Tài liệu Ngữ âm học B1&B2 giới thiệu đến các bạn những kiến thức về ngữ âm học và âm vị học, phát âm học, các câu hỏi bài tập thực hành về ngữ âm học B1, ngữ âm học B2. Mời các bạn cùng tham khảo nội dung tài liệu để có thêm tài liệu học tập và nghiên cứu.
Trang 1 Đ u k m i, CCE g i k ho ch h c k kèm l u ý h c ph n có tính đi m th o lu n.ầ ỳ ớ ử ế ạ ọ ỳ ư ọ ầ ể ả ậ
HV xem k Course Syllabus các h c ph n trong h c k đ bi t rõ yêu c u c a h c ph n có tính đi m th o lu n.ỹ ọ ầ ọ ỳ ể ế ầ ủ ọ ầ ể ả ậ
HV đăng nh p vào h c ph n, vào Discussion trên Menu bên trái màn hình, tham gia th o lu n b ng cách t t o ch đ m i ho cậ ọ ầ ả ậ ằ ự ạ ủ ề ớ ặ trao đ i v ch đ h c viên cùng l p đã t o s n.ổ ề ủ ề ọ ớ ạ ẵ
Th i h n đăng bài trong Discussion: trờ ạ ước ngày thi k t thúc h c ph n.ế ọ ầ
2. Cách tính đi m: ể
M i bài đăng có n i dung c th đỗ ộ ụ ể ược tính 2 đi m. Đi m t i đa cho t ng s l n đăng là 10 đi m.ể ể ố ổ ố ầ ể
Giá tr đi m th o lu n:ị ể ả ậ
• Được tính nh đi u ki n c n đ hoàn thành h c ph n.ư ề ệ ầ ể ọ ầ
• T ng đi m th o lu n đổ ể ả ậ ược tính nh đi m c a 1 bài ki m tra gi a k (tư ể ủ ể ữ ỳ ương đương 1 bài Unit Assignment).
Các bài ki m tra gi a k g m:ể ữ ỳ ồ
• Các bài Unit Assignment
• Đi m th o lu nể ả ậ
K t qu cu i h c ph n: ế ả ố ọ ầ
Đi m TB KT gi a k x 30% + Đi m thi cu i k x 70%ể ữ ỳ ể ố ỳ
R t mong toàn th HV l u ý th c hi n.ấ ể ư ự ệ
ng mà de Saussure g i là hình nh âm thanh: ng âm h c ữ ọ ả ữ ọ
và âm v h c. T m quan tr ng c a âm thanh nh xe c a ý ị ọ ầ ọ ủ ư ủnghĩa là m t cái gì đó m i ngộ ọ ười đã nh n th c cho hàng ậ ứ
Trang 2v i các nghiên c u nh v y xu t phát t ti ng Hy L p và ớ ứ ư ậ ấ ừ ế ạngu n g c c a nó có th đồ ố ủ ể ược truy tr l i phōnein đ ng t , ở ạ ộ ừ
đ nói chuy n, đ n lể ệ ế ượt nó liên quan đ n đi n tho i, âm ế ệ ạthanh. S k t thúc c a th k 18 đã ch ng ki n ự ế ủ ế ỷ ứ ế m t s h i ộ ự ồsinh c a s quan tâm trong vi c h c t p c a các âm thanh ủ ự ệ ọ ậ ủ
c a ngôn ng khác nhau và s ra đ i c a âm v h c k Sau ủ ữ ự ờ ủ ị ọ ỳ
đó đ n đế ược, tuy nhiên, đ phân bi t v i c u ch h n m t ể ệ ớ ự ỉ ơ ộ
th k sau đó v i s phát tri n c a c u trúc trong đó nh n ế ỷ ớ ự ể ủ ấ ấ
m nh vai trò thi t y u đ i chi u c a các l p h c c a các ạ ế ế ố ế ủ ớ ọ ủ
âm thanh có nhãn ghi âm v Các đi u kho n ti p t c đị ề ả ế ụ ược
s d ng, tuy nhiên, m t cách b a bãi cho đ n uy tín c a âm ử ụ ộ ừ ế ủ
v h c nh m t môn h c riêng bi t cu i cùng cũng đị ọ ư ộ ọ ệ ố ược thành l p vào n a đ u c a th k 20.ậ ử ầ ủ ế ỷ
M c dù không có đi m gi i ch p nh n quan đi m v m t ặ ể ớ ấ ậ ể ề ộ
đường biên gi i rõ ràng gi a các lĩnh v c tớ ữ ự ương ng v ngứ ề ữ
âm h c và âm v h c nh , th c s , chúng ta không th nói ọ ị ọ ư ự ự ể
v m t h th ng âm v b qua các khía c nh ng âm nó liên ề ộ ệ ố ị ỏ ạ ữquan và, m t khác, b t k âm cách ti p c n nên đ a vào tài ặ ấ ỳ ế ậ ưkho n các h th ng âm v đó đả ệ ố ị ược đ i di n b i b t k ngônạ ệ ở ấ ỳ
s d ng trong ngôn ng nói, làm th nào chúng ta có th ghi ử ụ ữ ế ể
l i âm thanh ti ng nói v i các ký hi u văn b n và làm th ạ ế ớ ệ ả ếnào chúng ta nghe và nh n ra âm thanh khác nhau.ậ
Trong l n đ u tiên c a các khu v c này, khi chúng ta nghiên ầ ầ ủ ự
c u vi c s n xu t âm thanh ti ng nói chúng ta có th quan ứ ệ ả ấ ế ểsát nh ng gì di n gi làm (c u âm quan sát) và chúng ta có ữ ễ ả ấ
th c g ng đ c m th y nh ng gì đang x y ra bên trong ể ố ắ ể ả ấ ữ ảthanh qu n c a chúng tôi (quan sát kinaesthetic).ả ủ
Khu v c th hai là n i mà ng âm trùng v i âm v h c: ự ứ ơ ữ ớ ị ọ
thường trong ng âm h c, chúng tôi ch quan tâm đ n âm ữ ọ ỉ ếthanh đượ ử ục s d ng trong bài phát bi u có ý nghĩa, và ng ể ữ
âm h c quan tâm đ n vi c khám phá ra nhi u và đa d ng ọ ế ệ ề ạ
c a âm thanh đủ ượ ử ục s d ng theo cách này trong t t c các ấ ảngôn ng ti ng th gi i; . Đi u này đôi khi đữ ế ế ớ ề ược g i là ng ọ ữ
Cu i cùng, các khía c nh âm thanh c a l i nói là r t quan ố ạ ủ ờ ấ
tr ng: tai là có kh năng làm phân bi t đ i x t t đ p gi a ọ ả ệ ố ử ố ẹ ữ
tr ng khác v ng âm là th nghi m, nh c c và âm thanh).ọ ề ữ ử ệ ạ ụPhát âm h cọ
Các ho t đ ng c b n nh t trong âm v h c là phân tích ng ạ ộ ơ ả ấ ị ọ ữ
âm, trong đó m c tiêu là đ thi t l p nh ng gì các âm v là ụ ể ế ậ ữ ị
và đ n hàng t n kho âm v c a ngôn ng R t ít nhà âm v ế ồ ị ủ ữ ấ ị
h c đã t ng tin r ng đây s là m t phân tích đ y đ c a h ọ ừ ằ ẽ ộ ầ ủ ủ ệ
th ng âm thanh c a m t ngôn ng : nó là c n thi t đ vố ủ ộ ữ ầ ế ể ượt qua được đi u này. Ngề ười ta có th nhìn vào suprasegmentalể
âm v h c nghiên c u căng th ng, nh p đi u và ng đi u, ị ọ ứ ẳ ị ệ ữ ệ
Trang 3mà đã d n trong nh ng năm g n đây v i các phẫ ữ ầ ớ ương pháp
m i đ âm v h c nh lý thuy t metrical và đo n t đ ng; aiớ ể ị ọ ư ế ạ ự ộ
có th vể ượt qua được nh ng âm v và nhìn vào các đ c tính ữ ị ặchi ti t c a t ng đ n v v tính năng đ c bi t; cách th c mà ế ủ ừ ơ ị ề ặ ệ ứ
âm thanh có th k t h p trong m t ngôn ng để ế ợ ộ ữ ược nghiên
c u trong k t âm h c và trong vi c phân tích các c u trúc ứ ế ọ ệ ấ
âm ti t. Đ i v i m t s âm v h c các lĩnh v c quan tr ng ế ố ớ ộ ố ị ọ ự ọ
nh t là m i quan h gi a các âm v khác nhau làm th nào ấ ố ệ ữ ị ếchúng hình thành các nhóm, b n ch t c a s đ i l p gi a hả ấ ủ ự ố ậ ữ ọ
và làm th nào nh ng ngế ữ ườ ố ậi đ i l p có th để ược vô hi u ệhóa
Ngoài cái tên bình thường c a h , nhi u ngủ ọ ề ười trong s các b ố ộ
ph n c a c quan ngôn lu n có nh ng cái tên a thích b t ậ ủ ơ ậ ữ ư ắngu n t ti ng Latin và ti ng Hy L p. Các tính t chúng tôi s ồ ừ ế ế ạ ừ ử
d ng đ mô t âm thanh đụ ể ả ược th c hi n t ng ph n thự ệ ừ ầ ường
Trong ng âm, các t ng ch màng kh u cái, h u h ng, thanh ữ ừ ữ ỉ ẩ ầ ọ
qu n, và m t l ng đả ặ ư ượ ử ục s d ng thường xuyên ho c thặ ường xuyên h n so v i nh ng cái tên đ n gi n h n.ơ ớ ữ ơ ả ơ
sườn núi ph nangế
m t kho ng cách ng n phía sau răng hàm trên là m t s thay ộ ả ắ ộ ự
đ i trong các góc c a vòm mi ng. ( m t s ngổ ủ ệ Ở ộ ố ười nó khá đ t ộ
ng t, nh ng ngộ ở ữ ười khác r t nh ). Đây là nh ng sấ ẹ ữ ườn núi phế nang. Âm thanh đó liên quan đ n khu v c gi a răng hàm trên vàế ự ữ
sườn núi này được g i là alveolars.ọ(Hard) vòm mi ngệ
Trang 4Lưỡi ch m ch màng kh u cái trong các âm thanh / k /, / g / và / ạ ỉ ẩ
n /. Các ch màng kh u cái cũng có th di chuy n: n u nó làm ỉ ẩ ể ể ế
gi m, nó t o ra m t khe h cho phép không khí thoát ra ngoài ả ạ ộ ởqua l mũi; n u nó v n l n lên, vi c m c a b khóa, và không ỗ ế ẫ ớ ệ ở ử ịkhí có th l u thông qua mũi.ể ư
Lưỡi gàbài, đi u dangly nh m t sau c a vòm mi ng. Các lề ỏ ở ặ ủ ệ ưỡi gà rung trong âm r trong nhi u phề ương ng ti ng Pháp.ữ ế
Y t h uế ầ
khoang gi a g c c a lữ ố ủ ưỡi và các b c tứ ường c a h ng phía trên.ủ ọ
Lưỡi Tonguecác b m t ph ng c a lề ặ ẳ ủ ưỡi ch đ ng sau đ u.ỉ ứ ầ
C th Tongue / dorsumơ ể
ph n chính c a lầ ủ ưỡi, n m bên dằ ưới nh ng vòm mi ng c ng vàữ ệ ứ
m m. Các c th , đ c bi t là ph n sau c a c th (do đó ề ơ ể ặ ệ ầ ủ ơ ể
"dorsum", ti ng Latin "tr l i"), di chuy n đ làm cho các ế ở ạ ể ểnguyên âm và ph âm nhi u.ụ ề
Trang 5Th c ăn mà đi vào d dày và không ph i. M t vài ngôn ng s ứ ạ ổ ộ ữ ử
d ng trong n p thanh qu n làm cho âm thanh. Ti ng Anh là ụ ắ ả ếmay m n không ai trong s h ắ ố ọ
N p g p Vocal / dây thanhế ấ
n p mô tr i dài trên các đế ả ường hàng không vào ph i. H có thổ ọ ể rung đ ng v i nhau, cung c p nhi u c a âm thanh trong bài ộ ớ ấ ề ủphát bi u.ể
lượng lái xe mà nén không khí chúng ta s d ng đ t o ra âm ử ụ ể ạnói. Chúng tương t nh b t bi n l n, và kích thự ư ọ ể ớ ước và hình
d ng c a chúng đạ ủ ược quy t đ nh b i khung xế ị ở ương sườn bao quanh h , đ khi các xọ ể ương sườn được ép xu ng ph i đố ổ ược nén và khi các xương sườn được nâng lên ph i m r ng và đ yổ ở ộ ầ không khí. M c dù h n m gi m t s lặ ọ ắ ữ ộ ố ượng đáng k c a ể ủkhông khí (thường là vài lít, m c dù đi u này khác nhau r t ặ ề ấnhi u gi a các cá nhân), chúng tôi ch s d ng m t t l nh ề ữ ỉ ử ụ ộ ỷ ệ ỏtrong kh năng c a h khi nói chúng ta s th y nó r t m t ả ủ ọ ẽ ấ ấ ệ
m i n u chúng tôi ph i đi n vào và làm s ch ph i nh chúng ỏ ế ả ề ạ ổ ưtôi đã nói chuy n , và trong th c t nó là không th cho chúng ệ ự ế ểtôi đ có s n ph m nào c a chúng tôi hoàn toàn ph i.ể ả ẩ ủ ổ
Khoang mi ngệ
m t ph n c a mi ng phía sau răng và nộ ầ ủ ệ ướu răng là b ch n trênị ặ
b i kh u v c ng và m m và bên dở ẩ ị ứ ề ướ ủ ưỡi c a l i và màng nh y ầ
k t n i nó v i ph n bên trong c a hàm dế ố ớ ầ ủ ưới
Khoang mũikhoang hai bên c a vách ngăn mũi, kéo dài t mũi đ n c ở ủ ừ ế ổ
h ng, và n m gi a sàn c a h p s và vòm mi ng.ọ ằ ữ ủ ộ ọ ệ
Trang 6Producing a consonant involves making the vocal tract narrower at some location than it usually is. We call this narrowing a constriction. Which consonant you're pronouncing depends on where in the vocal tract the constriction is and how narrow it is. It also depends on a few other things, such as whether the vocal folds are vibrating and whether air is flowing through the nose
Voicing = voiced. (The vocal folds are vibrating.)
Places of articulation
The place of articulation (or POA) of a consonant specifies where in the vocal tract the narrowing occurs. From front to back, the POAs that English uses are:
Trang 7 still leaving enough space for a turbulent airstream to escape. This kind of θ and ð is often called interdental. The diagram to the right shows a typical interdental θ or ð
Trang 8Stops are consonants formed by completely stopping the flow of air somewhere in the vocal apparatus, and then releasing the air. Since the sudden release of the pentup air creates a small explosive sound, stops are also called
plosives. Stops may be voiced (vocal cords vibrating during the articulation of the stop) or voiceless (vocal cords not vibrating during the articulation of the stop). Here is a list of the stops in English t, d, k,g, p and b
Fricatives
In the stop t, the tongue tip touches the alveolar ridge and cuts off the airflow. In s, the tongue tip approaches the alveolar ridge but doesn't quite touch it. There is still enough of an opening for airflow to continue, but the opening is narrow enough that it causes the escaping air to become turbulent (hence the hissing sound of the s). In a fricative consonant, the articulators involved in the constriction approach get close enough to each other to create a turbulent airstream. The fricatives of English are f, v, , ð, s, z,θ ∫ and ʒ.
Approximants
In an approximant, the articulators involved in the constriction are further apart still than they are for a fricative. The articulators are still closer to each other than when the vocal tract is in its neutral position, but they are not even close enough to cause the air passing between them to become turbulent. The approximants of English are w, j, ,ɹ andl.
Affricates
An affricate is a single sound composed of a stop portion and a fricative portion. In English t∫, the airflow is first interrupted by a stop which is very similar to t (though made a bit further back). But instead of finishing the articulation quickly and moving directly into the next sound, the tongue pulls away from the stop slowly, so that there is a period of time immediately after the stop where the constriction is narrow enough to cause a turbulent airstream
In t∫, the period of turbulent airstream following the stop portion is the same as the fricative ∫. English dʒ is an affricate like t∫, but voiced
Laterals
Pay attention to what you are doing with your tongue when you say the first consonant of /li:f/ leaf. Your tongue tip is touching your alveolar ridge (or perhaps your upper teeth), but this doesn't make /l/ a stop. Air is still flowing during
an /l/ because the side of your tongue has dropped down and left an opening. (Some people drop down the right side of their tongue during an /l/; others drop down the left; a few drop down both sides.) Sounds which involve airflow around the side of the tongue are called laterals. Sounds which are not lateral are called central
/l/ is the only lateral in English. The other sounds of English, like most of the sounds of the world's languages, are central
More specifically, /l/ is a lateral approximant. The opening left at the side of the tongue is wide enough that the air flowing through does not become turbulent
Voicing
The voicing parameter specifies whether the vocal folds are vibrating. The vocal folds may be held against each other
at just the right tension so that the air flowing past them from the lungs will cause them to vibrate against each other. We call this process voicing. Sounds which are made with vocal fold vibration are said to be voiced. Sounds made without vocal fold vibration are said to be voiceless
There are several pairs of sounds in English which differ only in voicing that is, the two sounds have identical places and manners of articulation, but one has vocal fold vibration and the other doesn't. The θ of thigh and the ð of thy are one such pair. The others are:
Trang 9Voiceless p t k f θ s ∫ t∫
The other sounds of English do not come in voiced/voiceless pairs. h is voiceless, and has no voiced counterpart. The other English consonants are all voiced: ɹ, l, w, j, m, n,and ŋ
Brief descriptions of English consonants
Voicing ArticulationPlace of ArticulationManner of Spelling
/p/ voiceless bilabial stop / plosive
/t/ voiceless alveolar stop/plosive It is spelt with t: toe, with tt: cutter or withth: Thomas, Thames
/d/ voiced alveolar stop/plosive It is spelt d: read or dd: adder
/k/ voiceless velar stop/plosive
In a number of proper names or common nouns originating in proper names ch is
read /dʒ/: Norwich, Greenwich, S/sandwich.
Another spelling can be dg in words like ridgeor edge.
/m/ voiced bilabial nasal It can be spelt with m or mm: come, common
/n/ voiced alveolar nasal It is spelt n or nn: dean, annual.
/ŋ/ voiced velar nasal This phoneme has a limited distribution: it always precedes the voiceless velar plosive or occurs in syllablefinal position in front of an elided /g/: tank, ankle, sing, long.
/f/ voiceless labiodental fricative The sound can be spelt f: fine, fringe, feud, loaf, stifle, ff: effort, snuff, ph: physics,
Trang 10/s/ voiceless alveolar fricative
It is spelt s, ss or c in front of e, i or y: sour, say, hiss, assign, ceiling, cellar, cigarette, precise, cypress, bicycle.
/ʒ/ voiced postalveolar fricative
It can be spelt either s when followed by u: visual or i: decision, or z if followed
by u:seizure or ge: massage, espionage.
In words like casual the alternative pronunciation /zj/ is possible, while in other cases
the fricative is replaced by the affricate /dʒ/ (e.g. garage).
/ɹ/ voiced retroflex approximant The sound is spelt r: rain, ring or rr: carry, marry
/j/ voiced palatal approximant The sound may be spelt y (as in year) while in words spelt with u, ue, ui, ew,
cf. calf, calves; the lateral sound is not pronounced.
/h/ voiceless glottal fricative The conservative spelling of English has preserved the letter h after r in words of
Greek origin where no h sound or aspiration is heard nowadays: rhapsody, rhetoric, rheumatism, rhinal, rhinoceros, rhombus, rhyme, rhythm.
Trang 11C. The most basic activity in phonology is phonemic analysis.
D. A large number of phonologists have believed that it is necessary to go beyond phonemic analysis.
Trang 14Vowels are the class of sound which makes the least obstruction to the flow of air. They are almost always found at the centre of a syllable, and it is rare to find any sound other than a vowel which is able to stand alone as
a whole syllable
Classification of vowels
The classification of vowels is based on five major aspects: tongue height, tongue backness, lip rounding, vowel length and the tenseness of the articulators
These classifications are quite relative, as different languages have different canonical tongue heights for different classifications
Trang 15Tongue Backness
The second aspect of vowel classification that you will be introduced to is that of tongue backness. Vowels are classified in terms of how far the raised body of the tongue is from the back of the mouth, which is called the backness of the tongue
There are three primary height distinctions among vowels: front, back, and central
In English, examples of front vowels are /w/, /i:/, /e/, /æ/. These vowels are articulated relatively forward in the mouth. Examples of back vowels are //, /u:/, /Y:/, /Z/, /]:/. These vowels are articulated relatively far back in the mouth Examples of central vowels are /∂/, /f:/, / /. These are vowels whose tongue positions are roughly between the front and back vowels
These classifications, like the tongue heights, are quite relative, as different languages have different canonical tongue backnesses for different classifications
As illustration of tongue backness, observe the following diagrams for the vowels /w/, /u:/
As you can see from the diagrams, the articulation of the front vowel /i:/ is much farther forward than that for the back vowel /u:/
Lip Rounding
Another aspect of vowel classification is the presence or absence of lip rounding. Some vowels, such as the vowels /u:/ and /]:/, are formed with a high degree of lip rounding. Such vowels are called rounded vowels. Some vowels, such as /i:/ and /e/, are formed without such rounding, and are called unrounded vowels
Vowel Length
Vowel length is the length of time it takes to pronounce the vowel. We can measure this length in centiseconds hundredths of a second
Short English vowels: /w/, / /, /æ/, /Z/, /e/, /∂/, / /
Long English vowels: /i:/, /u:/, /Y:/, /]:/, /f:/
Some languages, like English, vary the lengths of their vowels according to certain rules. Below you can see the typical or average length of some of the vowels in English
As we will see, there is not a clearcut long/short distinction. Typically, each vowel has its own length, with for
Trang 16Tense vs. Lax
Another aspect of vowel classification is commonly characterized in terms of the tenseness or laxness of the articulators. Some vowels, such as the vowels /i:/ and /e/, are formed with a high degree of tenseness. Such vowels are called tense vowels. Some vowels, such as /∂/ and / /, are formed without a high degree of tenseness, and are called lax vowels
The general rule is:
lax vowels (/w/, / /, /æ/, /Z/, /e/, /∂/, / /) are short.
tense (/i:/, /u:/, /Y:/, /]:/, /f:/) vowels (including diphthongs: /ew/, /aw/, /]w/, /∂ /,/a/ , /w∂/, / ∂/, /ε ∂/) are
variable in length, and often longer than lax vowels
English vowel charts
Trang 17(Source: University of Stirling, Centre for English Language Teaching)
Descriptions of the English simple (“pure”) vowels
e: economy, remark ee: eel, see, feet, ea: each, seal, pleaie: fiend
ei: seizing i: machineey: key ay: quayeo: peopleoe: Oedipus eau: Beauchamp/w/
i: ill, ticky: syntax, partyu: minutea: privateo: womenay: Friday (a reduced unstressed vowel)/e/
u: under, buto: come, front, honeyou: courage, southern, rough, toughoo: blood, flood
Trang 18unstressed syllables:aside, collide, rather
The reduced form of any simple vowel or
even diphthong (seefatality, above) in
English and can consequently be rendered in writing by any vowel letter with the
exception of y which only represents the semivowel j or the vowel i
ir: birdur: burner: fernyr: myrtleear: learnour: journey, journal, scourge
ar: jar, carpetal: palm, calm, balm
af (ff): after, staffass: pass, classath: path, bath
as or an followed by another consonant: past, demandExceptionally, other letters: aunt, Berkeley, hearth, father, sergeant, memoir , barrage
a: water, wrath//
u: push, cushion, pull, puto: wolf, Worcesteroo: look, book, footou: would, could, should
/u:/ the highest back vowel of
English. It is a long, tense,
rounded vowel
initial, medial and final: oom, oomph, ooze, ugh, uhlan;
rude, baboon, crew, chew,
u: rule, music, mutiny, delugeui: suit, fruit
o: to, who, ado
Trang 19oo: root, taboo ou: route, through, routine, douche oe: shoe, canoe, manoeuvreeau: beauty
eu: feu
English Diphthongs
Classification of diphthongs
Diphthongs are described as sequences of two vowels pronounced together, the two vocalic elements being members of the same syllable. The most important feature of a diphthong is that it contains a glide from one vowel quality to another one. According to the position of the more prominent element in the diphthong we can divide diphthongs into falling diphthongs – if the prominent element comes first – and rising diphthongs – if the less prominent element comes first. All English diphthongs belong to the first category. Diphthongs can then be opening
if the degree of aperture increases with the glide or closing if the less prominent vowel is closer than the first. We can also differentiate between wide diphthongs – those in which the glide implies a more radical movement of the speech organs and narrow diphthongs – if the two vocalic elements occupy neighbouring positions on the vowel chart. There are also centring diphthongs – if the glide is from a marginal vowel in the vowel chart – either back or front to a central vowel To make it simple, we can say that there are three diphthongs ending in / w/ (/ew/, /aw/, /]w/), two ending in /∂/ (/w∂/, / ∂/, / ∂ε /) and three ending in / / (/∂ /, /a /)
air: air, fair, chair, dairy, fairyare: fare, mare, care, careear: bear, wear, tear (v.) aer: aerial, aeroplane ere: there
eir: their, heiray: prayer, layer, mayor/ ∂/
a centring, falling, narrow,
opening diphthong only in word medial: jewel or wordfinal position:sure
ure: endure, mature, cure, pureoor: poor, moor
ou: gourd, bo/w∂/ a centring, falling, narrow,
opening diphthong initial, medial and final: ear, deer, tier eer: deer, peer
b: ear, weary, idea, tear, beardeir: weird
Trang 20
ier: fierce, pierceere: here, mereia: media(l), labia(l), genialeu: museum
iu: deliriumeo: theory, theology e: hero, serious, serial
i: ice, dime, loci y: dyke, fly ie: die, lie, pie ye: dye, fye ei: height, either, neitheruy: in buy, guy
Note also the pronunciation of ay(e) /aı/, eye /aı/ and aisle /aıl/
et or é: ballet, bouquet, chalet, café, fiancé, attaché, resumé
Exceptionally, there are spellings like gaol, bass, gauge, halfpenny
o: old, sold, nooa: oak, roastoe: toeow: own, known, row ou: poultry, dough eau: beau, bureau au: gaucheoo: broochew: sewoh: oh/a/
Trang 21Some sounds that are phonetically different nevertheless sound the same to English speakers, e.g. [t] and [th], [l] and [|], [p] and [ph]. Similar groups of sounds can be found for any human language. Such
a group of phones that sound alike to a speaker of a language represent a phoneme: a purely psychological entity that a speaker considers to be a single sound, even though it may have various phonetic shapes, or allophones
Definitions
a. phone: a physical language sound, measurable by acoustic instruments
b. phoneme: a language sound as it is perceived by a speaker
c. allophone: a phone in complementary distribution with other allophones that are related to the same phoneme
A phonemic (or broad) transcription shows the sequence of phonemes that a native speaker perceives in the speech stream, while a phonetic (or narrow) transcription shows (in greater or lesser detail) the actual phones that occur in the speech stream
o Designated in brackets [ ]
o The different phones that are the realizations of one phoneme
o Predictable
o Phonetic variants of a phoneme
Trang 22always occurs when it is the syllable onset and followed by a stressed vowel (as in the word pin). [p] occurs in all other situations (as in the wordspin).
Complementary distribution is an indication that the sounds in question areallophones of the same phoneme.
There are cases where elements are in complementary distribution, but are not considered
allophones. For example in English [h] and [[ŋ] (engma, written as "ng" in English) are in complementary distribution, since [h] only occurs at the beginning of a syllable and [ŋ] only at the end. But because they have so little in common they are still considered separate phonemes
Contrastive distribution
Contrastive distribution means that the sounds are distributed in the data in a way that distinguishes one word from another. For example the sounds /p/ and /k/ are in contrastive distribution in English in
different meanings. Thus in English 'fairy' /'fε∂ w/ and 'fairly' /f ∂ε lw/ make a minimal pair and prove that /‹/ and /l/ are separate, contrasting phonemes
Sometimes an exact minimal pair contrasting two phonemes does not exist in a language. Linguists then look for near minimal pairs
In a near minimal pair only the sounds surrounding the phonemes are identical. Could you come up with a minimal pair for / ,∫ ¥/? A near minimal pair for these phonemes is mission,
vision: /'mw ∂∫ n/ /'vi¥∂n'/
Distinctive Features
In any language it seems that the sounds used will only differ from each other in a small number of ways. If for example a language had 40 phonemes, then in theory each of those 40 could be utterly different from the other 39. However, in practice there will usually be just a small set of important
differences: some of the sounds will be vowels and some consonants; some of the consonants will be plosives and affricates, and the rest will be continuants; some of the continuants will be nasal and some not, and so on. These differences are identified by phonologists, and are known as distinctive features. There is disagreement about how to define the features (e.g. whether they should be labelled according
to articulatory characteristics or acoustic ones), and about how many features are needed in order to be able to classify the sounds of all the languages in the world
Major class features
These features represent the classes: consonant, obstruent, nasal, liquid, glide, and vowel
[± consonantal]
Sounds which are [+ consonantal] are those which have some kind of constriction along the center of the vocal tract. This constriction must be at least as narrow as that required for a fricative. Examples: [p] [b] [s] [z] [t∫] [¥]
[± sonorant]
Sounds which are [+sonorant] are those which are produced with a constriction in the vocal tract that allows the air pressure both behind and in front of the constriction to be relatively equal. This feature generally divides the sound system into sonorants ([+sonorant] sounds), which are nasals,
approximants, glides, and vowels, and obstruents ([sonorant] sounds), which are oral stops, fricatives, and affricates
Trang 23Sounds which are [+constricted glottis] are those which are produced with the vocal folds drawn together and tense
Trang 24Sounds which are [+nasal] are produced with nasal airflow
[±lateral]
Sounds which are [+lateral] are produced with airflow passing through one or both sides of the tongue, which is in contact with the central part of the oral cavity
Trang 25Onset: the beginning sounds of the syllable; the ones preceding the nucleus. These are always
consonants in English. The nucleus is a vowel in most cases, although the consonants [ r ], [ l ], [ m ], [ n ], and the velar nasal (the 'ng' sound) can also be the nucleus of a syllable. In the following words, the onset is in bold; the rest underlined
Rhyme Core of a syllable, consisting of a nucleus and coda (see below) Obligatory
Trang 26The syllable structure analysis of the words 'read', 'flop', 'strap' and 'window' are as follows (IPA symbols are used to show the sounds in the word/syllable):
Trang 27Liquids and nasals as syllable nuclei
The English liquids [ ‹ l ] and the nasals [ m n ] can be the nuclei of syllables under certain conditions. [ l ] can be a nucleus as easily as a vowel. For example, the words 'table', 'little', both have [ l ] as the nucleus; in other words, there is no vowel in the pronunciation of these syllables
When one of these sounds is a syllable nucleus, this is shown in transcription by putting a very short vertical line under the IPA symbol:
CCVprygrowfree
CCCVscrewspraystrayVCC
old
and
ink
VCCCOldsantsamps
CVCCCtesttenthslunged
CVCCCCthirststextsworldsCVC
bed
set
cap
CCVCbreddreadstone
CVCCbaldsandhunt
CCVCCbrandtrainsswingsCCCVC
strut
squat
sprain
CCCVCCstrutssquatssprained
CCVCCCslurpsprintsflirts
CCCVCCCscrimpssprintssquelched
Phonotactic constraints
All languages except sign languages use sequences of phones to make words. No languages allow sounds to combine freely. That is, there are always constraints on what phones any particular phone can precede and follow. These constraints are calledphonotactic constraints. The sum total of all the phonotactic constraints of a language is called its phonotactics
o In any syllableinternal sequence of a nasal and a stop, the nasal and the stop must have the same place of articulation:
o In any 2consonant onset, the second consonant must be a sonorant
Trang 28[stj] stew
[kl] clean[kr] cream[kw] queen[kj] cute[skl] sclerosis[skr] scrap[skw] squeak[skj] skewer
Trang 31You may have noticed that English speakers don't separate all their words like in some languages, but instead they connect them together. This is called linking, or liaison, and it is important for listening comprehension. It is
especially crucial when pronouncing the final sounds on words, for example making the plural or the past tense ed. Following are the common cases of linking in English
Linking consonant to vowel
Rule 1
When a word ends in two consonants and the next begins with a vowel, the final consonant sounds like the initial consonant of the following word:
Trang 32If the consonants (whether or stop or not) are identical, the consonant is somewhat lengthened, the two consonants are not articulated separately:
Trang 33Progressive assimilation
In progressive assimilation the conditioning sound precedes and affects the following sound. Examples of
progressive assimilation in English are the regular plural /s/ vs. /z/ alternation, in which the final sound of the stem conditions the voiced or voiceless form of the suffix. This type of assimilation also occurs in the regular past tense /t/
vs. /d/ alternation:
Conditioning sound
s ending bags backs
d ending moved fished
Assimilated sound
/bæg z/ → /bæk s/ →
/mu:v d/ → /fw∫ t/ →
For the plusal s ending, the voiced /g/ of bags conditions the voiced from of the s ending, causing it to be
pronounced /z/, whereas the voiceless /k/ of backs conditions the /s/ pronunciation of the ending. Notice the same
type of conditioning occurs in the d endings
Progressive assimilation also occurs in some contractions (e.g., it + is → it’s / it + iz → its). Most of the progressive assimilation in English occurs at the intersection of phonology and morphology
have /hæv/
has /hæz/
used /ju:zd/
+ to + /tu:/
+ to + /tu:/
+ to + /tu:/
hæs ju:s
← Conditioning sound
← t
← t
← tAnother clear example of regressive assimilation is reflected in the English spelling system namely, in the four
allomorphic variants of the negative prefix. Note that the unmarked allomorph in occurs in all cases except when the subsequent sound is a bilabial or a liquid: indecent, inept, invalid. In the case of im, the initial bilabial sound of the
im
impossible imbalanced immeasurable immobile impartial
il
illogical illegal illegitimate illegible illiberal
As exemplified by the negative allomorphs il and ir, assimilated sounds often become identical to the conditioning sound
Coalescent assimilation
Trang 34second sound in a sequence come together and mutually condition the creation a third sound with features from both original sounds
This process occurs most frequently in English when final alveolar consonants such as /s, z/ and /t, d/ or final
alveolar consonant sequences such as /ts, dz/ are followed by initial palatal /j/. They then become palatalized
fricatives and affricates, respectively:
Within words, the /j/ sound (which is generally in an unstressed syllable) may be the initial sound of a suffix or the subsequent bound part of the word (e.g., ure, ion, ious); across words, the /j/ sound comes from a second word beginning in /j/, typically you or your. This type of assimilation is often referred to as palatalization
forms is the voiced flap [] and not the voiced stop [d]. Flapping is considered a type of assimilation since it results in voicing and sonority being maintained throughout a sequence of segments
Dissimilation
The process of dissimilation occurs when adjacent sounds become more different from each other (rather than more similar, as is the case with assimilation). It is rare in English and not an active process. Some texts cite the
pronunciation of the final cluster offifths as [fts] as an example of dissimilation (i.e., of [f s] to [fts]), which reflects a θtendency in some English dialects to break up a sequence of three fricatives by replacing the second with a stop. In English, the process of dissimilation can be ignored for pedagogical purposes
Deletion
An even more radical form of adjustment in connected speech is deletion (also known as elision, ellipsis, or
omission): the process whereby sounds disappear or are not clearly articulated in certain contexts. In some cases, the spelling system of English is sensitive to this phenomenon, representing deletion in the contracted form of auxiliary verbs plus not (e.g. isn’t). In other cases, however, deletion occurs without any acknowledgment in the
Trang 35In rapid or informal native speaker speech, deletion occasionally occurs in twosyllable words such as the following, which are reduced tone syllable:
correct, parade, police, suppose, garage
Related to this type of deletion is loss of an unstressed initial vowel or syllable in highly informal speech, a process known as aphesis:
Assimilation
plate + {z}= /plewts/
bag + {z} = /bægz/
Epenthesis place + {z}= /pleis z/ ə buzz + {z} = /bz әz/
Finally, there are also cases of consonant epenthesis in English. Often words like princeand tense, which ending