Lecture A systems approach to small group interaction (8/e): Chapter 6 - Stewart L. Tubbs

Chapter 6 - Decision-making processes. Our analysis of the internal influences of the tubbs model of small group interaction continues in Chapter 6. Several different decision-making processes are presented. We begin with a discussion of ways to improve creativity. The reflective thinking process, which is one of the oldest and most often used decision-making methods, is described.

CCHH AAPP TT EE RR Decision-Making Processes Stewart L Tubbs McGrawưHill â2004TheMcGrawưHillCompanies,Inc.Allrightsreserved Slide Decision-Making Processes • • • • McGraw­Hill Glossary Case Study Improving Creativity Reflective Thinking Process The Kepner­Tregoe Approach TheFishboneTechnique â2004TheMcGrawưHillCompanies,Inc.Allrightsreserved Slide Decision-Making Processes (continued) • • • • McGraw­Hill Brainstorming Six Thinking Hats Incrementation Mixed Scanning Tacit Bargaining TheSystemsApproach â2004TheMcGrawưHillCompanies,Inc.Allrightsreserved Slide Glossary Brainstormingatechniqueusedtogenerateideas.It emphasizesbrainactivity.Itcanbeappliedaspartofthe problemưsolvingprocess • Convergent Thinking—a form of thinking in which  ideas come together to form a solution • Divergent Thinking—a form of thinking in which  many different aspects of an idea are explored.  Brainstorming is one technique of divergent thinking • Fishbone Technique—a method of examining cause  and effect using a fishbone diagram McGrawưHill â2004TheMcGrawưHillCompanies,Inc.Allrightsreserved Slide Glossary Incrementalismtheprocessofmakingdecisionsthat resultinchangebyincrements Kepner­Tregoe Approach—a variation of the  reflective thinking sequence. Its most important  contribution is the way in which a group works through the  criteria phase, differentiating between the musts and the  wants of a solution • Mixed Scanning—a decision­making strategy that  combines examining a problem comprehensively (the  rational approach) and part by part (the incremental  approach) McGrawưHill â2004TheMcGrawưHillCompanies,Inc.Allrightsreserved Slide Glossary ReflectiveThinkingProcessapatternforsmall groupproblemsolvingthatincludessixcomponents: 1.Whatistheproblem? 2.Whatareitscausesandlimits? 3.Whatarethecriteriaforanacceptablesolution? 4.Whataretheavailablesolutions? 5.Whatisthebestsolution? 6.Howcanitbeimplemented? TacitBargainingbargaininginwhich communicationisincompleteorimpossible McGrawưHill â2004TheMcGrawưHillCompanies,Inc.Allrightsreserved Slide Case Study General Motors 1. What do you think are the main problems at GM? 2. What would you do if you were CEO of GM? 3. How does this case relate to your organization? McGraw­Hill © 2004 The McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved Slide Improving Creativity • Creativity can be divided into two phases of  thinking – Divergent thinking – Convergent thinking McGraw­Hill © 2004 The McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved Slide Improving Creativity • Gibson and Hodgetts (1986) identify four  different kinds of creativity that may be  applied to group problem solving – – – – McGraw­Hill Innovation Synthesis Extension Duplication â2004TheMcGrawưHillCompanies,Inc.Allrightsreserved Slide 10 Improving Creativity LeftưandRightưBrainFunctions McGrawưHill â2004TheMcGrawưHillCompanies,Inc.Allrightsreserved Slide 16 The Fishbone Technique The fishbone technique is so called because  its outline resembles the skeleton of a fish – It helps to identify graphically the underlying  causes of a problem McGraw­Hill © 2004 The McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved Slide 17 Brainstorming The Fishbone Technique McGraw­Hill © 2004 The McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved Slide 18 Brainstorming—Practical Tips One way to get at the root causes of problems is to  ask “why” five times. For example, some team  members don’t follow through on a team’s  decision (Carr, 1996, p. 66) – Why? Because team members weren’t really committed  to the decision in the first place – Why? Because the team didn’t spend enough time  exploring the problems in implementing the solution – Why? Because it didn’t want to spend the time – Why? Because it didn’t think the problem was that  important – Why? Because no one thought through the team’s  mission clearly when it was formed McGraw­Hill © 2004 The McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved Slide 19 Brainstorming • Brainstorming emphasizes right­brain  activity – Rules for brainstorming: • • • • • • McGraw­Hill Put judgment and evaluation aside temporarily Turn imagination loose, and start offering the results Think of as many ideas as you can Seek combination and improvement Record all ideas in full view Evaluate at a later session © 2004 The McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved Slide 20 Brainstorming—Practical Tips 1. While brainstorming, take 3 x 5 index cards and have  each member of the team follow this sequence: Say it,  write it, toss it (on the table) 2. Categorize ideas 3. Classify 4. Prioritize McGraw­Hill © 2004 The McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved Slide 21 Six Thinking Hats • Six thinking hats is an intuitive way to keep  your thoughts focused while problem  solving – White hat—emotionally neutral – Red hat—emotions, gut instincts, intuition, and  feelings – Black hat—represents careful and analytical  thinking McGraw­Hill © 2004 The McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved Slide 22 Six Thinking Hats • Six thinking hats . . . (continued) – Yellow hat—represents sunny, optimistic, and  positive thinking – Green hat—represents creativity, new ideas,  alternatives, and possibilities – Bluehatrepresentscoordination,control,and thedisciplinetoknowwhentousewhichhat McGrawưHill â2004TheMcGrawưHillCompanies,Inc.Allrightsreserved Slide 23 Incrementalism BraybrookeandLindblom(1963)arguethat numerous decisions concerning  governmental policies are arrived at  partially as a result of adapting to political  pressure rather than as a result of rational  analysis McGraw­Hill © 2004 The McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved Slide 24 Incrementalism • The term incrementalism refers to the  process of making decisions that result in  change – Quadrant 1—High understanding/large change – Quadrant 2—High understanding/incremental  change – Quadrant 3—Low understanding/incremental  change – Quadrant 4—Low understanding/large change McGraw­Hill © 2004 The McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved Slide 25 Incrementation ModelofDecisionưMaking McGrawưHill Source:ReprintedwithpermissionoftheFreePress,aDivisionofMacmillan,Inc.,fromDavidBraybrookeandCharles â2004TheMcGrawưHillCompanies,Inc.Allrightsreserved C.Lindbloom.AStrategyofDecision,copyrightâ1963byTheFreePressofGlencoe Slide 26 Mixed Scanning • Etzioni (1968) offers a decision­making  strategy that is a combination of reflective  thinking and incrementalism – The ability to maintain a balance between  attention to the general and attention to the  specific appears to be a major factor in  successfulproblemsolving McGrawưHill â2004TheMcGrawưHillCompanies,Inc.Allrightsreserved Slide 27 Tacit Bargaining Murnighan(1992)advancedastrategy referred to as “tacit bargaining” or  “bargaining in which communication is  incomplete or impossible” (pp. 35­36) – People can cooperate fairly successfully in some  problem­solving situations if it is to their  advantage to do so • Mixed­motive situations—when there is  simultaneous pressure to cooperate and to compete–  imply communication procedures that are distinctly  different from those in other problem­solving  situations McGraw­Hill © 2004 The McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved Slide 28 Tacit Bargaining • Murnighan (1992) . . . (continued) – A good negotiator should learn to: • Try to gauge your own strength or weakness • Try to gauge your counterpart’s actual strength or  weakness • Surmise whether his perception of his strength or  weakness accords with your reality McGraw­Hill © 2004 The McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved Slide 29 The Systems Approach • The decision­making process in most groups  can be improved • The systems principle of equifinality is that  several alternative methods may be used to  reach the solution to the group’s problem • The appropriateness of any method will  depend on the demands of the specific  situation McGrawưHill â2004TheMcGrawưHillCompanies,Inc.Allrightsreserved Slide 30 The Systems Approach The rational problem­solving methods work  well in most cases but seem particularly  suited to an autonomous group trying to  satisfy its own needs while being allowed to  do so by a democratic leader • Tacit bargaining seems to be primarily  appropriate in mixed­motive situations • The demands of the situation play a great  part in suggesting which problem­solving  strategy we want to employ McGraw­Hill © 2004 The McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved ... governmental policies are arrived at  partially as a result of adapting to political  pressure rather than as a result of rational  analysis McGraw­Hill © 2004 The McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved... The ability to maintain a balance between  attention to the general and attention to the  specific appears to be a major factor in  successful problem solving McGrawưHill â2004TheMcGrawưHillCompanies,Inc.Allrightsreserved... Slide 27 Tacit Bargaining Murnighan(1992)advancedastrategy referredtoastacitbargainingor bargaininginwhichcommunicationis incomplete or impossible” (pp. 35­ 36) – People can cooperate fairly successfully in some