Ngữ âm học (B1&B2)

COURSE SYLLABUS PHOBH51 & MORBH51 ENGLISH PHONETICS & PHONOLOGY WEEK TITLE Lesson 1: Introduction Lesson 2: The Organs of Speech Lesson 3: English Consonants Assignment Lesson 4: English vowels & diphthongs Lesson 5: Phonological analysis Lesson 6: Syllable Structure Assignment Lesson 7: Adjustments in connected speech Lesson 8: Weak forms Lesson 9: Stress 10 Lesson 10: Intonation Assignment ENGLISH MORPHOLOGY WEEK TITLE 11 I Introduction II Identifying Morphemes and Allomorphs III Free and Bound Morphemes 12 IV Word Structure V Word Formation VI Derivation VII Compounding TIME 19.01.2015 26.01.2015 02.02.2015 09.02.2015 16.02.2015 23.02.2015 02.03.2015 09.03.2015 16.03.2015 23.03.2015 TIME 30.03.2015 06.04.2015 QUY ĐỊNH VỀ TÍNH ĐIỂM THAM GIA THẢO LUẬN HỌC PHẦN: NGỮ ÂM HỌC (B1 & B2) Nhằm tăng cường tính tích cực học viên tham gia chương trình đào tạo trực tuyến có xác đánh giá kết học tập, Đại học Đà Nẵng triển khai việc tính điểm tham gia mục Thảo luận (Discussion) từ học kỳ bắt đầu vào tháng 01.2015 Nội dung yêu cầu cụ thể sau: Cách thực hiện: - Đầu kỳ mới, CCE gửi kế hoạch học kỳ kèm lưu ý học phần có tính điểm thảo luận - HV xem kỹ Course Syllabus học phần học kỳ để biết rõ yêu cầu học phần có tính điểm thảo luận - HV đăng nhập vào học phần, vào Discussion Menu bên trái hình, tham gia thảo luận cách tự tạo chủ đề trao đổi chủ đề học viên lớp tạo sẵn - Thời hạn đăng Discussion: trước ngày thi kết thúc học phần Cách tính điểm: - Mỗi đăng có nội dung cụ thể tính điểm Điểm tối đa cho tổng số lần đăng 10 điểm - Giá trị điểm thảo luận: • Được tính điều kiện cần để hoàn thành học phần • Tổng điểm thảo luận tính điểm kiểm tra kỳ (tương đương Unit Assignment) - Các kiểm tra kỳ gồm: • Các Unit Assignment • Điểm thảo luận - Kết cuối học phần: Điểm TB KT kỳ x 30% + Điểm thi cuối kỳ x 70% Rất mong toàn thể HV lưu ý thực LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION Phonetics and phonology Two terms are (often loosely) used to refer to linguistic disciplines studying that part of the linguistic sign which de Saussure called the acoustic image: phonetics and phonology The importance of sounds as vehicles of meaning is something people have been aware of for thousands of years However, systematic studies on the speech sounds only appeared with the development of modern sciences The term phonetics used in connection with such studies comes from Greek and its origins can be traced back to the Ngữ âm học âm vị học Hai thuật ngữ (thường lỏng lẻo) dùng để ngành ngôn ngữ học phần dấu hiệu ngôn ngữ mà de Saussure gọi hình ảnh âm thanh: ngữ âm học âm vị học Tầm quan trọng âm xe ý nghĩa người nhận thức cho hàng ngàn năm Tuy nhiên, nghiên cứu có hệ thống phát biểu âm xuất với phát triển khoa học đại Ngữ âm ngữ sử dụng kết nối với nghiên cứu xuất phát từ tiếng Hy Lạp nguồn gốc verb phōnein, to speak, in its turn related to phōnē, sound The end of the 18th century witnessed a revival of the interest in the studying of the sounds of various languages and the introduction of the term phonology The latter comes to be, however, distinguished from the former only more than a century later with the development of structuralism which emphasizes the essential contrastive role of classes of sounds which are labeled phonemes The terms continue to be used, however, indiscriminately until the prestige of phonology as a distinct discipline is finally established in the first half of the 20th century Though there is no universally accepted point of view about a clear-cut border line between the respective domains of phonetics and phonology as, indeed, we cannot talk about a phonological system ignoring the phonetic aspects it involves and, on the other hand, any phonetic approach should take into account the phonological system that is represented by any language, most linguists will agree about some fundamental distinctions between the two truy trở lại phōnein động từ, để nói chuyện, đến lượt liên quan đến điện thoại, âm Sự kết thúc kỷ 18 chứng kiến hồi sinh quan tâm việc học tập âm ngôn ngữ khác đời âm vị học kỳ Sau đến được, nhiên, để phân biệt với cựu kỷ sau với phát triển cấu trúc nhấn mạnh vai trò thiết yếu đối chiếu lớp học âm có nhãn ghi âm vị Các điều khoản tiếp tục sử dụng, nhiên, cách bừa bãi uy tín âm vị học môn học riêng biệt cuối thành lập vào nửa đầu kỷ 20 Mặc dù điểm giới chấp nhận quan điểm đường biên giới rõ ràng lĩnh vực tương ứng ngữ âm học âm vị học như, thực sự, nói hệ thống âm vị bỏ qua khía cạnh ngữ âm liên quan và, mặt khác, âm cách tiếp cận nên đưa vào tài khoản hệ thống âm vị đại diện ngôn ngữ, ngôn ngữ học đồng ý số khác biệt hai người Phonetics Phonetics is the scientific study of speech The central concerns in phonetics are the discovery of how speech sounds are produced, how they are used in spoken language, how we can record speech sounds with written symbols and how we hear and recognise different sounds In the first of these areas, when we study the production of speech sounds we can observe what speakers (articulatory observation) and we can try to feel what is going on inside our vocal tract (kinaesthetic observation) The second area is where phonetics overlaps with phonology: usually in phonetics we are only interested in sounds that are used in meaningful speech, and phoneticians are interested in discovering the range and variety of sounds used in this way in all the known languages of the world This is sometimes known as linguistic phonetics Thirdly, there has always been a need for agreed conventions for using phonetic symbols that represent speech sounds; the International Phonetic Association has played a very important role in this Finally, the auditory aspect of speech is very important: the ear is capable of making fine discrimination between different sounds, and sometimes it is not possible to define in articulatory terms precisely what the difference is A good example of this is in vowel classification: while it is important to know the position and shape of the tongue and lips, it is often very important to have been trained in an agreed set of standard auditory qualities that vowels can be reliably related to (other important branches of phonetics are experimental, instrumental and acoustic) Ngữ âm học Ngữ âm học nghiên cứu khoa học phát biểu Các mối quan tâm trung tâm ngữ âm khám phá cách âm nói sản xuất, làm chúng sử dụng ngôn ngữ nói, làm ghi lại âm tiếng nói với ký hiệu văn làm nghe nhận âm khác Trong lần khu vực này, nghiên cứu việc sản xuất âm tiếng nói quan sát diễn giả làm (cấu âm quan sát) cố gắng để cảm thấy xảy bên quản (quan sát kinaesthetic) Khu vực thứ hai nơi mà ngữ âm trùng với âm vị học: thường ngữ âm học, quan tâm đến âm sử dụng phát biểu có ý nghĩa, ngữ âm học quan tâm đến việc khám phá nhiều đa dạng âm sử dụng theo cách tất ngôn ngữ tiếng giới; Điều gọi ngữ âm học ngôn ngữ Thứ ba, có luôn nhu cầu cho hội nghị đồng ý cho sử dụng ký hiệu ngữ âm mà đại diện cho âm tiếng nói; Hiệp hội phiên âm quốc tế đóng vai trò quan trọng việc Cuối cùng, khía cạnh âm lời nói quan trọng: tai có khả làm phân biệt đối xử tốt đẹp âm khác nhau, định nghĩa cấu âm xác khác biệt Một ví dụ điển hình việc phân loại nguyên âm: điều quan trọng phải biết vị trí hình dạng lưỡi môi, thường quan trọng để có đào tạo tập hợp thống phẩm chất tiêu chuẩn mà nguyên âm liên quan đáng tin cậy để (ngành quan trọng khác ngữ âm thử nghiệm, nhạc cụ âm thanh) Phát âm học Các hoạt động âm vị học phân tích ngữ âm, mục tiêu để thiết lập âm vị đến hàng tồn kho âm vị ngôn ngữ Rất nhà âm vị học tin phân tích đầy đủ hệ thống âm ngôn ngữ: cần thiết để vượt qua điều Người ta nhìn vào suprasegmental âm vị học nghiên cứu căng thẳng, nhịp điệu ngữ điệu, mà dẫn năm gần với phương pháp để âm vị học lý thuyết metrical đoạn tự động; vượt qua âm vị nhìn vào đặc tính chi tiết đơn vị tính đặc biệt; cách thức mà âm kết hợp ngôn ngữ nghiên cứu kết âm học việc phân tích cấu trúc âm tiết Đối với số âm vị học lĩnh vực quan trọng mối quan hệ âm vị khác - làm chúng hình thành nhóm, Phonology The most basic activity in phonology is phonemic analysis, in which the objective is to establish what the phonemes are and arrive at the phonemic inventory of the language Very few phonologists have ever believed that this would be an adequate analysis of the sound system of a language: it is necessary to go beyond this One can look at suprasegmental phonology - the study of stress, rhythm and intonation, which has led in recent years to new approaches to phonology such as metrical and autosegmental theory; one can go beyond the phoneme and look into the detailed characteristics of each unit in terms of distinctive features; the way in which sounds can combine in a language is studied in phonotactics and in the analysis of syllable structure For some phonologists the most important area is the relationships between the different phonemes - how they form groups, the nature of the oppositions between them and how those oppositions may be neutralised chất đối lập họ làm người đối lập vô hiệu hóa LESSON 2: THE ORGANS OF SPEECH Glossary: In addition to their normal names, many of the parts of the organs of speech have fancy names derived from Latin and Greek The adjectives we use to describe sounds made with each part are usually based on the Latin/Greek name Ngoài tên bình thường họ, nhiều người số phận quan ngôn luận có tên ưa thích bắt nguồn từ tiếng Latin tiếng Hy Lạp Các tính từ sử dụng để mô tả âm thực phần thường dựa tên Latin / Hy Lạp In phonetics, the terms velum, pharynx, larynx, and dorsum are used as often or more often than the simpler names Trong ngữ âm, từ ngữ màng cái, hầu họng, quản, mặt lưng sử dụng thường xuyên thường xuyên so với tên đơn giản sườn núi phế nang khoảng cách ngắn phía sau hàm thay đổi góc vòm miệng (Ở số người đột ngột, người khác nhẹ) Đây sườn núi phế nang Âm liên quan đến khu vực hàm sườn núi gọi alveolars (Hard) vòm miệng phần cứng vòm miệng Thuật ngữ "khẩu vị" thường đề cập đến vòm miệng cứng Alveolar ridge a short distance behind the upper teeth is a change in the angle of the roof of the mouth (In some people it's quite abrupt, in others very slight.) This is the alveolar ridge Sounds which involve the area between the upper teeth and this ridge are called alveolars (Hard) palate the hard portion of the roof of the mouth The term "palate" by itself usually refers to the hard palate Soft palate/velum the soft portion of the roof of the mouth, lying behind the hard palate The tongue hits the velum in the sounds /k/, /g/, and /ŋ/ The velum can also move: if it lowers, it creates an opening that allows air to flow out through the nose; if it stays raised, the opening is blocked, and no air can flow through the nose Soft palate / màng phần mềm vòm miệng, nằm phía sau vòm miệng cứng Lưỡi chạm màng âm / k /, / g / / n / Các màng di chuyển: làm giảm, tạo khe hở cho phép không khí thoát qua lỗ mũi; lớn lên, việc mở cửa bị khóa, không khí lưu thông qua mũi Uvula the small, dangly thing at the back of the soft palate The uvula vibrates during the r sound in many French dialects Lưỡi gà bài, điều dangly nhỏ mặt sau vòm miệng Các lưỡi gà rung âm r nhiều phương ngữ tiếng Pháp Pharynx the cavity between the root of the tongue and the walls of the upper throat Yết hầu khoang gốc lưỡi tường họng phía Tongue blade the flat surface of the tongue just behind the tip Lưỡi Tongue bề mặt phẳng lưỡi đứng sau đầu Tongue body/dorsum the main part of the tongue, lying below the hard and soft palate The body, specifically the back part of the body (hence "dorsum", Latin for "back"), moves to make vowels and many consonants Tongue root the lowest part of the tongue in the throat Cơ thể Tongue / dorsum phần lưỡi, nằm bên vòm miệng cứng mềm Các thể, đặc biệt phần sau thể (do "dorsum", tiếng Latin "trở lại"), di chuyển để làm cho nguyên âm phụ âm nhiều Gốc lưỡi phần thấp lưỡi cổ họng Epiglottis the fold of tissue below the root of the tongue The epiglottis helps cover the larynx during swallowing, making sure (usually!) that food goes into the stomach and not the lungs A few languages use the epiglottis in making sounds English is fortunately not one of them Tiểu thiệt gấp mô gốc lưỡi Các nắp quản giúp che quản trình nuốt, làm cho chắn (thường!) Thức ăn mà vào dày không phổi Một vài ngôn ngữ sử dụng nắp quản làm cho âm Tiếng Anh may mắn không số họ Vocal folds/vocal cords folds of tissue stretched across the airway to the lungs They can vibrate against each other, providing much of the sound during Nếp gấp Vocal / dây nếp mô trải dài đường hàng không vào phổi Họ rung động với nhau, cung cấp nhiều âm phát speech biểu Glottis the opening between the vocal cords During a glottal stop, the vocal cords are held together and there is no opening between them Cửa hầu việc mở dây âm Trong dừng hầu, dây âm tổ chức với mở chúng Larynx the structure that holds and manipulates the vocal cords The "Adam's apple" in males is the bump formed by the front part of the larynx Thanh quản cấu trúc chứa thao túng dây âm Những "quả táo Adam" nam giới vết sưng hình thành phần phía trước quản Lungs the biological function of the lungs is to absorb oxygen from air breathed in and to excrete carbon dioxide into the air breathed out From the speech point of view, their major function is to provide the driving force that compresses the air we use for generating speech sounds They are similar to large sponges, and their size and shape are determined by the rib cage that surrounds them, so that when the ribs are pressed down the lungs are compressed and when the ribs are lifted the lungs expand and fill with air Although they hold a considerable amount of air (normally several litres, though this differs greatly between individuals) we use only a small proportion of their capacity when speaking - we would find it very tiring if we had to fill and empty the lungs as we spoke, and in fact it is impossible for us to empty our lungs completely Phổi chức sinh học phổi để hấp thụ oxy từ không khí hít vào tiết carbon dioxide vào không khí thở Từ quan điểm nói trên, chức họ cung cấp cho lực lượng lái xe mà nén không khí sử dụng để tạo âm nói Chúng tương tự bọt biển lớn, kích thước hình dạng chúng định khung xương sườn bao quanh họ, để xương sườn ép xuống phổi nén xương sườn nâng lên phổi mở rộng đầy không khí Mặc dù họ nắm giữ số lượng đáng kể không khí (thường vài lít, điều khác nhiều cá nhân), sử dụng tỷ lệ nhỏ khả họ nói - thấy mệt mỏi phải điền vào làm phổi nói chuyện , thực tế cho để có sản phẩm hoàn toàn phổi Oral cavity the part of the mouth behind the teeth and gums that is bounded above by the hard and soft palates and below by the tongue and the mucous membrane connecting it with the inner part of the mandible Khoang miệng phần miệng phía sau nướu bị chặn vị cứng mềm bên lưỡi màng nhầy kết nối với phần bên hàm Nasal cavity the cavity on either side of the nasal septum, extending from the nose to the pharynx, and lying between the floor of the cranium and the roof of the mouth Khoang mũi khoang hai bên vách ngăn mũi, kéo dài từ mũi đến cổ họng, nằm sàn hộp sọ vòm miệng LESSON 3: ENGLISH CONSONANTS Glossary: Producing a consonant involves making the vocal tract narrower at some location than it usually is We call this narrowing a constriction Which consonant you're pronouncing depends on where in the vocal tract the constriction is and how narrow it is It also depends on a few other things, such as whether the vocal folds are vibrating and whether air is flowing through the nose We classify consonants along three major dimensions: • • place of articulation manner of articulation • voicing For example, for the sound d: • • Place of articulation = alveolar (The narrowing of the vocal tract involves the tongue tip and the alveolar ridge.) Manner of articulation = oral stop (The narrowing is complete the tongue is completely blocking off airflow through the mouth There is also no airflow through the nose.) • Voicing = voiced (The vocal folds are vibrating.) Places of articulation The place of articulation (or POA) of a consonant specifies where in the vocal tract the narrowing occurs From front to back, the POAs that English uses are: Bilabial In a bilabial consonant, the lower and upper lips approach or touch each other English p, b, and m are bilabial stops The diagram to the right shows the state of the vocal tract during a typical p or b (An m would look the same, but with the velum lowered to let out through the nasal passages.) The sound w involves two constrictions of the vocal tract made simultaneously One of them is lip rounding, which you can think of as a bilabial approximant Labiodental In a labiodental consonant, the lower lip approaches or touches the upper teeth English f and v are bilabial fricatives The diagram to the right shows the state of the vocal tract during a typical f or v Dental In a dental consonant, the tip or blade of touches the upper teeth English θ and ð are actually a couple of different ways of forming • The tongue tip can approach the back press against them so hard that the the tongue approaches or dental fricatives There are these sounds: of the upper teeth, but not airflow is completely blocked • The blade of the tongue can touch the bottom of the upper teeth, with the tongue tip protruding between the teeth still leaving enough space for a turbulent air-stream to escape This kind of θ and ð is often called interdental The diagram to the right shows a typical interdental θ or ð Alveolar In an alveolar consonant, the tongue tip (or less often the tongue blade) approaches or touches the alveolar ridge, the ridge immediately behind the upper teeth The English stops t, d, and n are formed by completely blocking the airflow at this place of articulation The fricatives s and zare also at this place of articulation, as is the lateral approximant l The diagram to the right shows the state of the vocal tract during plosive t or d Postalveolar In a postalveolar consonant, the constriction is made immediately behind the alveolar ridge The constriction can be made with either the tip or the blade of the tongue The English fricatives ∫and ʒ are made at this POA, as are the corresponding affricates t∫and dʒ The diagram to the right shows the state of the vocal tract during the first half (the stop half) of an affricate t∫ordʒ Retroflex In a retroflex consonant, the tongue tip is curled backward in the mouth English ɹ is a retroflex approximant the tongue tip is curled up toward the postalveolar region (the area immediately behind the alveolar ridge) The diagram to the right shows a typical English retroflex ɹ Both the sounds we've called "postalveolar" and the sounds we've called "retroflex" involve the region behind the alveolar ridge In fact, at least for English, you can think of retroflexes as being a sub-type of postalveolars, specifically, the type of postalveolars that you make by curling your tongue tip backward Palatal In a palatal consonant, the body of the tongue approaches or touches the hard palate English j is a palatal approximant the tongue body approaches the hard palate, but closely enough to create turbulence in the air-stream Velar In a velar consonant, the body of the tongue approaches or touches the soft palate, or velum English k,g, and ŋ are stops made at this POA The diagram to the right shows a typical k or g though where exactly on the velum the tongue body hits will vary a lot depending on the surrounding vowels As we have seen, one of the two constrictions that form a w is a bilabial approximant The other is a velar approximant: the tongue body approaches the soft palate Glottal The glottis is the opening between the vocal folds In an /h/, this opening is narrow enough to create some turbulence in the air-stream flowing past the vocal folds For this reason, /h/ is often classified as a glottal fricative Manners of articulation The manner of articulation dimension is essentially everything else: how narrow the constriction is, whether air is flowing through the nose, and whether the tongue is dropped down on one side Stops Stops are consonants formed by completely stopping the flow of air somewhere in the vocal apparatus, and then releasing the air Since the sudden release of the pent-up air creates a small explosive sound, stops are also called plosives Stops may be voiced (vocal cords vibrating during the articulation of the stop) or voiceless (vocal cords not vibrating during the articulation of the stop) Here is a list of the stops in English t, d, k,g, p and b Fricatives In the stop t, the tongue tip touches the alveolar ridge and cuts off the airflow In s, the tongue tip approaches the alveolar ridge but doesn't quite touch it There is still enough of an opening for airflow to continue, but the opening is narrow enough that it causes the escaping air to become turbulent (hence the hissing sound of the s) In a fricative consonant, the articulators involved in the constriction approach get close enough to each other to create a turbulent airstream The fricatives of English are f, v, θ, ð, s, z, ∫ and ʒ Approximants In an approximant, the articulators involved in the constriction are further apart still than they are for a fricative The articulators are still closer to each other than when the vocal tract is in its neutral position, but they are not even close enough to cause the air passing between them to become turbulent The approximants of English are w, j, ɹ, andl Affricates An affricate is a single sound composed of a stop portion and a fricative portion In English t∫, the airflow is first interrupted by a stop which is very similar to t (though made a bit further back) But instead of finishing the articulation quickly and moving directly into the next sound, the tongue pulls away from the stop slowly, so that there is a period of time immediately after the stop where the constriction is narrow enough to cause a turbulent airstream In t∫, the period of turbulent air-stream following the stop portion is the same as the fricative ∫ English dʒ is an affricate like t∫, but voiced Laterals Pay attention to what you are doing with your tongue when you say the first consonant of /li:f/ leaf Your tongue tip is touching your alveolar ridge (or perhaps your upper teeth), but this doesn't make /l/ a stop Air is still flowing during an /l/ because the side of your tongue has dropped down and left an opening (Some people drop down the right side of their tongue during an /l/; others drop down the left; a few drop down both sides.) Sounds which involve airflow around the side of the tongue are called laterals Sounds which are not lateral are called central /l/ is the only lateral in English The other sounds of English, like most of the sounds of the world's languages, are central More specifically, /l/ is a lateral approximant The opening left at the side of the tongue is wide enough that the air flowing through does not become turbulent Voicing The voicing parameter specifies whether the vocal folds are vibrating The vocal folds may be held against each other at just the right tension so that the air flowing past them from the lungs will cause them to vibrate against each other We call this process voicing Sounds which are made with vocal fold vibration are said to be voiced Sounds made without vocal fold vibration are said to be voiceless There are several pairs of sounds in English which differ only in voicing that is, the two sounds have identical places and manners of articulation, but one has vocal fold vibration and the other doesn't The θ of thigh and the ð of thy are one such pair The others are: Voiceless p t k f θ s ∫ t∫ Voiced b d g v ð z ʒ dʒ The other sounds of English not come in voiced/voiceless pairs h is voiceless, and has no voiced counterpart The other English consonants are all voiced: ɹ, l, w, j, m, n,and ŋ Brief descriptions of English consonants Voicing Place of Manner of Articulation Articulation Spelling /p/ voiceless bilabial It is spelt p: plane or pp: opposite and only exceptionally gh in hiccough stop / plosive The letter p is silent when followed by another obstruent or a nasal in word-initial position:psalm, pterodactyl, pneumatic /b/ voiced bilabial stop/plosive /t/ voiceless alveolar stop/plosive It is spelt with t: toe, with tt: cutter or withth: Thomas, Thames /d/ voiced alveolar stop/plosive It is spelt d: read or dd: adder /k/ voiceless velar The sound can be represented by the letter c:comb or by cc: accuse, by k: kill, stop/plosive by ck: pick, by ch: architect, by qu: queen In words like muscle and knave the letters can k are silent /g/ voiced velar The consonant can be rendered by g: get bygg: begged, or by g followed by h, as stop/plosive inghastly, by ua, ue or ui, as in guarantee,guess or linguist, respectively The voiced counterpart of /ks/, /gz/ can also be rendered by x in words like example /t∫/ voiceless postalveolar It is spelt b: bar or bb: ribbon The letter is silent in final position after m:limb, crumb, dumb and in front of t in words of Latin origin where the sound has long been lost: debt, doubt, subtle affricate The phoneme is represented graphically bych: charm, chinchilla, rich or tch: kitchen, bitch or by t followed by u: creature, culturewhen the plosive is palatalized In words like habitual, sanctuary the pronunciation with an affricate is a variant of /tj/ Exceptionally, we can have ce or cz as graphic representations of the sound in (violin)cello or Czech It can be rendered graphically by j: justice, John, rejoice, pyjamas, by ge: gesture, agent, sage, by gi: giraffe, rigid; and gy:gymnastics In certain words it can be spelt d followed byu: gradual, individual, procedure/al In all these cases, however, there is an alternative pronunciation /dj/ In a number of proper names or common nouns originating in proper names ch is read /dʒ/: Norwich, Greenwich, S/sandwich Another spelling can be dg in words like ridgeor edge /dʒ/ voiced postalveolar affricate /m/ voiced bilabial nasal It can be spelt with m or mm: come, common /n/ voiced alveolar nasal It is spelt n or nn: dean, annual /ŋ/ voiced velar nasal This phoneme has a limited distribution: it always precedes the voiceless velar plosive or occurs in syllable-final position in front of an elided /g/: tank, ankle, sing, long /f/ voiceless labiodental fricative The sound can be spelt f: fine, fringe, feud, loaf, stifle, ff: effort, snuff, ph: physics, graph, or even gh: enough, tough The word lieutenant /lef’tenənt/ is a particular case /v/ voiced labiodental fricative It is spelt with the letter v: vein, live, voice (Exceptionally, by ph in Stephen, nephew andf in of) /θ/ voiceless dental fricative The sound is rendered graphically by th: thin, method, path The sound often occurs in clusters difficult to pronounce: eighths,, depths, lengths /ð/ voiced dental fricative The sound is always spelt th, like its voiceless counterpart: within, then, they /s/ voiceless alveolar fricative It is spelt s, ss or c in front of e, i or y: sour, say, hiss, assign, ceiling, cellar, cigarette, precise, cypress, bicycle Sometimes the spelling can be sce, sci orscy: science, scent, scene, scythe; s is silent in words like corps, island, viscount /z/ /∫/ voiced alveolar voiceless postalveolar /ʒ/ voiced postalveolar / ɹ/ voiced retroflex /j/ voiced palatal /w/ voiced fricative The sound is spelt z It is often spelt s when the sound does not occur in initial positon:nose, easy, desire, and, exceptionally, tz intzar Similarly, when it marks the plural of nouns ending in a voiced sound (e.g boys, balls, ribs) or when it is the voiced allomorph of the 3rd person singular present indicative of verbs ending in a voiced sound (e.g plays, calls, adds) the spelling is s Exceptionally, the sound can be spelt doubless in words like dissolve, possess fricative It is often spelt sh in words like shoe, cushionor push It can also be spelt s: sure, sugar or ss:pressure, mission or ci: ancient, delicious,sci: conscious, ce: ocean, si: pension, mansion, ti: tuition, retribution It is a variant of /sj/ in words like issue, tissue In words of French origin the sound is speltch: champagne, charade, chargé, moustache, attaché The same spelling is used in proper names like Charlotte, Chicago, Chicoutimi, Michigan fricative It can be spelt either s when followed by u: visual or i: decision, or z if followed by u:seizure or ge: massage, espionage In words like casual the alternative pronunciation /zj/ is possible, while in other cases the fricative is replaced by the affricate /dʒ/ (e.g garage) approximant The sound is spelt r: rain, ring or rr: carry, marry approximant labial + velar approximant /l/ voiced alveolar /h/ voiceless glottal The sound may be spelt y (as in year) while in words spelt with u, ue, ui, ew, eu and eauread as the long vowel /u:/ the palatal sound is often inserted It can be rendered graphically either by the letter w (the most common case) (e.g sweet) or by u (e.g quite) The phoneme is spelt either l or ll in words like link or call, for instance In many lateral words, however, before plosive sounds like /k/ or /d/ – cf chalk, could; or before approximant nasals like /m/ or /n/ – cf calm, Lincoln; the labio-dental fricatives /f/ and /v/ – cf calf, calves; the lateral sound is not pronounced fricative The conservative spelling of English has preserved the letter h after r in words of Greek origin where no h sound or aspiration is heard nowadays: rhapsody, rhetoric, rheumatism, rhinal, rhinoceros, rhombus, rhyme, rhythm B the rising and falling of the melody to various pitch levels during the articulation of an utterance C the variation of stress and rhythm D the variation of accent and pronunciation 34 The movement of pitch within an intonation unit is referred to as A the intonation contour of that sentence B the intonation contour of that unit C the intonation of that sentence D the intonation of that unit 35 If the intonation falls to the low level (1) [a terminal fall], it signals A uncertainty B certainty C an incomplete thought D a question 36 If the intonation falls to the middle level (2) [a non-terminal fall], it signals A a weaker degree of certainty B certainty C a complete thought D a finished statement 37 Rising-falling intonation patterns of the 2-3-1 "certainly” type not signal which of the following? A Declarative statements B Wh- questions C Commands or directives D Incomplete thoughts 38 The intonation contour: The middle - to - high rise (2-3 or 2-4) pattern signals A directives B complete thoughts C certainty D uncertainty 39 According to the following intonation pattern, what is an appropriate response to the question "We really ought to visit him, shouldn’t we?" A No, we shouldn't B Yes, we should C I don't care D Yes, we ought 40 Normally, the 2-4 rise intonation pattern is used to express A surprise B disbelief C sadness D A and B are correct LESSON 11-12-13-14 : MORPHOLOGY I INTRODUCTION There are two basic types of words in human language - simple and complex Simple words are those that cannot be broken down into smaller meaningful units while complex words can be analyzed into constituent parts The words houses, for example, is made up of the form house and the plural marker -s, neither of which can be divided into smaller morphemes While many English words consist of only one morpheme, others can contain two, three, or more (see Table 1.1) Table 1.1 Words consisting of one or more morphemes One morpheme and boy hunt hospital gentle Two Three boy-s hunt-er hospital-ize gentle-man hunt-er-s hospital-ize-ation gentle-man-ly More than three hospital-ize-ation-s gentle-man-li-ness Morphology deals with the internal structure of complex words The words of any language can be divided into broad types of categories, closed and open, of which the latter are most relevant to morphology The closed categories are the function words: pronouns like you, and she; conjunctions like and, if and because; determiners like a andthe; and a few others Newly coined and borrowed words cannot be added to these categories of words that are open are the major lexical categories: noun (N), verb (B), adjective (A), and adverb (Adv) It is to these categories that new words may be added Because the major problem of morphology is how people make up and understand words that they have never encountered before, morphology is concerned largely with major lexical categories Each word that is a member of a major lexical category is called a lexical item A lexical item can best be thought of as an entry in a dictionary or lexicaon The entry for each lexical item will include, in addition to its pronunciation (phonology); information about its meaning (sematics), to what lexical category it belongs, and in what syntactic environments it may occur (subcategorization) II IDENTIFYING MORPHEMES AND ALLOMORPHS A major problem for morphological analysis is how to identify the morphemes that make up words Given our definition of the morpheme as the animal meaning-bearing unit of language, this will involve matching strings of sounds with co-occurring features of meaning As an example of this procedure, consider the small set of data from Turkish in Table 2.2 Table 2.2 Some Turkish plurals Turkish /mumiar/ /toplar/ /adamiar/ /kitaplar/ English ‘candies’ ‘gun’ ‘men’ ‘books’ In Table 2.2, there is only one feature of meaning, plurality, that is present in all four cases There is also one string of sounds, /lar/, that is found in all four words This suggests that /lar/ is the morpheme marking plurality in Turkish while /mum/ means ‘candle’, /top/ means ‘gun’, and so on We would therefore predict that a single candle would be designated by the morpheme /mum/, without /lar/ This is correct This is an unusually simple case, and many complications can arise One such complication involves the fact that morphemes not always have an invariant form The morpheme used to express indefiniteness in English, for instance, has two forms - a anfan an orange an accent a building a car an eel a girl The form a is used before words beginning with a consonant and the form an before words beginning with a vowel The variant forms of a morpheme are called its allomorphs As another example of allomorphic variation, consider the manner in which you pronounce the plural morpheme -s in the following words cats dogs judges Whereas the plural is pronounced as [s] in the first case, it is realized as [z] in the second, and as /∂z/ in the third Here again, selection of the proper allomorph is dependent on phonetic facts III FREE & BOUND MORPHEMES The analysis of morphological structure is based on a number of fundamental contrasts The first involves the distinction betwee a free morpheme, which can constitute a word by itself, and a bound morpheme, which must be attached to another element The morpheme house, for example, is free since it can be used as a word on its own; plural -s on the other hand, is bound The morphemes that are free or bound in English not necessarily have the same status in other languages For example, in Hare (an Athapaskan language spoken in Canada’s Northwest Territories), words that indicate body parts are always bound to a morpheme designating a possessor Table 3.1 shows the morpheme fi (“head”), be (“belly”), and dzé (“heart”), each of which must be attached to a morpyheme naming the possessor (A high tone is marked by the diacritic) Table 3.1 Some bound forms in Hare Hare sefi nebé ???edzé ‘my head’ ‘your belly’ ‘his heart’ (never *fi) (never *be) (never * dzé) Just as there are some free forms in English that are bound in other language, so there are some bound forms in English that are free in other languages Past tense, for example, is expected by a bound morpheme (usually -ed) in English, but by the free morpheme le in Mandarin (To simplify, tone is not marked in these examples) a) Ta chi He eat ‘He ate le past the fan meal meal.’ b) Ta chi fan le He eat meal past ‘He ate the meal.’ As you can see from these examples, le is apparently not attached to the verb since it is separated from it by the direct object in b) IV WORD STRUCTURE Like sentences, complex words such as builder and gentlemanly have an internal structure In this section, we will consider the categories and representation that are relevant to the analysis of word structure What sort of structure complex words have? Let’s look in some detail at the worddenationalization This word contains five morphemes: de na tion al ize ation Nation is a free morpheme, since it can stand alone as a word, while the rest are bound morphemes But simply listing the parts of the word and whether they are free or bound does not tell us there is to know about the structure of this word The parts have to be put together in a particular way, with a particular arrangement and order For example, none of these possible orders of the same five morphemes constitutes an English word: * ationizalnationde * alizdeationnation * nationdeizational In fact, of the 120 possible arrangements of these five morphemes, only one,denationalization, could be an English word The order is so strict because each of the bound morphemes is an affix, a morpheme which not only must be bound, but must be bound in a particular position Furthermore, each affix attaches only to a particular lexical category (either N or V or A), called its base, and results in a word of another particular lexical category The negative affix de-, for example, attaches to verbs and forms other verbs: ionize segregate - deionzie - desegregate Similarly, the affix -al forms adjectives from nouns, -ize forms verbs from adjectives or noun, and ation forms nouns from verbs Given these restrictions, the structure of the word denationalization can best be seen as the result of beginning with the simple form nation, which we may call the root of the word, and adding affixes successively, one at a time, as follows: nation national nationalize denationalize denationalization The structure of the entire word may be represented by means of either a set of labeled brackets or a tree diagram The two types of notation are for the most part interchangeable Both are shown in Figure 4.1 the diagram reveals how the word begins at its root, which cannot be broken down any further by morphological analysis, and is built up one affix at a time the abbreviation Af stands for affix Some other representations of structures of English words are given in Figure 4.2 such representations indicate the details of morphological structure Where these details are irrelevant to the point being considered, it is traditional to use a much simpler system of representation that indicates only the location of the morpheme boundaries: il-legal,hospital-ize, and so on Stems A stem is the actual form to which an affix is added In many cases, the stem will also be a root In books, for example, the element to which the affix -s is added in the root In other cases, however, an affix can be added to a unit larger than a root This happens in words such as hospitalized, in which the past tense affix -ed is added to the stem hospitalize - a unit consisting of the root morpheme hospital and the suffix -ize (see Figure 4.3) In this case, hospital is not only the root for the entire word but also the stem for -ize The unit hospitalize, on the other hand, is simply the stem for -ed Types of Affixes It is possible to distinguish among several types of affixes in terms of their position relative to their stem An affix that is attached to the front of its stem is called a prefix while an affix that is attached to the end of its stem is termed a suffix Both types of affix occur in English, as Table 4.1 shows Table 4.1 Some English prefixes and suffixes Prefixes disappear replay illegal inaccurate Suffixes vividly government hunter distribution A far less common type of affix, known as an infix, occurs within another morpheme The data in table 4.2, from the Philippine language Tag, contain two infixes, -um and -in Often word-internal vowel or consonant replacement is confused with infixing A change such as the one found in English foot - feet is not an example of infixing since there is no morpheme *ft As you see in Table 4.2, the form to which the Tagalog infix is added actually exists as a separate morpheme Table 4.2 Some Tagalog infixes Stem takbuh lakad pili? ‘run’ ‘walk’ ‘choose’ Infixed form tumakbuh lumakad pinili? ‘ran’ ‘walked’ ‘chose’ In English, although infixing is not part of the normal morphological system, it does occur commonly with expletives, providing a kind of extra emphasis, as in the following examples: guaran-damn-tee abso-bloody-lutely Still another kind of affix varies according to the stem with which it occurs It is called a reduplicative affix since its form duplicates all or part of the stem Once again, Tagalog provides examples of this type of affixation (see Table 4.3) The reduplicative affix, here is a copy of the first consonant-vowel sequence of the root Table 4.3 Some reduplicative affixes Stem takbuh ‘run’ Reduplicated form tatakbuh ‘will run’ lakad pili? ‘walk’ ‘choose’ lalakad pipili?in ‘will walk’ ‘will choose’ This is an example of partial reduplication Full reduplication is the reputation of the entire word, as in the date in Table 4.7, from Turkish and Indonesian, respectively Table 4.4 Some examples of full reduplication Turkish t∫abuk java∫ iji gyzel ‘quickly’ ‘slowly’ ‘well’ ‘beautifully’ Indonesian oraŋ ‘man’ anak ‘child’ maŋga ‘mange’ t∫abuk t∫abuk java∫ java∫ iji iji gyz l gyzel ‘very quickly’ ‘very slowly’ ‘very well’ ‘very beautifully’ oraŋ oraŋ anak anak maŋga maŋga ‘all sorts of men’ ‘all sorts of children’ ‘all sorts of mangoes’ Structure without Affixes When one word is formed from another, the structural relation between the two words is usually marked by means of an affix, as we have seen, but it is possible for one word to be formed from another without any affix Conversion Conversion, or zero-derivation, is probably the most frequent single method of forming words in English It is especially common in the speech of children Conversion creates a new word without the use of affixation by simply assigning an already existing word to a new syntactic category In the case of the derived verbs in Table 4.5, there is no modification, whereas in the case of the derived nouns, there is a stress shift Structurally, the derived forms remain simple in both instances even though they are new lexical items belonging to a syntactic category different from that of the source form In the case of father and butter, for instance, the derived form is a verbs capable of taking the normal past tense ending Table 4.5 Some examples of conversion Noun father butter ship nail brush Derived verb father butter ship nail brush Verb subjéct contést survéy permít condúct Derived noun súbject cóntest súrvey pérmit cónduct He fathered three children He buttered the bread Conversion is usually restricted to unsuffixes words, although there are a few exceptions such as propos-ition (noun to verb), refer-ee (noun to verb), and dirt-y (adjective to verb) Another device is ablaut, the replacement of a vowel with a different vowel (see Table 4.6) Ablaut was frequent in early stages of English and in related ancient languages Vestiges remain in Modern English Though the process is no longer productive (used in forming new words) Table 4.6 Some examples of ablaut Verb stem sing abide shoot Ablaut noun song adobe shot sell sale Stress shift is used in English to mark the difference between related nouns and verbs We have already seen some examples of this in Table 4.5 Generally, the verbs have final stress, while the nouns have initial stress, as the further examples in Table 4.7 illustrate Table 4.7 Nouns and verbs that differ only in stress Noun cómbine tórment ímpiant rétest Verb combíne tormént impiánt retést Nonaffixal morphology is common in other languages and may involve vocalic patterns or tone and other suprasegmental phonological features, sometimes in complex ways Word-based Morphology in English, the stem of a new word is almost invariably existing word For this reason, we say that English morphology is word-based: words are built on words As we saw in the case of the complex word denationalization Each affix is added successively to an English word There are, however, many English words whose stems, when the outer affixes are removed, are not existing English words Consider the words recalcitrant, horrible, anduncouth These are all English words, but when the affixes re-, -ible, and un- are removed, we are left with the stems *calcitrant, *horr and *couth, which are not English words In all three cases, the reasons for the anomaly are historical Recalcitrant and horrible were borrowed in their entirety from Latin and French Because the affixes re-and -ible were also borrowed, these words appear to have been formed by means of English morphology, although they were not English has many words like these two, borrowed from the Romance languages, from which many productive English affixes have also been borrowed Many of them have nonword stems for the same reason Uncouth is not borrowed, but was formed many centuries ago from the then existing word couth(historically related to can and know and still found in some British dialects) Some time after uncouth was formed, couth disappeared from most dialects, including the standard, leaving uncouth stranded without a stem Grateful is another example of the same phenomenon Words like grateful and horrible maybe described as having bound stems; in any case, they can be explained as cases of historical accident When we understand how such exceptional words arose, it remains true that that all productive English word formation is word-based Whether all languages are like English in this respect is still an open question Some Problematic Cases: It is not always easy to determine a word’s internal structure In the case of words such as cranberry and huckleberry, it is tempting to assume that the root is berry, but this leaves us with the morphemes cran- and huckle- These elements are obviously not affixes like un- or re- since they occur with only one root At the same time, however, neither cran- nor huckle- can be considered a free morpheme since neither ever stands alone as an independent word The status of such morphemes continues to be problematic for linguists, who generally classify them as exceptional cases (or refer to them as cranberry morphemes) A slightly different problem arises in the case of words such as receive, deceive, conceive, and perceive or permit, submit, and commit The apparent affixes in these words not express the same meaning as they when they are attached to a free morpheme Thus, the re- of receive, for example, does not have the sense of ‘again’ that it does in redo (‘do again’) Nor does the de- of deceive appear to express the meaning ‘reverse the process of’ associated with the affix in demystify or decertify Moreover, the other portions of these words (ceive and mit) have no identifiable meaning either Because they have no meaning, ceive and mit are not morphemes of a normal sort However, they have have some interesting properties For example, when certain suffixes are added to words ending in ceive, ceive quite regularly becomes cept (as in ‘receptive, deception’); similarly, mit becomes miss when the same suffixes are added (permissive, admission) These changes are not phonologically determined, since the ssdoes not occur before these suffixes in other words ending in t (prohibitive, edition) The changes must therefore be due to idiosyncratic properties of mit and ceive, similar to those of the morpheme man, whose plural is always men rather than the expected mans (postmen, brakemen, and so on) Mit and ceive are thus very similar to morphemes V WORD FORMATION A characteristic of all human languages is the potential to create new words The categories of noun, verb, adjective, and adverb are open in the sense that new members are constantly being added The two most common types of word formation arederivation and compounding, both of which create new words from already existing morphemes Derivation is the process by which a new word is built from a base, usually through the addition of an affix Compounding, on the other hands, is a process involving the combination of two words (with or without accompanying affixes) to yield a new word The noun helper, for example, is related to the verb help via derivation, the compound word mailbox, in contrast, is created from the words mail and box Derivation Derivation creates a new word by changing the category and/or the meaning of the base to which it applies The derivation affix -er, for instance, combines with a verb to create a noun with the meaning ‘one who does X’, as shown in Figure 5.1 1.1 English Derivational Affixes English makes very widespread use of derivation Table 5.1 lists some examples of English derivational affixes, along with information about the type of base with which they combine and the type of category that results The first entry states that the affix -able applies to a verb base and converts it into an adjective with the meaning ‘able to be X’ed’ Thus if we add the affix -able to the verb fix, we get an adjective with the meaning ‘able to be fixed’ 1.2 Derivational Rules Each line in Table 5.1 can be thought of as a word formation rule that predicts how words may be formed in English Thus, if there is a rule whereby the prefix un- may be added to an adjective X, resulting in another adjective, unX, with the meaning ‘not X’, then we predict that an adjective like harmonious may be combines with this prefix to form the adjective unharmonious, which will mean ‘not harmonious’ The rule also provides a structure to the word, given in Figure 5.2 These rules have another function: they may be used to analyze word, as well as to form them Suppose, for example, that we come across the word unharmonious in a book on architecture Even though we may never have encountered this word before, we will probably not notice its novelty, but simply use our unconscious knowledge of English word formation to process its meaning, in fact, many of the words that we encounter in reading, especially in technical literature, are novel, but we seldom have to look them up, relying instead on our morphological competence Sometimes beginning students have trouble determining the category of the base to which an affix is added In the case of worker, for instance, the base (work) is sometimes used as a verb (as in they work hard) and sometimes as a noun (as in the work is time-consuming) This may then make it difficult to know which category occurs with the suffix -er in the word worker The solution to this problem is to consider the use of -er (in the sense of ‘one who X’s’) with bases whose category can be unequivocally determined In the words teacher and writer, for instance, we see this affix used with bases (teach and write) that are clearly verbs Moreover, we know that -er can combine with the verb sell (seller) but not the noun sale (*saler) These facts allow us to conclude that the base with which -er combines in the word worker must be a verb rather than a noun 1.3 Multiple Derivations Derivation can create multiple levels of word structure, as shown in Figure 5.3 although complex ‘organizational’ has a structure consistent with the word formation rules given in Table 5.1 Starting with the outermost affix, we see that -al forms adjectives from nouns,-ation forms nouns from verbs, and -ize forms verbs from nouns Table 5.2 Distribution of unun + A un + N unable unkind unhurt *unknowledge *unintelligence *uninjury In some cases, the internal structure of a complex word is not obvious The wordunhappiness, for instance, could apparently be analyzed in either of the ways indicated in Figure 5.4 by considering the properties of the affixes un- and ness-, however, it is possible to find an argument that favors Figure 5.4a over 5.4b The key observation here is that the prefix un- combines quite freely with adjectives, but not with nouns as shown in Table 5.2 (The advertiser’s uncola is an exception to this rule and therefore attracts the attention of the reader or listener) This suggests that un- must combine with the adjective happy before it is converted into a noun by the suffix -ness - exactly what the structure in Figure 5.4a depicts The derivation of this word therefore proceeds in two steps First, the prefix un- is attached to the adjective happy, resulting in another adjective (see Figure 5.5) The second step is to add the suffix -ness to this adjective (see Figure 5.6) We see, then, that complex words have structures consisting of hierarchically organized constituents The same is true of sentences, when we study further Table 5.3 Restrictions on the use of -en Acceptable Unacceptable whiten soften madden quicken liven *abstracten *bluen *angryen *slowen *greenen 1.4 A phonological constraint (advanced) Derivation does not always apply freely to the members of a given category Sometimes, for instance, a particular derivational affix is able to attach only to stems with particular phonological properties A good example of this involves the English suffix -en, which combines with adjectives to create verbs with a causative meaning (‘cause to become X’) as the following examples illustrate, however, there are many adjectives with which-en cannot combine The suffix -en is subject to a phonological constraint In particular, it can only combine with a monosyllabic stem that ends in an obstruent Hence it can be added to white, which is both monosyllabic and ends in an obstruent, but not to abstract, which has two syllables, or to blue, which does not end in an obstruent Compounding In derivational word formation, we take a single word and change it somehow, usually by adding an affix, to form a new word The other way to form is by combining two already existing words in a compound Blackbird, doghouse, seaworthy, and blue-green are examples of compounds Compounding is highly productive in English and in related languages such as German It is also widespread throughout the languages of the world In English, compounds can be found in all the major lexical categories -nouns (doorstop), adjectives (winedark), and verbs (stagemanage) - but nouns are by far the most common type of compounds Verbs compounds are quite infrequent Among noun compounds, most are of the form noun + noun (N N), but adjective + noun (A N) compounds are also found quite frequently; verb + noun (V N) compounds are rare An example of each type is given in Figure 5.7 Compound adjectives are of the type adjective + adjective (A A) or noun + adjective (N A), as shown in Figure 5.8 Although there are very few true compound verbs in English, this does not seem to be due to any general principles In other languages, compound verbs are quite common Structurally, two features of compounds stand out One is the fact that the constituent members of a compound are not equal In all the examples given thus far, the lexical category of the last member of the compound is the same as that of the entire compound Furthermore, the first member ia always a modifier of the second: steamboat is a type of boat; red-hot is a degree of hotness In other words, the second member acts as the head of the compound, from which most of the syntactic properties of the compound are derived, while the first member is its dependent This is generally true in English and in many other languages, although there are also languages in which the first member of a compound is the head The second structural peculiarity of compounds, which is true of all languages of the world, is that a compound never has more than two constituents This is not to say that a compound may never contain more than two words Three-word (dog food box), four-word (stone age cave dweller), and longer compounds (trade union delegate assembly leader) are easy to find But in each case, the entire compound always consists of two components, each of which may itself be a compound, as shown in Figure 5.9 the basic compounding operation is therefore always binary, although repetition of the basic operation may result in more complex individual forms Compounding and derivation may also feed each other The members of a compound are often themselves derivationally complex, and sometimes, though not often A compound may serve as the base of a derivational affix An example of each of these situations is given in Figure 5.10 English orthography is not consistent in representing compounds since they are sometimes written as single words, sometimes with an intervening hyphen, and sometimes as separate words However, it is usually possible to recognize noun compounds by their stress pattern since the first component is pronounced more prominently than the second In noncompounds, conversely, the second element is stressed (see Table 5.4) Although the exact types of compounds differ from language to language, the practice of combining two existing words to create a new word is very widespread ;–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––; GOOD LUCK TO YOU! ... instrumental and acoustic) Ngữ âm học Ngữ âm học nghiên cứu khoa học phát biểu Các mối quan tâm trung tâm ngữ âm khám phá cách âm nói sản xuất, làm chúng sử dụng ngôn ngữ nói, làm ghi lại âm tiếng nói với... nơi mà ngữ âm trùng với âm vị học: thường ngữ âm học, quan tâm đến âm sử dụng phát biểu có ý nghĩa, ngữ âm học quan tâm đến việc khám phá nhiều đa dạng âm sử dụng theo cách tất ngôn ngữ tiếng... ứng ngữ âm học âm vị học như, thực sự, nói hệ thống âm vị bỏ qua khía cạnh ngữ âm liên quan và, mặt khác, âm cách tiếp cận nên đưa vào tài khoản hệ thống âm vị đại diện ngôn ngữ, ngôn ngữ học