per capita The null" hypothesis is no heteroskedasticity in the model If probability of the test comparing with chi2 is larger than 0.05, the null hypothesis is accepted From table A2.2, among three functions, only the double logarithm function has heteroskedasticity problem Table A2.2: Heteroskedasticity test Function Linear Chi-squared(!) Prob > chi-squared Conclusion Double logarithm Semilogarithmic 2.3 14.49 0.52 0.1290 0.0001 0.4714 No Heteroskedasticity heteroskedasticity No heteroskedasticity Functional form test In order to test functional form, Ramsey RESET test is applied by using powers of the fitted values of calorie per capita or ln of calorie per capita The null hypothesis is that the model has no omitted variables If probability of the test comparing with F probability is larger than 0.05, the null hypothesis is accepted From table A2.2, among three functions, only the linear function satisfies the test Table A2.3: Functional form test Function F(3,1019) Prob>F Conclusion Linear Double logarithm Semilogarithmic 2.33 8.33 8.78 0.0727 0.0000 0.0000 Correct specification Misspecification 84 Misspecification Autocorrelation test In order to test autocorrelation, Durbin-Watson test is used According to Norusis (1992), the more the Durbin-Watson statistic is closer to 2, the more probability the model has no autocorrelation Table A2.3 shows that all functions have DurbinWatson statistics that are close to 2, meaning that the problem of autocorrelation in the models is not serious Table A2.4: Autocorrelation test Function Linear Double logarithm Semilogarithmic Durbin-Watson statistic 1.744 1.792 1.780 In conclusion, based on numbers of variables that has t-probability significant and the four above tests, all functions have four variables that are significant at the five percent level, one variable that is significant at ten percent level and only the linear function satisfies all tests Therefore, the linear function is selected as the regression model and the results are interpreted based on this function 85 Figure A2.1: Histogram of residual from the regression on linear function with unstandardized residual 140 ~-, 120 100 80 60 40 Std Dev 20 =443.23 Mean= 0.0 - _ N =1032.00 Unstandardized Residual Figure A2.2: Histogram of residual from the regression on linear function with standardized residual 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 Std Dev = 1.00 20 Mean= 0.00 N ~- ~ ~ -~ ~ ~ Standardized Residual 86 =1032.00 BIBLIOGRAPHY 11 Asian Development Bank (2001) Human Capital of The Poor in Vietnam Manila: Asian Development Bank 2/ Ayalew, T (2000) 'Liquidity Constraint and the Demand for Food: Income Elasticity of Calorie in Rural Ethiopia' Department of Economics, KU Leuven Belgium http://www.econ.kuleuven.ac.be/ew/admin/Pulications/DPSOO/DPS0027.pdf accessed on 10 March, 2003 3/ Begg, D., S Fisher and R Dornbusch (1991) Economics Massachusetts: McGraw Hill 4/ Behrman, J.R and A.B Deolalikar (1988) 'Health and Nutrition' in Chenery, H and T.N Srinivasan (ed.) (1988) Handbook of Development Economics Volume I Amsterdam: North-Holland 51 Behrman, J.R and A.B Deolalikar (1987) 'Will Developing Country Nutrition improve with Income? A Case study for rural south India' The Journal of Political Economy Volume 95 Issue (June 1987): 492-507 61 Behrman, J.R., A.B Deolalikar and Wolfe, B.L (1988) 'Nutrients: Impacts and Determinants' The World Bank Economic Review Volume 2(3): 299-320 7/ Cogill, B (2001) 'Anthropometric Indicators Measurement Guide' Food and Nutrition Technical Assistance Project Academy for Education Development Washington, D.C http://www.fantaproject.org/downloads/pdfs/anthro.pdf accessed on 10 April 2003 8/ Dasgupta, P (1995) An Inquiry into Well-Being and Destitution New York: Oxford University Press Inc 9/ Deaton, A (1997) The Analysis of Household Surveys: A Microeconometric Approach to Development Policy Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press 87 10/ Desai, J (2000) 'Vietnam through the lens of gender: Five years later- Results from the second VLSS' A report prepared for the Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN, Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific Hanoi 111 Diskin, P (1995) 'Understanding Linkages among Food Availability, Access, Consumption and Nutrition in Africa' SD Publication Series Technical Paper No 11 Office of Sustainable Development Bureau for Africa 12/ Do Hoai Nam, Vu Quoc Huy, Vo Tri Thanh and Tran Dinh Thien (2002) 'The I Doi Moi Process and Human Development' Vietnam s Socio-Economic Development No 29, Spring 2002: 3-24 13/ Eatwell, J., M Murray and P Newman (eds.) (1991) The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics London and Basingstoke: The Macmillan Press Limited 14/ FAO (2003) 'Vietnam Programme- Nutrition' http://www.fao.org.VietnamnutritionE.htm accessed on 24 July 2003 15/ FAO (1999) 'Nutrition Country Profiles- VIETNAM' http://www.undp.org.Vietnam/undp/docs/1999Nietnammappdf.pdf accessed on 28 November 2002 16/ FAO (1998) 'FAO: large gap m food availability between rich and poor countries' http://www.fao.org/WAICENT/OIS/PRESS_NE/PRESSENG/1998/pren9870.htm accessed on 17 April2003 17/ Foster, P and H.D Leathers (1999) The World Food Problem - Tackling the Causes of Undernutrition in the Third World Boulder: Lynne Rtenner Publishers, Inc 18/ Fuwa, N (2000) 'A Note on the Analysis of Female Headed households in Developing countries' http://www.h.chiba-n.ac.jp/mkt/FHHst.pdf accessed on December 2002 19/ Gillis, M et al (1996) Economics of Development New York: W.W Norton and Company, Inc 88 20/ Glewwe, P., K Stefanie and Bui Linh Nguyen (2002) 'Child malnutrition, Economic growth and The Provision of Health care services in Vietnam in 1990s' Policy research working paper http:/I econ worldbank org/files/117 87 _ wps277 pdf accessed on 04 November 2002 21/ General Statistical Office (2000) Vietnam Living Standards Survey 1997-1998 Hanoi: Statistical Publishing House 22/ General Statistical Office (1997) Household Living Standards Survey Questionnaire- Household 1997-1998 Hanoi: General Statistics Office 23/ Gujarati, D.N (1995) Basic Econometrics Third edition New York: McGrawHill 24/ Haddad, L et al (1996) Food security and nutrition implications of intrahousehold bias: A review of literature Washington D.C.: International Food Policy Research Ii1stitute 25/ Haughton, D and J Haughton (eds.) (1999) Health and Wealth in Vietnam: An Analysis of Household Living Standards Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies Press 26/ Haughton, D., J Haughton and Nguyen Phong (eds.) (2001) Living standards During an Economic Boom: The case of Vietnam Hanoi: UNDP and Statistical Publishing House 27/ Hicks, J.R (1995) 'The Law of Consumer's Demand' in Estrin, S and A Marin (ed.) (1995) Essential Readings in Economics London: Macmillan Press Ltd 28/ Hirshleifer, I (1988) Price Theory and Application Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall International, Inc 29/ Ingham, B (1993) 'The meaning of development: Interactions between "New" and'"Old" Ideas' World Development Vol 21 (11): 1803-1821 89 30/ Kazmier, L.J (1996) Business Statistics The United States of America: McGraw-Hill 31/ Kennedy, E and B Cogill (1987) 'Income and Nutritional Effects of' the Commercialization of Agriculture in Southwestern Kenya' Research Report 63 Washington, D.C.: International Food Policy Research Institute 32/ King, E.M and M.A Hill (eds.) (1993) Women s education in developing countries: Barriers, Benefits and Policies Baltimore: The John Hopkins University Press 33/ King, F.S and A Burgess (1996) Nutrition for Developing countries New York: Oxford University Press Inc 34/ Kooreman, P and S Wunderink (1997) The Economics of Household Behavior London: The Macmillan Press Ltd 35/ Kurz, K.M and C Johnson-Welch (2000) 'Enhancing Nutrition Results: The Case for a Women's Resources Approach' ICRWIOMNI Research Program http://www.icrw.org/docs/statingthecase.pdf accessed on 25 July, 2003 36/ Maddala, G.S (2001) Introduction to Econometrics Third Edition West Sussex: John Wiley and Sons Ltd 37/ Messer, M (1982) The endangered sex: neglect of female children in rural North India New York: Cornell University Press 38/ Mitchell, D.O., M.D Ingco and R.C Duncan (1997) The World Food Outlook Great Britain: Cambridge University Press 39/ Nguyen Thi Kieu Nhi (1999) htp:/alserv.ugcb~mdVIETNAM 'Country Presentation' accessed on 02 August 2003 401 Norusis, M.J., (1992) SPSS for Windows: Base System Users Guide, Release The United States of America: SPSS Inc 411 Panda, P.K (1997) 'Female Headship, Poverty and Child Welfare: A Study of ' Rural Orissa, India' Centre for Development http://www.cds.edu/download_files/wp180.pdf accessed on 25 July, 2003 90 Studies 42/ Pashigian, B.P (1995) Price Theory and Applications The USA: McGraw-Hill, Inc 43/ Pearce, D.W (ed.) (1992) Macmillan Dictionary of Modern Economics London: The Macmillan Press Ltd 44/ Pinstrup-Andersen, P and Caicedo, E (1978) 'The Potential Impact of Changes in Income Distribution on Food Demand and Human Nutrition' American Journal ofAgricultural Economics Volume 60: 402-415 45/ Pitt, M.M (1983) 'Food Preferences and Nutrition in Rural Bangladesh' The Review of Economics and Statistics Volume 65 (1) (February 1983): 105-114 46/ Quisumbing, A.R and J.A Maluccio (2000) 'Intrahousehold Allocation and Gender Relations: New Empirical Evidence from Four Developing Countries' FCND Discussion Paper No 84 Washington D.C.: International Food Policy Research Institute 47/ Ravallion; M (1990) 'Income effects on Undernutrition' Economic Development and Cultural Change Vol38 (3): 489-515 48/ Ray, D (1998) Development Economics Princeton: Princeton University Press 49/ Rice, T (2001) 'Should consumer choice be encouraged in health care' in Davis, J.B (2001) The Social Economics of Health Care London and New York: Routledge 50/ Roberts, P (1991) 'Anthropological perspectives on the household' IDS bulletin Vol 1: p.62 51/ Sadoulet, E and A Janvry (1995) Quantitative Development Policy Analysis Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopskin University Press 52/ SPSS Inc (1998) SPSS Base 0: Application Guide Chicago: SPSS Inc 53/ State Planning Committee and General Statistical Office (1994) Vietnam Living Standards Survey 1992-1993 Hanoi: Statistical Publishing House 54/ Strauss, J and D Thomas (1998) 'Health, Nutrition and Economic Development' Journal ofEconomic Literature Vol XXXVI (June 1998): 766-817 91 55/ Strauss, J and D Thomas (1995) 'Human resource: Empirical modeling of Household and Family Decisions' in Behrman, J and T.N Srinivasan (eds.) (1995) Handbook of Development Economics Volume III Amsterdam: Elsevier Science B.V 56/ Subramanian, S and A Deaton (1996) 'The Demand for Food and Calories' Journal ofPolitical Economy Vol 104(1): 133-162 57/ The National Institute of Nutrition (2000) Nutritive Composition Table of Vietnamese Foods Hanoi: Medical Publishing House 58/ The National Institute of Nutrition (2001) 2000- National Food and Nutrition Survey Hanoi: The National Institute ofNutrition 59/ The National Institute of Nutrition (2002) Executive Summary: 2000- National Food and Nutrition Survey Hanoi: The National Institute ofNutrition 60/ The Open University (1998) Households Glasgow: Bath Press 61/ The World Bank (2002) Vietnam at a glance The World Bank database http://www worldbank.org/cgilbin/sendoff.cgi_page=%2Fdata %2Fcountrydata% 2Faag%2FVietnamm_aag.pdf accessed on 10 June 2003 62/ The World Bank (2002b) 'Vietnam Social Indicators' 2002 World Development Indicators CD-ROM World Bank 63/ The World Bank (2001a) Engendering development New York: Oxford University Press 64/ The World Bank (2001b) Vietnam 2010: Entering the 21st Century Vietnam Development Report 2001 http://www.worldbank.org.Vietnam/rep20/enter.htm accessed on 10 March, 2002 65/ The World Bank (1999) 'Vietnam attacking Poverty' Vietnam Development Report 2000 A Joint report of the Government of Vietnam - Donor - NGO Poverty Working Group Consultative Group Meeting for Vietnam December 1415, 1999 92 66/ The World Bank (1993) Vietnam: Population, Health and Nutrition New York: Oxford University Press 671 Thomas, D (1997) 'Incomes, Expenditures and Health Outcomes: Evidence on Intra-household resource allocation' in Haddad, L., J Hoddinott and H Alderman (eds.) (1997) Intra-household Resource Allocation in Developing Countries: Models, Methods and Policy Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopskin University Press 68/ Timmer, C.P and H Alderman (1979) 'Estimating Consumption Parameters for Food Policy Analysis' American Journal of Agricultural Economics Vol 61(5): pp 982-994 69/ Timmer, C.P, W.P Falcon and S.R Pearson (1983) Food Policy Analysis Baltimore and London: The John Hopkins University Press 70/ United Nations (2002) 'Economic Development in Vietnam' An Informal report of the United Nations http://www.un.org.Vietnam/unido/frame3/text3.htm assessed on March, 2003 711 United Nations (1999) Looking Ahead- A Common Country Assessment of Vietnam Hanoi: United Nations in Vietnam 721 Vietnam Economic Review (2001) 'To Draw Program of Public Investment Oriented to Developing Vietnam's Six Economic Regions from 2001 to 2005' Vietnam Economic Review No (77): 32-37 73/ Vietnam's Socio-Economic Development (2001) 'Results of the household's living standards and economics condition surveys 1994-1999' Vietnam's Socio- Economic Development No 27: 73-80 74/ Vu Trieu Minh (1999) 'Household expenditure' in Haughton, D et al (eds.) (1999) Health and Wealth in Vietnam- An analysis of Household Living Standards Pasir Panjang (Singapore): Institute of Southeast Asian Studies 75/ Wolfe, B.L and J.R Behrman (1983) 'Is income overrated in determining adequate nutrition?' Economic Development and Cultural Change Vol 31: pp 525-550 93 ... choice The thesis examines the effect of income on nutrient intake of households in the Southeast region of Vietnam in 2000 All the data is taken from The National Food and Nutrition Survey of the. .. problems in Vietnam 3.1 SOCIAL AND ECONOMICAL SITUATION IN THE SOUTHEAST REGION OF VIETNAM According to the classification of the NIN (200 1), the Southeast region of Vietnam includes nine provinces,... studies, the following relationships are hypothesized for testing: (1) There is a positive effect of income on daily calorie intake per capita of households in the Southeast region of Vietnam in 2000