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DISCUSSION QUESTION Question The difference between approaches to text Basically, there are approaches to text The first sees text as “the verbal record of a communicative act” (Brown and Yule, 1983:6) or as “the linguistic product of communicative process”(widdowson, 1984:100) The second approach tends to see text as a semantic or communicative category Eg, Halliday and Hasan, 1976 view text as a “semantic unit” characterised by cohesion or a frameword that is logical and general Question The difference between transactional and interaction function of language Transactional function is basically the transmission of information, ideas or thought We call the language which is used to conveyed factual or propositional information primarity transactional language It is used to express content According to Lyons(1977:32) the notion of communication is readily used of feelings, moods, attitudes Written language is used primarily for transactional purpose Interactional function is concerned with maintaining or establishing social relationships It is the phatic use of the language to negotiate rolerelationships, peer-solidarity, the exchange of turn in conversation, the saving of face of both speaker and hearer It expresses social relations and personal attitudes Spoken language is primarily interactional Question Present your understanding of the informativity in discourse To measure the informativity of a discourse, we should pay attention to the notion of choice and probability A discourse (according to Bell) is seen as the relation of choices made from among sets of options At each point where a choice is made, there are actual choices which are more or less probable The less probable and predictable a choice, is the more informative and interesting a discourse is If a discourse contains too much information (too many lexical units) it may become unreadable But if it contains too little information, it is readable but not worth reading at all Eg, food contamination is one of the most critical issues in developing countries (high informative) Poisonous food is one of the most serious problems in developing countries (less informative) Question context and an example of the role of the context in the interpretation of a discourse Context seems just to be the minimal stretch of language that helps to understanding what is spoken or written It is the non-linguistic factors that contribute and constrain our interpretation or discourse and tell us what proposition has been actually uttered We can know what kind of illocutionary force has been assigned by the speaker to the proposition role of the context in the interpretation of a discourse Context helps us disambiguate the interpretation that is most suitable and appropriate Context includes not only the relevant cotext but also the relevant features of the situation of the utterance Sometimes it is called “context of situation” Eg, he is her hope for change in her life now (informing, commenting) Question The difference between context and cotext Context is the minimal stretch of language It refers linguistic factor and make clear what sentence is uttered It also tell us what proposition has been assigned to the proposition by the speaker Cotext is stretch of language that occurs before or after the utterance which needs to be interpreted It refers no-linguistic factor and surrounds sentence which help understand the meaning Question Distinguish between the principle of local interpretation and analogy principles may be helpful in our reading of text They are the principle of local interpretation and analogy According to Brown & Yule, the principle of local interpretation instructs the hearer not to construct a context any larger than he needs to arrive at an interpretation The principle of analogy enables the hearer pr listener to interpret discourse in light of his past experience and background knowledge When the hear encounters new situation, he selects from his memory a type of experience he has generalized before, relates it to his background knowledge in order to interpret it Question The difference between anaphoric and cataphoric reference There are types of discourse reference: anaphotic if it points back or catephoric if it points forward We need to look ahead in the text This is a cohesive device which points towards It draws futher into the text in order to identify the elementd to which the reference items refer In the other hand, anaphoric items which point the reader and listener backwards to a previously mentioned entity, process or state of affairs It helps us to understand the unit refered to by an anaphoric relevance we need to look back in the text Eg, a man looks at the sun and remarks:”it’s beautiful” “it” in the context does not refer to anything that was said before, but relates to part of the situation in which the speaker and the hearer are Question The difference between presupposition and implicature Presupposition is the assumptions that the speaker makes about what the hearer is likely to accept without challenge or the common ground between the speaker and the hearer It associated with linguistic forms and remains constant under negation test It is not subject to cancellation within one and the same utterance by one and the same person It also can be identified with the help of presupposition triggers Eg: he had gone there by bike before Implicature accounts for what a speaker can imply suggest or means as distinct from what the speaker literally says It associated with context and reference It is modifiable or changeable when the utterance is subject to negation test It is likely to be cancelled It also can be identified inference only and based on explicit meaning and presupposition Eg: it made me admire him a lot Question topic of the sentence and the discourse For some people, the term topic is associated with description of sentence structure According to Hockett: the speaker announces a topic and then say something about it In many language, the grammatical subject is the marker of the topic and the predicate indicates the comments Eg:the boy likes foodball We are not concerned with politics However it may not always be the case Eg: I wrote letters One I posted One I put in my pocket According to Palmer: sentence contains parts, each of which carries information: + the first is the theme (called topic) contains known information; + the second is the rheme (thuyết ngữ) (called comment) contains new information For us, the importance thing is that we shall treat topic as “what is being talked about” Discourse topic is a generalization or an abstraction The expression of a topic should be subjective There are a number of ways of expressing the topic of discourse There are no such a thing as one correct expression of the topic for any fragment of discourse topic is what is being talked about Eg: A story can have different titles to which the topic of a text is equivalent Question 10 topic framework The notion “topic” is considered as “what is being talked about” Topic framework may be seen as a composition of all the features of context activated by the discourse participants It comprises all the activated features of context directly refered in the text and needs to be called upon to interpret it The speaker or writer usually operates within this topic framework to produce language We will have sense that the sentence are connected topically Relevance is important indicator of the topic framework The information provided is not out off place, as it were Question 11 theme and the types of theme Theme is usually expressed by the left most constituent of the sentence, refers of what the speaker nominated as the subject of what he will talk about in the theme - types of themes: (from formal perspective): marked and unmarked +Unmarked theme: coincided (trùng hợp) with the subject in the affirmative, the auxiliary and wh-inquestion, the first verb in the imperative (bắt buộc) + Marked theme: the first element is not coincident with the above element Eg: tomorrow, I ‘ll go to see him if I have time (unmarked), she is pretty, but not as the way he expected (marked) Question 12 the approaches to discourse analysis According to Clyne, discourse analysis moves into directions: +comparing native discourse across culture; + examining the discourse of non-native speakers in a second language; +examining and comparing the discourse of people of different cultural and linguistic backgrounds interacting either in a lingua franca or in one of the interlocutors’ language Eg: the influence of different dialects on English second languge learner’s speaking skill at HDU Question 13 discourse and the functions of discourse analysis Discourse constitutes the social Three dimensions of the social are distinguished – knowledge, social relations and social identify and these correspond respectively to three major functions of language….Discourse is shaped by relations of power and invested in ideologies (Fairclough, 1992:8) Functions: the study of discourse is the study of any aspect of language in use (grammatical meaning, the use of language,…)(Fasold 1990:65) The analysis of discourse is necessarily, the analysis of language in use as such, it can nit be restricted to the description of linguistic forms independent of the purposes or functions which these forms are designed to serve in human affairs Question 14 The macro functions of language -1 the emotive function (biểu cảm):communicating the inner states and emotions of the addresser (“oh, no!” “uhm!” , “Fantastic!” and swear words used as exclamations) -2 the directive function (chỉ thị): seeking to affect the behaviour of the addressee (“please, help me” “Shut up”, “I’am warning you”) -3 the phatic function( xã giao):opening the channel or checking that it is working either for social reasons (“hello”, “lovely weather”, “do you come here often?”) or for practical ones (“can you hear me?” “Are you still there?” “Can you read my writing?”) -4 the poetic function (thơ ca):in which the particular form chosen is the essence of the message (the advertising beanz meanz heinz would lose its point if it were paraphrases as “if you are buying beans, you will naturally buy heinz) -5 the referential function (tham chiếu):carrying information -6 the metalingguistic function (siêu ngôn):focusing attention upon the code itself, to clarify it or to renegotiate it (“what does this word here mean?”, “will” and “shall” mean the same thing nowadays) -7 the contextual function (ngữ cảnh) :creating a particular kind of communication (right, let’s start lecture, it’s just a game) Question 15 The criteria of the distinction between spoken and written language -1 manner of production:+ the speaker could be supported by gestures, posture, more demanding circumstance +The speaker can see spontaneous reactions from the audience + The speaker may refine the expressions + The writer could be chosen with words, can not see the reaction from audience +The writer is under no pressure in terms of the monitoring +The writer has many opportunities to polish the ideas by changing them till they satisfy the author’s view -2 forms: + in spoken language, incomplete sentence; “and” is very common; active declarative forms; topic comment structure is common Active constructions are commonly used in formal speech; the same syntactic forms are repeat: I consider that problem, I consider that matter,…; + in written language, passive structures are common in formal speech, premodified noun phrases occur frequently, is metalinggual markers to connect clauses Generally various ways of expression -3 the presentation of discourse: text: in spoken, is verbal record of the communication act, the interpretation is very subjective, difficult to be transcribed; in written, different type-face, different size of paper, different font, presentation Question 16 standards of a discourse according to Bell According to Bell (1991) in order for a language unit to be identified as a discourse, it must meet at least standards, for the sake of brevity, it could be counted as five: -1, cohesion and coherence: cohesion is concerned with formal surface structures to interact with underlying semantic relations or underlying functional coherence to create textual unity Cohesion is seen as one of the ways to indicate coherence Coherence,in contract, is concerned with the sequencing of the configuration of the concepts and the relation of the textual world which underlie and are realized by surface text -2 intentionality and acceptability:the producer of the text must intend it to contribute towards some goal and the receiver of it must accept that it is, indeed, fulfilling some such purpose -3 informativity:is seen as the relation of choices made from among sets of options At each point where a choice is made, there are actual choices which are more or less probable The less probable and predictable a choice is the more informative and interesting a discourse is -4 relevance:a discourse must possess a degree of relevance or situationality Eg: Vietnamese takeaway could be only understood in the context “sale off/ on sale/ for sale” -5.intertextuality: the context creates the discourse as much as the discourse as much as the discourse creates the context This means that part of the environment for any discourse is a set of previous discourse, discourse that are taken for granted as shared among those taking part Question 17 the difference between cohesion (thống nhất) and coherence (mạch lạc) Cohesion refers to the formal relationship that causes texts to cohere or stick together It is indicates by grammatical, logical and lexical relationships found among or between the sentences of a text It involves the formal links which exist between sentences In contrast, coherence refers to the type of semantic or rhetorical relationships that underline texts It can obtain on basis of relevance, thecooperative principle, the common shares background knowledge between participants in a speech event and discourse is structured, as well Question 18 The components of context according to Firth and Halliday Firth believes that a context of situation should embrace the following categories: -1 the relevant features of participant: (speaker, writer) + verbal action of the participants; + non-verbal action -2, the relevant objects -3, the effect of the verbal action/ later, According to Halliday develops these concepts into what he terms: fields, tenor, mode of discourse +Field of discourse refers to the subject matter of the discourse, which is what the speaker talks about +Tenor is concerned with the interpersonal relations between the participants + mode is about the channels or the ways by which discourse is conducts Question 19 The components of context according to Hymes - Addressor and addressee: writer, speaker, reader… - Audience: overhearer, produces the utterance - Topic: range of languge used - Setting: location or time: where, when, postures, gestures… - Channel: how to contact between participants is maintained - Code: what language or style, dialect of language is used - Message form: what forms are intended: fairy tales, love story - Event: nature of communicative event within which a text embedded - Key: evaluation of the text - Purpose: outcome which the participant wish to happen as a result in the communicative event Question 20 The components of speech act according to Austin -1 Austin also emphasizes the conventional nature of thee performative act and te fact that an agreed procedure must be followed There are four felicity conditions: A,there must exist an accepted conventional procedure, having certain conventional effect, that the procedure includes the uttering of certain words by certain persons in certain circumstances B, the particular persons and circumstances in a given case must be appropriate for the invocation of the particular procedure invokes The words must be uttered by the appropriate person, apart from the correct and appropriate words C the procedure must be executes by all participants both correctly D, and completely The last conditions cover misfires which occur in spite of the fulfillment of the first conditions -2 a second distinction Austin draws is between explicit and implicit performatives An explicit performative is one which contains performative verb whereas an implicit one conveys implicatures.this distinction applies, in principle, to both constative, non-constative utterances Question 21.The classification of speech act according to Austin Austin’s theory distinguishes kinds of acts involved in saying: locutionary, illocutionary, perlocutionary -A locutionary act is the act of saying something in the full sense of say -An illocutionary act is an act performed in saying something, the act identified by the explicuit performative According to Autin, he grouped illocutionary into classes: 10 + verdictives: typified by the giving of a verdict by a jury, umprire, arbitrator, such as acquit, grade… + exercitive: which are the excercising of power, rights or influence such as appoint, order, advise… + commissives: commit the speaker to doing something, but also include declaration such as promise, guarantee, bet… + behabitivies: a miscellaneous groups concerned with attitudes and social behavior such as apologies, bless + expositives: clarify how utterances fit into ongoing discourse, or how they are being used argue, postulate, affirm… -A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or as a result of saying Question 22 The classification of speech act according to Searl Searl’s system includes: directives, commisives, representative, declaratives, expressives directives: gets people to something Eg: how many times I have to tell you? Realized by a wide range of forms, sentences, questions,… commisives: functions as promises or refusals for action Eg: maybe I can that to May vary in strength, may be strong or highly hedge in positive and negative directions 3.representatives can be judged for truth value, the purpose is to inform, may vary in terms of how hedged or aggravated the assertion might be, expressed by the use of modal verb eg: I went home yesterday 4.declaratives bring about a new state os beings eg: the chair man says: “I declare the meeting open” = > a change really take place, people start to make speeches and address the meeting and so on expressives: they are expressions of joys, disappointment: what a great day is a joy Question 23 The components of a narrative according to Thondyke 11 According to Thorndyke, simple narrative stories may result from a set of hierarchically organized components as follows: 1.story:setting,theme,plot,resolution 6.attempt: event,episode 2,setting: characters,location,time 7.outcome: event,state 3.theme:(event),goal resolution: event,state 4.plot: episode 9.Subgoal,goal: desired state 5.episode: subgoal,attempt,outcome 10.character, location time: state Question 24 The differences between default elements and frame Default elements are the knowledge that is stored in our mind as single easily accessible unit Understanding discourse is essentially a process of retrieving stored information from memory and relating to the encountered discourse Potluck A frames a fixed representation of background knowledge and experience What people in terms of producing language is to fit what one is told into the framework established by what one knows already Question 25 The differences between scenarios, scripts and schemata scenarios: it is like a film in that it activates certain role slots into the representation A hospital situation will certainly bring to doctor role, the nurse or patient roles into action 2,scripts: it incorporates a standard dequence of event describing a situation It can be treated as action stereotypes and can work well with routines activities such as going to a doctor, vistting a friend,… 3.schemata: essential higher level complex knowledge structures which function as ideational scaffolding They are organized background knowledge which leads us to expect or predict aspects in our interpretation of discourse BT This is an extract from an article of economic issue, the dominant cohesive means are association, reiteration, and substitution, it is seen that, lexical and grammatical cohesion is dominant, especially, association chain is rather clearly 12 shown in the essay with cases out of sentences The repetition of the word euro or dollar is also one of the prominent phenomenon in the extract It is proved that the density of lexical items related to currency is deliberately chosen This extract is about a state of human emotion: hatred The most common cohesive devices are lexical ones It is reconized that association, reitereation and synonyms are the major ones among them, and those chains mainly connect with human, life, society, and emotion They reflect human living environment and their feelings The author tends to use them instead of grammatical or logical cohesion which are typical of narrative and argumentation In my opinion, it is relevant in an extract of scientific or socio-psychological comment 13 [...]... a jury, umprire, arbitrator, such as acquit, grade… + exercitive: which are the excercising of power, rights or influence such as appoint, order, advise… + commissives: commit the speaker to doing something, but also include declaration such as promise, guarantee, bet… + behabitivies: a miscellaneous groups concerned with attitudes and social behavior such as apologies, bless + expositives: clarify... result of saying Question 22 The classification of speech act according to Searl Searl’s system includes: directives, commisives, representative, declaratives, expressives 1 directives: gets people to something Eg: how many times do I have to tell you? Realized by a wide range of forms, sentences, questions,… 2 commisives: functions as promises or refusals for action Eg: maybe I can do that to May vary... level complex knowledge structures which function as ideational scaffolding They are organized background knowledge which leads us to expect or predict aspects in our interpretation of discourse BT 1 This is an extract from an article of economic issue, the dominant cohesive means are association, reiteration, and substitution, it is seen that, lexical and grammatical cohesion is dominant, especially,... 4 sentences The repetition of the word euro or dollar is also one of the prominent phenomenon in the extract It is proved that the density of lexical items related to currency is deliberately chosen 2 This extract is about a state of human emotion: hatred The most common cohesive devices are lexical ones It is reconized that association, reitereation and synonyms are the major ones among them, and those