Đề cương ôn thi môn Ngữ nghĩa học hay, chọn lọc

Đề cương ôn thi môn Ngữ nghĩa học hay, chọn lọcĐề cương ôn thi môn Ngữ nghĩa học hay, chọn lọcĐề cương ôn thi môn Ngữ nghĩa học hay, chọn lọcĐề cương ôn thi môn Ngữ nghĩa học hay, chọn lọcĐề cương ôn thi môn Ngữ nghĩa học hay, chọn lọc

Question 1: types of sense relation Substitutional relations are those existing between members of the same grammatical category Eg: she is nice/cute/lovely Relations between nice/cute/lovely may be described as subtitutional + since they are interchangeable and belong to the same category of adjectives, they their lexical meanings are not the same combinatorial relations normally hold between items of different grammartical categories, such as adjectives which co-occur with noun Eg: relations between nice and woman in “a nice woman” is combinatorial because we can not speak about interchangeability whatsoever in this case hyponymy is the relation in which there is a group of word, one os which has a broader meaning which can cover all the meaning of other Eg: “rose, tulip, sunflower” are co-hyponyms of “flower” meronymy which holds between discrete referents is clearly transitive If sth X is part of sth Y which is part off sth Z, then X is described as part of Z eg: the drive is a part of the CPU and the CPU is a part of the computer So, we can say that Drive is a part of computer semantic fields is a system of networks held together by different oppositions and values (trier 1939) Eg: color includes blue, green, red paraphrases and contradiction + Paraphrases is the relationship where proposition have the same truth conditions.eg: I like English / I am fond of English + Contradiction is a relationship where a proposition must be false because of the meanings of the words involved Eg: a, I bought my wife a camera as a gift B, I bought a camera as a gift for my wife b is a paraphrase of a c, he is both married and single This sentence expresses a contradiction It must be false because of the senses of married and single are incompatible in that no one can be both married and single in normal circumstances of communication lexical gaps is used to refer to the absence of a lexeme/word at a particular place in the structure of a lexical field Eg:+ corpe: body of a dead human being + Caroass: body of dead animal but no word for dead tree marked and unmarked term Marked term is the presence or absence of some particular elements of form Eg: hats, boxes Unmarked terms is the original word Eg: hat, box Question implicature, types, eg - The term implicature is used by Grice 1975 to account for what a speaker can imply, suggest, or mean, as distinct from what the speaker literally says Types: conventional implicature is an additional unstated meaning associated with the use of a specific word It includes: common conventional implicature Eg: “a but b” implies a contrast between a and b, so contrast is a conventional implicature of “but”; scalar conventional implicature is an additional meaning of the negative of any value higher on a scale than the one uttered Eg: in saying “Some children” the speaker implies that he says does not apply to “all children” Some is not all conversational implicature: generalized conversational implicature is an additional unstated meaning that does not depend on special or local knowledge Eg: a: did you buy bread and milk B: I bought some bread I bought some bread means I did not buy milk Particularised conversational implicature is an additional unstated meaning that depends on special or local knowledge A: would you like another beer? B: of course, yes Question Synonyms, types, ex - Synonyms are actually words of the same parts of speech which have similar meaning, but not identical meanings - Synonyms may be classifies into groups absolute synonyms They are extremely rare in English and probably in any other languages Eg: semantics – semasiology semantic synonyms, they are those which differ in term of their denotation Eg: glance – look stylistic synonyms They are those which differ in terms of their connotation, eg : father – dad semantic stylistic synonyms make up the majority of all synonyms in English – word differing both in denotation and connotation meaning Eg: to reduce – to cut back phraseological synonyms, ie, words different in their collocations Eg: – make territorial synonyms, they are those employed in different regions like Britain, Canada, Australia or the united states Eg: autumn – fall euphemisms, which literally means speak well in using euphemisms, a less unnpleasant or offensive effect is achieved Eg: wc – bathroom, restroom Question Homonyms, types, ex - Homonyms are different words which have identical form or identical sounds or both but different meaning - According to sound form, it may be classified into: 1.full/perfect homonyms: words identical both in pronunciation and spelling Homonyms are the same part of speech eg: fast (go without food), fast (a kind of food) 2.partial homonyms: words identical in pronunciation or spelling They are homonymous only in some of the forms of their respective paradigms They may be of the same or different parts of speech They are of main subtypes: 2.1 homophones: words identical in pronunciation, but different or coincidential in spelling (buy-by) 2.2 homographs: words of the same spelling, but of different pronunciation (tear – tear) - According to types of meaning, it may be classified into: 1, lexical homonyms: word of the same part of speech, but of different meanings and there is no semantic relation between them Eg: board: black board, board of directors grammatical homonyms: words of different parts of speech Eg: work(n), work(v) Question Presupposition, types, ex - Presupposition is the assumption the speaker makes about what hearer is likely to accept without challenge Eg: have you stopped smoking? > you have smoked before Types: existential: mary’s brother is handsome > mary has at least brother or there exist somebody named mary lexical: tom came late again> tome came late before structural: where did you go lastnight? You go somewhere last night factive: I know tom came late > tom came late=factive, non_factive:I dreamed of becoming a teacher > I am not a teacher counter-factive: if he were here by now > he is not only here but can be never here now Question Participants, types, eg - The participants are those roles involved in the process (expressed by the predicator) Types: agentive, including agent and actor – the creater of the process, he kicked the dog instrumental – the instrument involved in the process, she takes a book to hit her factive, the entity which is the result of the process, she wrote a letter locative – indicates the position or direction of the action or state expressed by the verb, he works at home owner and possession, she has a beautiful girl benefactive – the entity that benefits from the action expressed by the verb, also called beneficiary, my mother bought a car for me Comitative – the participant that accompanies the subject involved in a process or action expressed by the verb, she went to the cinema with him source – the point of origin of where the process comes from He searched the information from the internet goal – the target, to which an action is directed, his mother hit him 10 undergoer – just the participant that undergoes or experiences a process, I have lived here for 10 years 11 the behaver, the participant that behaves, she laughed loudly 12 the carrier and attribute, the participant or entity that has the feature expressed by attribute, he is handsome 13 the identifier and identified, identified is the participant or entity that is identified by the identifier, the chair man is my brother 14 the existent: the participant or entity that exists, water boils at 100c Question Definition of process, types of process, eg - Process is a powerful concept which represents the possible worlds as consisting of going on, off doing, happening, feeling, being Types: material processes are processes of doing A material process usually involves an actor and a goal, she made a car mental processes are processes of sensing A mental process involves a senser and a phenomenon, eg: I like this pen It can be subdivided into perception (seeing, hearing), affection (hearing, fearing), cognition (thinking, knowing) relational processes are processes of being, a relational process has part to the being It involved identifier and identified (that chairman is my brother), carrier and attribute (she is nice), owner and possession (that book id lan’s) behavial processes, involves a participant called behaver and process (she smiled) verbal processes are processes of saying, involved a sayer, verbiage, s target snf receivr (I say it loud to everyone existential processes: lie between material and relational processes represent sth that exist or happen (there is a red rose in the garden) Question Definition of circumstance, types, eg - This component is related to process, typically occur freely in all types of process Most circumstances can be realized by prepositional phrases sometimes can be a clause Types: time: he goes to school at am place: hoa is in the class condition: if I were you, I would buy a car concession: inspite of his parent objection, she still went abroad result: lanis studied hard so she is passed the exam cause: because of the rain, the flight was delayed manner: she beats her students with a ruler attending circumstance: as everyone is here, let’s start purpose: she is out for lunch now Question Distinguish metaphor with simile - A simile is an explicit or direct comparison in which something is compared to sth else by the use of a function word such as like or as It is an open comparison - Metaphor is hidden comparison, is an implicit or indirect comparison in which no function word is used Sth is described by starting another thing with it can be compared He is a mouse (metaphor), she is like a mouse (simile) Question 10 Conditions for a synonym to be absolute - Lyons 1995 introduces the notion of absolute synonymy According to him, or more expression are absolute synonyms if and only if they satisfy the following conditions: 1, all their meanings are identical, 2, they are synonymous in all context, 3, they are semantically equivalent on all dimensions of meanings and descriptive and non-descriptive Eg: semantics – semasilogy Question 11 Conditions for a homonym to be absolute - or more expressions are absolute hymonym if and only if they satisfy the following conditions: 1, they will be unrelated in meaning, 2, all their form will be identical, 3, the identical forms will be grammatical equivalent Bank: a financial place – bank of a river Question 12 The bases to distinguish the form and word/expression - Let’s look at this example: there is no way of telling what it is There are forms but also word/expressions Words and word forms are distinguished from each other in terms of the distinction between lexical and grammatical meanings + Forms of and the same word have the same lexical meaning whereas different words have different lexical meanings Eg: is – are + Two different words must have different lexical meaning Eg: be- go + There is no way of telling what it is Question 13 The bases to distinguish metaphor and metonymy -Metaphor is the transference of meaning from one object to another, based on the similarity between object (she is a bee) =>based on the similarity of characteristic between the woman (she) and bee( hardworking) - Metonymy is the substitution of word for another with which it is associated , based on the relation of contiguity (I have mouths to feed mouths=3 people) Eg: we all live under the same roof => roof is the house Based on the relation of contiguity so used a word ( a part or whole) to substitute (refer) to the whole or a part of an object Question 14 The bases to distinguish a homonymy and a hyponymy - Homonymy refers to a situation where different words happen accidentally to have the same forms They are not connected semantically They are quite different words (he ran fast – quickly) - Hyponymy is defined in terms of inclusion This relationship is hierarchical relationship (the rose is the hyponym of flower which is the superodinate - The hyponym is the member of the intensional meaning os which is specific enough to cover the meaning of the superordinate whereas the superordinate member is the one with the extensional mening broad enough to cover the hyponym Hyponymy is a transitive relation If x is a hyponym of y and y is hyponym of x then x is the hyponym of z Question 15 Differences between sentence and utterance - The difference between them are: an utterance is an act of speech or writing at a particular time and in a particular place It happens just one An utterance may consist of a word, a phrase, a sentence or several sentences But a sentence is not an event, it is a construction of words according to certain rules which we often called grammatical rules the term sentence refers to the system or language side, it can be thought of as the ideal structure hehind various realizations in utterances Utterance on the other hand refers to its realization sentence meaning as what a sentence regardless os the context or situation in which it may be used Utterance meaning on the other hand is what a speaker means when he makes an utterance is a certain situation sentence meaning is highly context – independent, whereas utterance meaning is not Question 16: maxims related to the co-operative principle stated by Grice - The principle comprises maxims: quantity, quality, relation, manner + The maxims of quantity are: a, make yourself as informative as is required(for the current purposes of the exchange) b, not make your contribution more informative than is required + The quality maxims say: not say what you believe to be false and not say that for which you lack adequate evidence + The relation maxim says be relevant + Grice’s specific maxims of manner are be perspicacious, avoid obscurity of expression, avoid ambiguity, be brief, be orderly Question 17 Example of conventional implicature: Eg1: she is an air hostess, therefore she is beautiful Eg2: A: it’s hot in here B: really => implicature: A wants B to open the windows or the turn on the fan Eg3: A: would you like coffee or tea at home? B: I have just drink tea at home=> implicature: B wants B bring him some coffee Question 18 Example of metaphor Eg1: She is a bee => based on the similarity of characteristic between the woman (she) and bee: hard working Eg2: She shot a cold look at the man => cold= low temperature => uncaring + distance Question 19 Example of metonymy Eg1: The kettle boils => the water in the kettle boils Eg2: we all live under the same roof => roof is the house Based on the relation of contiguity so used a word ( a part or whole) to substitute (refer) to the whole or a part of an object Question 20 Example of necessary of true sentences and contingently true sentence + necessary of true sentences: eg1: dog are animal/ eg2: snow is white => they are true in all possible circumstance (or by virtue of linguistic above) + contingently true sentence: eg1: Lan has many valuable painting => true if Lan has; falsw she does not Eg2: Magina carta was signed in 1215 => they are contingently true sentences because they might have been or might have been or might be false in other circumstance => Our ability to recognize the falseness of the sentence depend on our knowledge about the meanings of the sentence and the history of things in the world Question 21 Example of meaning sentences and ungrammatical sentences - Meaningless sentences: meaningfulness of a sentence is conditioned by how well form a sentence is sematically Eg1: one colorless green ideas sleep furiously => nothing is colorless and green simultaneously Ideas can’t sleep and nothing can sleep furiously Eg2: that is a generous miser => a miser can not be generous - Ungrammatical sentence: grammatical sentences are not necessarily meaningful or acceptable Eg1: I want that he came => I want him to come 10 Eg2: I want a eat a cake big => I want to eat a big cake THE END 11