Giáo trình Translation 1 và 2 pptx

Translation, then, consists of studying the lexicon, grammatical structure, communication situation, and cultural context of the source language text, analyzing it in order to determine

HUE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH

INTRODUCTION

An increasing number of universities in Vietnam have added courses in translation to their curricula; however, the textbooks available for such courses are few This unit has been written with these courses in mind The unit is designed to provide the learners with some basic principles of translation which will be generally useful to translation courses in universities and colleges, to help the learners avoid some errors they may encounter when they translate a text, to provide the learners with essential English sentence patterns that could be very useful for the learners in learning and practicing translating and to provide the learners 20 assignments related to the theory they have learned

The desire of the author is to make available the principles of translation which have learned through personal experience in translation and teaching translation, and through interaction with colleagues involved in translation projects in many universities in Central Vietnam Since it is assumed that the students will be speakers of Vietnamese language, many of these exercises involve translating from or into their mother tongue The material is presented in a way that it can be used in a self-teaching situation or in a classroom An attempt has been made to keep technical terms to a minimum When technical vocabulary is used, every effort

is made to clarify the meaning of such vocabulary or to provide its meaning in Vietnamese This has been done so that the unit can be used by any student translator, even though his exposure to linguistic and translation theory has been minimal

This is an introductory unit The lessons give an overview presenting the fundamental principles of translation and the rest of the unit illustrates these principles The overriding principle is that translation is meaning-based rather than form-based Once the learner has identified the meaning of the source text, his goal is to express that same meaning in the receptor/target language Many examples of cross-language equivalence are used to illustrate this principle

Since the coursebook has been written for the students to learn either by themselves in their distant learning course or in class with a teacher, there will be a coursebook and 20 assignments

By the end of the course, the students will be able to:

1 obtain general knowledge of the principles of translation

2 get familiar with and effectively use the English sentence patterns in their translations

On the completion of this coursebook, I would like to express my deep gratitude to Dr Ton

Nu Nhu Huong for her encouragement I would also like to be grateful to Dr Tran Van Phuoc and other colleagues of the College of Foreign Languages and the English Department for their kind help

Errors are unavoidable in this coursebook Therefore, I appreciate and welcome any criticism

on the course book

Hue, June 24th, 2001

Nguyen Van Tuan

CHAPTER 1: THEORY OF TRANSLATION

LESSON 1: FORM AND MEANING

1.What is translation?

1.1 Translation is the expression in another language (target language) of what has been expressed in one language (source language), preserving semantic and stylistic equivalencies (By Roger T Bell)

1.2 Translation is the replacement of a representation of a text in one language by a representation of an equivalent text in a second language (By Roger T Bell)

The author continues and makes the problems of equivalence very plain:

Texts in different languages can be equivalent in different degrees (fully or partially different), in respect of different levels of presentation (in respect of context, of semantics, of grammar, of lexis, etc.) and at different ranks (word-for-word, phrase-for-phrase, sentence- for-sentence)

However, languages are different from each other; they are different in form having different codes and rules regulating the construction of grammatical stretches of language and these forms have different meanings

To shift from one language to another is, by definition, to change the forms Also, the contrasting forms convey meanings which cannot but fail to coincide totally; there is no absolute synonym between words in the same language, why should anyone be surprised to discover a lack synonym between languages

Something is always „lost‟ (or might one suggest „gain‟?) in the process and translators can find themselves being accused of reproducing only part of the original and so „betraying‟ the author‟s intentions Hence the traitorous nature ascribed to the translator by the notorious Italian proverb: “ Traduttore traditore”

Faced by a text in a language, we are able to work out not only the meaning of each word and sentence but also its communicative value, its place in time and space and information about the participants involved in its production and reception We might take, as a light-hearted model of the questions we can ask of the text, the first verse of a short poem by Kipling

I keep six honest serving men;

(They taught me all I knew);

Their names were What? And Why? And When?

And How? And Where? And Who?

What? is the message contained in the text; the content of the signal

Why? orients us towards the intention of the sender, the purpose for which the text was is

used (Informing, persuading, flattering, etc.)

When? is concerned with the time of communication realized in the text and setting in its

historical context; contemporary or set in the recent or remote past or future

Where? is concerned with the place of communication, the physical location of the speech

event realized in the text

How? refers to whether the text is written in a formal or informal way

Who? refers to the participants involved in the communication; the sender and receiver

1.3 Translation is rendering a written text into another language in a way that the author intended the text (By Bui Tien Bao- Hanoi National University)

“ Translators are concerned with written texts They render written texts from one language into another language Translators are required to translate texts which arrange from simple items including birth certificates or driving licences to more complex written materials such as articles in journals of various kinds, business contracts and legal documents.” (Bui Tien Bao- Hanoi National University)

1.4 Translation, by dictionary definition, consists of changing from one state or form to another, to turn into one‟s own or another‟s language (The Merriam-Webster Dictionary, 1974) Translation is basically a change of form When we speak of the form of a language,

we are referring to the actual words, phrases, sentences, paragraphs, etc The forms are referred to as the surface structure of a language It is the structural part of language which is actually seen in print or heard in speech In translation the form of the source language is replaced by the form of the receptor/target language But how is this change accomplished? What determines the choices of form in the translation?

The purpose of this lesson is to show that translation consists of transferring the meaning of the source language into the receptor language This is done by going from the form of the first language to the form of the second language by a way of semantic structure It is meaning that is being transferred and must be held constant Only the form changes The form from which the translation is made will be called the source language and the form into which it is

to be changed will be called the receptor language Translation, then, consists of studying the lexicon, grammatical structure, communication situation, and cultural context of the source language text, analyzing it in order to determine its meaning, and then reconstructing this same meaning using the lexicon, grammatical structure which are appropriate in the receptor language and its cultural context

Let us look at an example Assume that we are translating the Vietnamese sentence ‘‘ Cám

ơn bạn đã giúp đỡ tôi tận tình.’’ into English This Vietnamese sentence has the verb ‘giúp đỡ tận tình’, but to convey the same meaning in English one would use a noun phrase: „ your kind help‟ To do effective translation one must discover the meaning of the source language and use the receptor language forms which express the meaning in a natural way

It is the purpose of this unit to familiarize the learners with the basic linguistic and sociolinguistic factors involved in translating a text from a source language into a receptor language, and to give them enough practice in the translation process for the development of skills in cross-language transfer

2 Characteristics of language which affect translation

There are certain characteristics of languages which have a very direct bearing on principles

of translation First, let us look at the characteristics of meaning components Meaning

components are packaged into lexical items, but they are packaged differently in one

language than in another In most languages there is a meaning of plurality, for example the English -s This often occurs in the grammar as a suffix on the nouns or verbs or both In Vietnamese, however, plurality is expressed in an isolated word ‘ nh‚ng/c¸c’ Many times a single word in the source language will need to be translated by several words For example, a projector was called the thing that shows pictures on the wall by the Chipara Bolivia

Second, it is characteristic of languages that the same meaning component will occur in several surface structure lexical items In English, the word „sheep‟ occurs However, the words „lamb‟,‟ ram‟ and „ewe‟ also include the meaning „sheep‟ They include the addition meaning components of young (in „lamb‟, adult and male in „ ram‟ and adult and female in

„ewe‟ In Peru, „lamb‟ would need to be translated by „sheep its child‟, „ram‟ by „ sheep big‟ and „ewe‟ by „sheep its woman‟

Third, it is further characteristic of language that one form will be used to represent several alternative meanings This again is obvious from looking in any good dictionary For example, the Reader‟s Digest Great Encyclopedic Dictionary gives 54 meanings for the English word

„run‟ Most words have more than one meaning There will be a primary meaning-the one which usually comes to mind when the word is said in isolation-and the secondary meaning-the additional meanings, which a word has in context with other words In English, we can say

„ the boy runs‟, using „run‟ in its primary meaning We can also say „ the motor runs, the river runs, and his nose runs‟, using runs in its secondary meanings

This principle is not limited to lexical items for it is also true that the same grammatical pattern may express several quite different meanings For instance, the English possessive phrase „my house‟ may mean „the house I built‟, „ the house I rent‟, „the house I live in‟, or the house for which I drew up in my plans.‟ Only the larger context determines the meaning Notice the following possessive phrases and the variety of meanings:

my car ownership

my brother kinship

my foot part-whole

my singing action

my book ownership or authorship

( the book I own, or, the book I wrote)

my village residence

( the village where I live)

my train use

(the train I ride on) Whole sentences may also have several functions A question form may be used for a non-question For example, the question: “ Mary, why don‟t you wash the dishes?” has a form of a question, and may in some context be asking for information, but it is often used with the meaning of command rather than a real question A simple English sentence like “ He made the bed.” May mean either “He made (as a carpenter would make) the bed”, or “ He put the sheets, blanket, and pillows in neat order on the bed.”

Just as words have primary and secondary meanings, so grammatical markers have their primary function and often have other secondary functions The preposition „on‟ is used in English to signal a variety of meanings Compare the following uses of „on‟ with the corresponding form used in Vietnamese

John found the book on the floor John t×m thÊy cuèn s¸ch trªn sµn

Compare also the following uses of ‘ by’

John was stopped by the policeman

John was stopped by the bookstand

In the first, by is used to signal the meaning that the policeman is the agent of the action In the second, by is used to signal that the bookstand is the location

We have seen that one form may express many meanings On the other hand, another characteristic of languages is that a single meaning may be expressed in a variety of forms

For example, the meaning “ the cat is black” may be expressed by the following: the cat is

black, the black cat, and, the cat, which is black, depending on how that meaning relates to

other meanings In addition, the meanings of “ Is this place taken?” “Is there anyone sitting

here?” and “ May I sit here?” are essentially the same Also, the meaning is essentially the

same in the following English sentences:

Others blamed John because of the difficulty

Others blamed John for the difficulty

Others blamed the difficulty on John

Others said John was responsible for the difficulty

Others accused John of being responsible for the difficulty

We have seen that even within a single language there are a great variety of ways in which form expresses meaning Only when a form being used in its primary meaning or function is there a one-to-one correlation between form and meaning The other meanings are secondary meanings or figurative meanings Words have these extended meanings and in the same way grammatical forms have extended usages (secondary and figurative function)

This characteristic of “skewing”; that is, the diversity or the lack of one-to-one correlation

between form and meaning is the basic reason that translation is a complicated task If there

were no skewing, then all lexical items and all grammatical forms would have only one meaning and a literal word-for-word and grammatical structure-for- grammatical structure translation would be possible But the fact is that a language is a complex set of skewed relationship between meaning (semantics) and form (lexicon and grammar) Each language has its own distinctive forms for representing the meaning Therefore, in translation the same meaning may have to be expressed in another language by a very different form

To translate the form of one language literally according to the corresponding form in another language would often change the meaning or at least result in a form which is unnatural in the second language Meaning must, therefore, have priority over form in translation It is meaning that is to be carried over from the source language to the receptor language, not the

linguistic forms For example, to translate the English sentence “ he is cold hearted” i.e His heart is cold (meaning „he is unfeeling, has no emotional sympathy.‟) literally into Mambila in Nigeria would be understood to mean, “ he is peaceful, not quick-tempered.” And if translated literally into Cinyanja in Zambia, it would mean, “ he is frightened.”

The nature of language is that each language uses different forms and these forms have secondary and figurative meanings which add further complications A word-for-word translation which follows closely the form of the source language is called a literal translation

A literal translation does not communicate the meaning of the source text It is generally no more than a string of words intended to help someone read a text in its original language It is unnatural and hard to understand, and may even be quite meaningless, or give a wrong meaning in the receptor language It can hardly be called a translation The goal of a translator should be to produce a receptor language text (a translation) which is idiomatic; that is one which has the same meaning as the source language but is expressed in the natural form of the receptor language The meaning, not form is retained

The following is a literal translation of a story first told in the Quiche language of Guatemala:

“It is said that being one man not from here, not known where the his or the he comes where One day the things he walks in a plantation or in them the coastlands, he saw his appearance one little necklace, or he thought that a little necklace the very pretty thrown on the ground in the road He took the necklace this he threw in his mouth for its cause that coming the one person another to his behind ness, for his that not he encounters the one the following this way in his behindness not he knows and that the necklace the he threw in his mouth this one

snake and the man this one died right now because not he knows his appearance the snake or that the he ate this not this a necklace only probably this snake.”

Now compare the above with the following less literal translation of the same story:

“ It is said that there once was a man not from here, and I do not know his town or where he

came from, who one day was walking in a plantation (or in the coastlands) He saw a little necklace, or rather, what he thought was a very pretty little necklace, lying on the road He grabbed this necklace and threw this into his mouth because there was someone coming along behind him, and he did not want the other person to see it He did not know that the necklace

he threw into his mouth was really a snake The man died in short order because he did not recognize from its appearance that it was a snake He did not know that what he had put in his mouth was not a necklace, but rather a snake.”

In the first, each quiche word was replaced by the nearest English equivalent The result was nonsense In the second translation, the natural forms of English lexicon and grammar were used to express the meaning of the Quiche story Below the story is again rewritten in a more idiomatic English style

“I am told that there once was a stranger from some other town who was walking in a

plantation along the coast As he walked along he suddenly saw a very pretty little necklace lying on the road He snatched up this necklace and threw this into his mouth because there was another person walking behind him and he did not want him to see the necklace The stranger did not know that the necklace was really a snake The man died immediately He died because he did not realize that it was a snake He did not know he put a snake into his mouth rather than a necklace.”

Anything which can be said in one language can be said in another It is possible to translate The goal of the translator is to keep the meaning constant Wherever necessary, the receptor language form should be changed in order that the source language meaning should not be distorted Since a meaning expressed by a particular form in one language may be expressed

by quite a different form in another language, it is often necessary to change the form when translating

3 Notes

Form-based translation: dÞch dùa vµo h×nh thøc hay cÊu tróc

Meaning-based translation: dÞch dùa vµo nghÜa, dùa vµo néi dung cÇn chuyÓn t¶i

Source language: ng«n ng÷ gèc

Receptor language: ng«n ng÷ dÞch

Context: v¨n c¶nh/ ng÷ c¶nh

Principle of translation: nguyªn t¾c dÞch/kü thuËt dÞch

Meaning component: thµnh tè nghÜa

Lexical: (thuộc về) từ vựng

Surface structure: cấu trúc bề mặt

Deep structure: cấu trúc sâu/cấu trúc ngữ nghĩa

Meaning/ sense: nghĩa

Primary meaning: nghĩa chính/nghĩa gốc

Secondary meaning: nghĩa phái sinh

Literal translation: dịch từng từ một

One-to-one correlation: quan hệ một đối một

Figurative meaning: nghĩa bóng

Function: chức năng

Idiomatic translation: dịch đúng, dịch sát nghiã

4 Self-study

4.1 Questions for discussion

1 What is translation? What definition do you think is the most appropriate? Can you give your own definition of translation?

2 What is a literal translation? Can you give some examples of literal translations?

3 What is an idiomatic translation? Give some examples of idiomatic translations

4 What characteristics of language affect translation?

5 What are the secondary meanings? Give ten sentences, each of which contains a word used

Example: They robbed the old man

The old man was dropped by them

Answer: Change of form

1 The students like to study translation

The students like studying translation

2 I bought a pair of horseshoes

I bought a pair of leather shoes

3 He saw the bird

He heard the cat

4 Phillip went walking

Phillip took a walk

5 Go to bed

I want you to go to bed

6 I came; I saw; I conquered

I came, saw, and conquered

7 Two weeks later he came

After two weeks he came

8 There is a table in the book

There is a book on the table

9 The young man had an English grammar book stolen

An English grammar book was stolen from the young man

10 He was awaken by a thunderclap

A thunderclap awakened him

B List as many grammatical forms as you can which realize the same meaning as the one given below Then put the same meaning into a language other than English in as many forms

as you can

Example: the cat is black

the black cat the cat, which is black

1 the jug water

2 John bought a car

Example: The man‟s car - the man owns the car

The man‟s eye - the eye is part of the man

1 the doctor‟s office

2 the doctor‟s patient

3 the doctor‟s book

4 the doctor‟s brother

5 the doctor‟s hand

6 the doctor‟s house

D For each pair of sentences, state whether the two sentences are 1 the same in meaning or

2 different in meaning

Example:

(a) It rained all night

(b) Rain fell all night

(a) There is a book on the table

(b) There is a table on the book

1 (a) John was very surprised when he heard the news

(b) The news very much amazed John when he heard it

2 (a) It was a hot day

(b) The day was hot

3 (a) Peter‟s house

(b) The house that belongs to Peter

4 (a) He remained silent

(b) He did not say anything

5 (a) I bought cloth to make Mary a new dress

(b) I bought a new dress for Mary

6 (a) I bought vegetables in the market

(b) I bought tomatoes and onions in the market

7 (a) My parents are well

(b) My mother and father are well

8 (a) John is ill: he has a bad case of malaria

(b) John is very ill indeed

9 (a) There are four rooms in the house

(b) The house has four rooms and a kitchen at the back

10 (a) In my opinion, the government is doing well and making many improvements in the country But there are many people who do not agree that this is so

(b) Opinions are divided concerning the government Some say they are doing well and making many improvements in the country Others do not agree

LESSON 2: KINDS OF TRANSLATION

1 Literal versus idiomatic

Because a given text has both form and meaning, as discussed in the previous lesson, there are two main kinds of translation One is form-based and the other is meaning-based Form-based translations attempt to follow the form of the source language and are known as literal translation Meaning-based translations make every effort to communicate the meaning of the source language text in the natural forms of the receptor language Such translations are called idiomatic translations

An interlinear translation is a completely literal translation For some purposes, it is desirable

to reproduce the linguistic features of the source text, as for example, in a linguistic study of that language Although these literal translations may be very useful for purposes related to the study of the source language, they are of little help to speakers of the receptor language who are interested in the meaning of the source language text A literal translation sounds like nonsense and has little communication value For example:

Vietnamese: Mêi b¹n vÒ nhµ t«i ch¬i

Literal translation: Invite friend about house me play

This literal translation makes little sense in English The appropriate translation would be: Would you like to come to my home?

If the two languages are related, the literal translation can often be understood, since the general grammatical form may be similar However, the literal choice of lexical items may the translation sounds foreign The following bilingual announcement was overheard at an airport ( Barnwell 1980:18)

Literal English: Madame Odette passenger with destination Domda is demanded on the

telephone

This English version is a literal translation of the French

French: Madame Odette, passager µ destination de Domda, est demandeÐ au telefon

An idiomatic translation into English would be: Miss Odette, passenger for Domda You are

wanted on the phone

Except for interlinear translation, a truly literal translation is uncommon Most translators who tend to translate literally actually make a partially modified literal translation They modify the order and grammar enough to use acceptable sentence structure in the receptor language However, the lexical items are translated literally Occasionally, these are also changed to avoid complete nonsense or to improve the communication However, the result still does not sound natural Notice the following example from a language in Papua New Guinea:

Ro abombo ngusifu pamariboyandi

I my heart fastened-her (literal)

I fastened her in my heart (modified literal)

The modified literal translation changes the order into English structure However, the sentence still does not communicate in clear English An idiomatic translation would have used the form: “ I never forgot her.” Or “ I‟ve kept her memory in my heart.”

A person who translates in a modified literal manner will change the grammatical forms when the constructions are obligatory However, if he has a choice, he will follow the form of the source text even though a different form might be more natural in the receptor language Literal and modified literal translations consistently err in that they choose literal equivalents for the words, i.e lexical items being translated Literal translations of words, idioms result in unclear, unnatural, and sometimes nonsensical translations In a modified literal translation, the translator usually adjusts the translation enough to avoid the nonsense and wrong meanings, but the unnaturalness still remains

Idiomatic translations use the natural forms of the receptor language, both in the grammatical constructions and in the choice of lexical items A truly idiomatic translation does not sound like a translation It sounds like it was written originally in the receptor language Therefore, a good translator will try to translate idiomatically This is his goal However, translations are often a mixture of a literal transfer of the grammatical units along with some idiomatic translation of the meaning of the text It is not easy to consistently translate A translator may express some parts of his translation in very natural forms and then in other parts fall back into a literal form

In one translation, the source text said, ‘‘ Nhiều du khách n-ớc ngoài đã giới

thiệu cho chúng tôi về khách sạn H-ơng Giang.’’ It was translated, “ Many foreign tourists have introduced us about Huong Giang Hotel.” It would have been

translated idiomatically, “ Huong Giang Hotel has been recommended to us by a number of

foreign tourists.”

The translator‟s goal should be to reproduce in a receptor language a text which communicates the same message as the source language but using the natural grammatical and lexical choices of the receptor language The basic overriding principle is that an idiomatic translation reproduces the meaning of the source language in the natural form of the receptor language

2 Translating grammatical features

Parts of speech are language specific Each language has its own division of the lexicon into classes such as nouns, verbs, adjectives and so on Different languages will have different classes and subclasses It will not always be possible to translate a source language noun with

a noun in the receptor language For example, English has many nouns which really refer to actions while Vietnamese prefers to express actions as verbs rather than nouns

In one translation, the source text said, “ There is a general agreement that the government

has given top priority to education.” It was translated, ‘‘ Có một sự đồng ý chung rằng chính phủ đã dành nhiều sự -u tiên cho giáo dục’’ This would

have been translated idiomatically, ‘‘Ai cũng đồng ý rằng chính phủ đã dành nhiều -u tiên cho giáo dục.’’ Similarly, a translator in Papua New Guinea was asked to translate the Eight Point Improvement Plan for Papua New Guinea One point reads,

“Decentralization of economic activity, planning and government spending, with emphasis on

agricultural development, village industry, better internal trade, and more spending channeled through local and area bodies.” Such sentences are very difficult for translators

who want to translate into the native language of the country Words such as Decentralization,

activity, planning, government spending, emphasis development, trade would have to be

rendered by verbs in most languages When verbs are used, then, the appropriate subject and object of the verb may need to be made explicit also The form in the receptor language is very different from the source language form and yet this kind of adjustment, using verbs rather than using nouns, must be made in order to communicate the message An idiomatic translation was made which used verbs as in the following

“The government wants to decrease the work it does for businesses and what it plans and the

money it spends in the capital, and wants to increase what people and groups in local area do

to help farmers and small businesses whose owners live in the villages, and help people in this country buy and sell things made in this country and to help local groups spend the government‟s money.”

Most languages have a class of words which may be called pronouns Pronominal systems vary greatly from language to language and the translator is obliged to use the form of the receptor language even though they may have very different meanings than the pronouns of the source language For example, if one is translating into Kiowa (USA), the pronouns will have to indicate a different between singular, dual and plural person even though the source language does not make this three-way distinction Or if a translator is translating into Balinese, he must distinguish degrees of honor even though nothing in the source language indicates these distinctions He will need to understand the culture of the Balinese and the cultural context of the text he is translating in order to choose correctly

In English, the first plural pronoun we is often used when the real meaning is second person

you The reason for the use of we is to show empathy and understanding The nurse say to the

sick child, “ It‟s time for us to take our medicine now.” Or the teacher says, “We‟re not going

to shout, quietly to our we‟ll walk places.” Clearly , the pronouns do not refer to the nurse or

the teacher but to the children whom she is addressing you In translating these pronouns into another language, a literal translation with first person plural would probably distort the meaning The translator would need to look for the natural way to communicate second person and the feeling of empathy carried by the source language

Grammatical constructions also vary between the source language and the receptor language The order , for example, may be completely reserved The following simple sentences from Vietnamese is given with a literal English translations:

Chị sống ở đâu?

You live where ?

Cô ấy th-ờng mặc áo sơ mi vải silk màu xanh cỡ nhỏ She often wears a shirt silk blue small

It will readily be seen that understandable translations into English requires a complete

reversal of the order: She often wears a small blue silk shirt

It is not uncommon that passive constructions will need to be translated with an active construction or vice versa, depending on the natural form of the receptor language For example, Vietnamese people tend to use active constructions to express their ideas whereas English people prefer to use passive constructions

English: Nguyen Du is considered to be a great poet ( passive)

Vietnamese: Ng-ời ta xem Nguyễn Du là một nhà thơ vĩ đại

A: Chuyện gì đã xảy ra với toàn bộ số tiền mà bạn có đ-ợc sau

khi giải quyết xong

chuyện chúc th- và bán đi cả sản nghiệp (active)

B: Cũng lẽ th-ờng tình thôi, bạn bè giả dối, ăn chơi hoang đàn

và đầu t- sai chỗ

The above translated sentences are only examples to show some types of grammatical adjustments which will result if a translator translates idiomatically in the source language Certainly, there will be times by coincidence they match, but a translator should translate the meaning not concern himself with whether the forms turn out the same or not

3 Translating lexical features

Each language has its own idiomatic way of expressing meaning lexical items Languages abound in idioms, secondary meanings, metaphors, and other figurative meanings For

example, notice the following ways in which a fever is referred to ( literal translations are

given to show the source language form):

Greek: The fever left him

Aguaruna: He cooled

Vietnamese: He cooled

Or: The fever was no more in him

Ilocano: The fever was no more in him

The English translations of all six would be : His fever went down, or His temperature

returned to normal

All languages have idioms, i.e a string of words whose meaning is different than the meaning

conveyed by the individual words In English to say that someone is bullheaded means that the person is „stubborn‟ The meaning has little to do with bull or head Similarly, in Vietnamese to say that someone is cøng ®Çu cøng cæ means that the person is

„stubborn‟ The meaning has little to do with ®Çu or cæ Languages abound in such idioms The following are a few English idioms using in and into: run into debt, rush into

print, step into a practice, jump into a fight, dive into a book, stumble into acquaintance, fall

in love, break into society In spite of all these combinations, one cannot say the following break into debt, fall into print, rush into a fight, dive into debt, etc The combinations are

fixed as to form and their meaning comes from their combination A literal word-for-word translation of these idioms into another language will not make sense The form cannot be kept, but the receptor language word or phrase which has the equivalent meaning will be the correct one to use in the translation The following idioms occur in Vietnamese In the first column is a literal translation from Vietnamese In the second is an idiomatic translation The literal English is misleading

Translators who wants to make a good idiomatic translation often find figures of speech especially challenging A literal translation of strong as a horse might sound really strange in a language where the comparison between a strong person and a horse has never been use as a figure of speech In Vietnamese it would be more natural to say strong as a buffalo Similarly,

a literal translation of blind as a bat might sound really strange in a language where the comparison between a blind person and a bat has never been use as a figure of speech In Aguaruma it would be more natural to say blind as a fox There is a legend in which the sun borrowed the fox‟s eyes and then returned to heaven taking the fox‟s good eyes with him and leaving the fox with the sun‟s inferior eyes That is why they say, when the fox is trying to see,

he stretches back his head and looks with his throat Figures of speech are often based on stories or historical incidents

Names of animals are used metaphorically in most languages But the comparison is often different and so the figure will be misunderstood unless some adjustment is made For example, when someone is called a pig in English, it usually means he is dirty or a greedy eater In Vietnamese, it has different meanings It could means that the person is stupid or that the person is a greedy Care would need to be taken if pig were used metaphorically or a wrong meaning might result in the receptor language

Some lexical combinations of the source language may be ambiguous The meaning is not

clear For example, “ It is too hot to eat,” could mean any of the following: The food is too hot

to eat; the weather is too hot for us to feel like eating; the horse is too hot after running a race and does not want to eat In the process of making an idiomatic translation, such ambiguities must often be resolved and only the intended meaning communicated

4 Conclusion

It is obvious that translation is a complicated process However, a translator who is concerned with transferring the meaning will find that the receptor language has a way in which the desired meaning can be expressed even though it may be very different from the source language form

Considering the complexity of language structures, how can a translator ever hope to produce

an adequate translation? Literal translation can only be avoided by careful analysis of the source language: by, first of all, understanding clearly the message to be communicated A translator who takes the time to study carefully the source language text, to write analysis of it, and then to look for the equivalent way in which the same message is expressed naturally in the receptor language, will be able to provide an adequate, and some times brilliant translation His goal must be to avoid literalisms and to strive for a truly idiomatic receptor language text He will know he is successful if the receptor language readers do not recognize his work as a translation at all, but simply as a text written in the receptor language for their information and enjoyment

5 Notes

Form-based translation : dịch dựa vào hình thức

Meaning-based translation: dịch dựa vào nghĩa

Literal translation: dịch từng từ một

Idiomatic translation: dịch đúng nghĩa

Interference : sự can thiệp

Mother-tongue interference: sự can thiệp của tiếng mẹ đẻ

To make adjustments: hiệu đính/ điều chỉnh

Translating grammatical features: đặc tr-ng ngữ pháp dịch

Parts of speech: từ loại

Subclass: nhóm nhỏ

Indo-European language: ngôn ngữ ấn-Âu

Pronominal system: hệ thống đại từ

6 Self-study

6.1 Questions for discussion

1 What are the differences between a literal translation and an idiomatic translation?

2 What should you do to translate a text idiomatically?

3 What grammatical features should be considered when you translate a text? Give some examples to support your ideas

4 What lexical features should be considered when you translate a text? Give some examples

to support your ideas

5 Why do you have to take the time to read the source language text carefully before translating it?

6.2 Exercises

A In each of the following pairs of sentences, which is more idiomatic English, a or b? How would the meaning be expressed idiomatically in the language you speak?

1.(a) The storekeeper said that we will refund your money

(b) The storekeeper promised to refund our money

2.(a) A certain boy told me this little story at a party

(b) He is one boy He told the one little story This is a game he said

3.(a) An International Alphabet would inevitably bring about a spelling reform as well How many children have shed hot tears about spelling?

(b) An International Alphabet would inevitably bring about a spelling reform ,too And how many hot children‟s tears have not been shed on spelling?

4.(a) He then reported his misfortune to the police, who are searching diligently for the thief (b) He then his mishap reported to the police, who are the thief searching intensively

B Look for literalisms in the following translations into English and underline the words or

phrases that do not sound natural in English Suggest a more idiomatic way of saying it All

of these examples are from published translated material

1 The third-year students often visit the schools in the city for the attendance of the class

2 Foreign tourists usually at Kinh Do Hotel for their friends have introduced to them very much about this hotel

3 Since the USA abolished the embargo against Vietnam, many foreign countries have been investing in Vietnam

4 After saying lies many times, he lost our belief in him

5 Hue is famous about its delicious dishes and beautiful landscapes

6 The participants discussed about the causes of pollution environment

7 Every time my mother goes to work , I feel my house absent anybody

8 One thing makes me proud of my village is a large green field that provides one part of life for people

9 A robbery took place of a motorcycle rider at Kampung early yesterday morning

10 I left my village for three years, a time not long but like a century

C Each of the following are sentences written by some Vietnamese who are not yet fluent

English speakers The forms used shows examples of how their mother-tongue language

structures have been carried over into English The same information is then given in parenthesis in idiomatic English What changes were made in correcting the English? These changes point out some of the differences between Vietnamese and English

1 Sir, the problems of before don‟t forget

( Sir, please don‟t forget the problems we discussed before.)

2 If there is any means, send me a letter to Saigon

(If there is any way to do so, send a letter to me in Saigon.)

3 I will think you time to time day and day

( I will be thinking about you often every day.)

4 I am very grateful to inform you with this letter

( I am very happy to be able to send/write you this letter.)

5 I am a man who has been to Hanoi for 12 years

( I have now lived in Hanoi for 12 years.)

D Translate the following Vietnamese sentences as idiomatically as possible

1 Chị may áo sơ mi này ở đâu vậy?

2 Cha ông ta đã uống n-ớc sông Hồng, sông Đà, sông Cửu Long

và đã sống chết với sông n-ớc này Các bạn thử nghĩ xem rất ít ngôn ngữ trên thế giới lại có sự thống nhất nh- tiếng mẹ đẻ của chúng ta Trong tiếng Việt, thì ‘‘n-ớc’’ (trong sông, trong hồ, trong biển ) lại đồng nghĩa, đồng âm với ‘‘n-ớc’’ trong ý nghĩa tổ quốc quê h-ơng

- cha ông: ancestors

- thống nhất : uniformity

- đồng nghĩa : synonym/ synonymous

- đồng âm : homonym

- trong ý nghĩa : to mean/ to signify

- tổ quốc quê h-ơng: homeland/ fatherland/ motherland

- sống chết: to try hard to protect them/ to spare no pain to protect them

3 Đà Lạt chiếm cứ một vùng đất rộng trên cao nguyên Lâm Viên, xung quanh toàn là núi đồi hùng vĩ

- chiếm cứ : take up/ to be situated/ to occupy

- cao nguyên : plateau

- xung quanh: to be surrounded by/ with

4 Sự phát triển kinh tế của Việt Nam phải đ-ợc xét trong hoàn cảnh chiến tranh kéo dài Hoàn cảnh chiến tranh ấy đã gây ra

nhiều thiệt hại về sinh mạng và tài sản cũng nh- các công trình công cộng và tài nguyên

- sự phát triển kinh tế : the economic development

- đ-ợc xét : to be viewed/ to be considered/ to be taken into account

- hoàn cảnh chiến tranh kéo dài : in the context of the long period of war

- gây ra thiệt hại : to cause damage to

- tài sản : property

- công trình công cộng : public facilities

- tài nguyên : resources

5 Mặc dù địa vị của phụ nữ đã có những b-ớc tiến kỳ diệu, nh-ng ng-ời ta phải thực hiện nhiều chuyện khác để cải thiện tình trạng sức khoẻ, dinh d-ỡng và giáo dục cho phụ nữ

đài thuộc các tỉnh đ-ợc thành lập vào năm 1988 Những đài truyền hình này sẽ truyền những ch-ơng trình quan trọng của đài truyền hình trung -ơng và phát ch-ơng trình của đài mình

- mạng l-ới : network

- đài truyền hình : television station

- lâu đời: long-standing

đang tăng theo cấp số nhân trong lúc sản xuất hàng hoá lại tăng theo cấp số cộng

- đ-ơng đầu : to face

- vấn đề nghiêm trọng : serious problem

- có nhiều b-ớc tiến đáng kể : to take great strikes

- sự bùng nổ dân số : population explosion/ population boom

- tăng theo cấp số nhân : to grow in geometric progression

- tăng theo cấp số cộng : to grow in arithmetic progression

- sản xuất hàng hoá : the production of goods

8 Charles Dickens là một trong những nhà viết tiểu thuyết lớn nhất thế giới, thuộc tr-ờng phái hiện thực phê phán thế kỷ 19

Điều mà chúng ta đánh giá cao về những tác phẩm của Dickens là

sự phê phán về tội ác và sự t-ơng phản giữa giàu và nghèo của xã hội t- sản Anh lúc bấy giờ Thế giới mà ông ta miêu tả là thế giới của giai cấp trung l-u và hạ l-u ở Luân Đôn

- nhà viết tiểu thuyết : novelist

- tr-ờng phái hiện thực phê phán : the school of critical realism

- đánh giá cao : to value/ highly appreciate

- sự phê phán : criticism

- tội ác : evil

- sự t-ơng phản : contrast

- giàu và nghèo : wealth and poverty

- xã hội t- sản Anh : the English boutgeois society

- giai cấp trung l-u và hạ l-u : the middle and lower classes

9 Hội Liên Hiệp Phụ Nữ Việt Nam đ-ợc cử đại diện ở Quốc Hội

và chủ tịch hội đ-ợc quyền tham dự các cuộc họp th-ờng kỳ của Hội Đồng Bộ Tr-ởng để bày tỏ quan điểm của Hội và đề nghị những

điều lệ liên quan đến phụ nữ

- Hội Liên Hiệp Phụ Nữ Việt Nam : The Vietnam‟s Women Union

- cử đại diện : to be represented

- Quốc Hội : the National Assembly

- đ-ợc quyền làm gì : to have the right to do something

- cuộc họp th-ờng kỳ : regular meeting

- Hội Đồng Bộ Tr-ởng : the Council of Ministers

- bày tỏ quan điểm : express one‟s points of view

- nền văn minh nông nghiệp : agricultural civilization

- chính sách mở cửa : the open-door policy

- tác động từng ngày từng giờ : to have daily and hourly impact /influence on

LESSON 3: STEPS IN A TRANSLATION PROJECT

Before beginning an actual translation, it is important to have in mind the total translation project and what is involved in producing a good translation Each of these steps will be elaborated on in more detail in the last section of the book

1.Establishing the project

Before one considers beginning a translation project, there are a number of matters which need to be clearly understood by all who will be involved These can be summarized under four T‟s- the text, the target, the team, and the tools

The text refers to the source language document which is to be translated The desirability of

translating a particular text must be determined Texts are chosen to be translated for various reasons Most often it is to communicate certain information to people speaking another language, or it may be to share the enjoyment of the source text The translator should examine his reasons for choosing the text and the potential for its use by the receptor language audience

The target refers to the audience For whom is the translation prepared? The form of

translation will be affected by questions of dialect, educational level, age level, bilingualism, and people‟s attitudes towards their languages Will it be used in school, in business, or read orally in a meeting or at home?

The team refers to the people who will be involved in the project If a person is a competent

speaker of both the source language and the receptor language, it may be that the project can

be done completely by one person But even so there should be other available for evaluation and consultation Most translation projects require a team, a number of people who are going

to contribute to the translation at some stage in the project The working relationship between these people needs to be established before the project gets underway It may, however, also change as the project moves along and new factors come into focus

There are certain essentials to any translation project Not all these need to be found in one person There are various kinds of programs which may be set up depending on the abilities and backgrounds of those who will be involved The team may consist of 1 co-translators, where one is a specialist in the source language and the other a specialist in the receptor language, or 2 a translator with capability to handle both source language and receptor language matters and an advisor or consultant, or 3 a committee working together with specific responsibilities delegated to each one Which kind of program is developed will depend on who is available and qualified to determine the meaning of the source language, who is most skilled at drafting in the receptor language, and who has an understanding of translation principles The team may include the translators, a consultant, testers, and reviewers

Tools refer to the written source materials which will be used by the translators as helps

These include, in addition to the document to be translated, any dictionaries, lexicons, grammars, cultural descriptions etc of both the source language and receptor language which are available The team will want as much in formation available as possible while translating All of these tools should be brought to the translation site in preparation for the project For some projects, there will be a wealth of materials that can be used to help in interpreting the source language text and in finding equivalents in the receptor language For other projects, there may be a scarcity of such material, but whatever is available should be there to make the work easier

The translator should begin by reading the text several times, then by reading other materials that may help in understanding the culture or language of the source text As he reads the text,

he will be looking for the author‟s purpose and the theme of the text He will look for the larger groupings or sections He may want to outline the text The purpose is to understand the text as a whole Once he has done this, he is ready to work on the material a section at a time The analysis of the source text will include resolving ambiguity, identifying implicit information, studying key words, interpreting figurative senses, recognizing when words are being used in a secondary sense, when grammatical structures are being used in a secondary function, etc It will involve doing the kind of analysis which this book is all about The goal

of exegesis is to determine the meaning which is to be communicated in the receptor language text The translator carefully studies the source language text and using all the available tools, determines the content of the source language message, the related communication situation matters, and all other factors which will need to be understood in order to produce an equivalent translation

3 Transfer and initial draft

After a careful analysis of the source language text, as indicated above, the translator begins drafting piece by piece, section by section The transfer results in the initial draft In preparing this draft, the translator is transferring from the source language into the receptor language As

he does so, he must always keep his target audience in mind

Before any extensive drafting can be done, the key terms must be determined Every text has a set of words which re crucial to the content and correct communication of the theme These need to be decided upon and may need to be checked with other speakers of the receptor language

There are two ways of approaching the transfer and initial draft Some translators prefer to do

a quick rough translation so that the material flows naturally Then they go back and tighten

up the details to be sure that there is no wrong information, and no omissions or additions In this way, the receptor language text is more apt to be in the natural style of the receptor language Others prefer to prepare a proposition-like semantic draft, being sure that all the information all the information is accounted for, and then reword it for naturalness; that is,

reword it in the idiomatic form of the receptor language Either method will lead to an idiomatic translation if careful work is done

It may be necessary to rework the initial draft several times before the team is satisfied that all the adjustments needed have been made, that no information is wrong or omitted, that the text communicates clearly in the receptor language, and that the form chosen will communicate to the desired audience While making and reworking this draft, the audience must always be kept in mind Once the translation team has sufficiently reworked the initial draft, they arrange for copies to be made so that adequate evaluation

4 Evaluation

The purpose of evaluation is threefold: accuracy, clearness, and naturalness The questions to

be answer are: 1 Does the translation communicate the same meaning as the source language?

2 Does the audience for whom the translation is intended understand it clearly? 3 Is the form

of the translation easy to read and natural receptor language grammar and style? Those helping with the evaluation should be mother-tongue speakers of the receptor language There are a number of kinds of evaluations which need to be done

The translator will want to compare the translation with the source text at several points during the translation process to be sure no additions, deletions or change of in formation have crept in Others may help with this work It is especially advantageous to have a consultant check over the material The translator will want to have receptor language speakers read the text and then tell back what the text communicated to them As they read, there will be parts that are hard to read or hard to understand Any time there is an indication of a problem in reading , this should be noted for further checking Another way to check is by asking questions of those who read the text , or to whom it is read Questions need to be carefully formed so that they bring out the theme, the author‟s purpose , and the relevant facts of the text Any wrong understanding should be noted and then checked with others as well It is best

to have someone who has not worked on the translation, but know both the source language and receptor language, translate back from the receptor language into the source language without the reference to the original source language text Does the back translation carry the same information as the original source language text? Any difference will need to be checked further

It is very important that sufficient time and effort be given to evaluation If many of the people who will eventually be using the receptor language text can be involved in the evaluation process, this will also create interest in the translated material when it is finally published

5 Revised

After evaluation is done carefully, there will need to be a revised draft made on the basis of the feedback received Those with whom the translator has checked may have suggested many rewordings, may have expressed misunderstanding, etc The translation team now works through this material , honestly accepting the evaluation , and rewording the material accordingly If any key words are changed, the text will need to be checked carefully for consistency in the change made If some parts were hard for people to read, they may need to

be made easier by more redundancy( or less redundancy in another language), by adding more information to clarify participants or theme or whatever How much re-drafting will be needed will vary depending on the results of the evaluation

6 Consultation

In many translation projects, there are advisors or consultants who are willing to help the translator The translator(s) will expect that the consultant is interested in three matters:1.accuracy of content 2 naturalness of style, and 3 effect on the receptor language audience

It is important that translators check their materials with a trained consultant after completing

a section or two of a long document If they continue , and do large amounts of translation work without this kind of a check, they will miss out on the training which a consultant can give as they go over the material together Asking a consultant to work through the material with him will give the translator insights which will not only help his final draft of the material being worked on, but will help him do better transfer drafts on the sections of the document remaining to be done

7 Final draft

The translator incorporates into the translated text the suggestions made by the consultant, checks them again with mother-tongue speakers to be sure they are warranted, and makes any other minor changes which have come to his attention However, before he prepares the final draft, decisions about format need to be discussed with the whole translation team, the consultant, the potential publisher and those who will promote distribution

Some matters may need special testing before the final draft is prepared If the publication is

to include pictures, these will need evaluation If a special size of print is being recommended,

it will need to be tested A final editing for spelling and punctuation will need to be made When all matters are cared for, a number of copies should be prepared and distributed for proofreading by various people before the actual printing takes place Every translator wants his final copy to be as accurate as possible The time spent in careful checking and preparation

of the final draft will improve quality and will make the translation more acceptable to the audience for whom it is being prepared

Specialist: chuyên gia

Tools: tài liệu tham khảo khi dịch

Lexicon: tự điển từ vựng

Exegesis: hiểu nghĩa văn bản tr-ớc khi dịch

Initial draft: bản thảo đầu tiên

Revised draft: bản thảo đã d-ợc hiệu đính

9 Self-study

9.1 Questions for discussion

1 Name and discuss the four T‟s of a translation project

2 Explain what is meant by exegesis

3 What are the goals of the translator as he prepares the initial draft?

4 What is the purpose of the evaluation?

5 What kinds of evaluation checks can be made?

6 What is the consultant concerned about when he checks a translation?

7 How will the final draft be different from the revision draft done earlier?

8 How is the revision draft different from the initial draft?

of deforestation in Latin America, South-east Asia and the Pacific is caused by clearing land

to grow cash crops for export and by commercial logging operations, and not by „shifting‟ cultivators or landless peasants Each year commercial logging eliminates 45000 square kilometers of forest, much of the timber being exported to the United States and Japan

No clearer connection between deforestation and the demands of affluent societies can be found than in Central America and Brazil, where tropical forest has been converted to grazing land because cattle raising offers export earnings that help with external debt payments These heavy payments, which affect the poor the most, have arisen largely from external loans taken out to finance the purchase of luxury items and arms by military and governing elite The establishment of large ranch-style cattle grazing properties is the principal reason for the elimination of 20000 square kilometers of rainforest each year in Central or South America The cleared land is mainly devoted to the export of beef for the fast-food industries in North America, Europe and Japan- the aptly named „hamburger connection‟

1 What is the author‟s purpose of writing this text?

2 What is the text about?

3 How many times have you read the text to understand it completely?

4 Do you have any difficulty in finding the Vietnamese meaning of the English words :

subsistence agriculture, cash crops, commercial logging operations, shifting cultivators, landless peasants, affluent society, external debt payment, military and governing elites, ranch-style cattle grazing property, hamburger connection ?

5 Do you have any difficulty in finding the equivalent Vietnamese structures of the following English sentences?

a However, it is a myth to assume that the expansion of subsistence agriculture to feed more

mouths is the main factor

b No clearer connection between deforestation and the demands of affluent societies can be

found than in Central America and Brazil, where tropical forest has been converted to grazing land because cattle raising offers export earnings that help with external debt payments

6 Translate the text into Vietnamese

B Read the Vietnamese text and answer the questions

NON NƯớC

Cha ông ta đã uống n-ớc sông Hồng, Sông Đà, Sông Cửu Long và từng sống chết với sông n-ớc này Các bạn thử nghĩ xem rất ít ngôn ngữ trên thế giới lại có sự thống nhất nh- tiếng mẹ đẻ của chúng ta ở Việt Nam thì ‘‘n-ớc’’( trong sông, hồ, biển.) lại

đồng nghĩa, đồng âm với ‘‘n-ớc’’ trong ý nghĩa tổ quốc quê h-ơng Sông n-ớc và con ng-ời ở đây kết hợp với thiên nhiên và lịch sử nh- một khối bất tử bất diệt bởi một thứ xi măng tr-ờng tồn Đó là lòng yêu n-ớc th-ơng nòi của dân tộc Việt Nam

Trên thế giới, có nhiều quốc gia từ tỉnh nọ sang tỉnh kia nói

là không hiểu nhau rồi Nh-ng ở Việt Nam, dù bất kỳ ở đâu, ng-ời Nam kẻ Bắc, hễ gặp nhau lần đầu nói là hiểu nhau ngay

1 What is the author‟s purpose of writing this text?

2 What is the text about?

3 How many times have you read the text to understand it completely?

4 Do you have any difficulty in finding the English meaning of the Vietnamese words : cha

ông, sống chết, sự thống nhất, kết hợp chặt chẽ, xi măng tr-ờng tồn, lòng yêu n-ớc th-ơng nòi, hiểu nhau?

5 Do you have any difficulty in finding the equivalent English structures of the following Vietnamese sentences?

a Các bạn thử nghĩ xem rất ít ngôn ngữ trên thế giới lại có

sự thống nhất nh- tiếng mẹ đẻ của chúng ta

b.Nh-ng ở Việt Nam, dù bất kỳ ở đâu, ng-ời Nam kẻ Bắc, hễ gặp nhau lần đầu nói là hiểu nhau ngay

6 Translate the text into English

LESSON 4: STRATEGIES FOR TRANSLATORS

The following strategies have been suggested by translators, commissioners of translations, and others involved in translating as ways to approach difficulties in translations from English into Vietnamese

1 STRATEGY 1 : How to deal with non-equivalence at lexical level

It is often the case that no direct equivalents can be found in Vietnamese for English words It may be that the concept or idea is new to Vietnamese translators, as in the case of „gender‟, which is, in fact, a relatively new concept in general, and a very difficult concept to understand and explain in many languages It may also be that the concept is known or understood but there is no specific word in Vietnamese used to express it Another difficulty

is that, in addition to their concrete meaning, some words have special connotations that are not conveyed by the Vietnamese word for the same thing The strategies listed below can be used to handle cases of non-equivalence

1.1 Translating by a more specific word

In some cases, it may be appropriate or necessary to use a more specific word to translate an English word into Vietnamese This usually involves choosing among several different words,

as there may be many Vietnamese words that correspond to the general category or meaning expressed by English word For instance, Vietnamese has many words that mean “ to carry” with distinction being made depending on the size and shape of the object; its animate ( e.g a child as opposed to a box); and how it is carried (e.g in the hand, or in the arms ) Similarly, the English word for “rice” can be translated by many different Vietnamese words, depending

on whether one is planting it, harvesting it, cooking it, or eating it In these cases, the English word alone is not enough to determine the appropriate Vietnamese translation, and it is necessary to examine the English context

1.2 Translating by a more general word

In other cases, it may be appropriate to use a more general word to translate an English word with no specific Vietnamese equivalent For example, English makes distinctions among mopeds, scooters, and motorcycles, the latter having larger wheels and engines than both mopeds and scooters Vietnamese, on the one hand, refers to all two-wheel, motorized vehicles as ‘‘ xe m¸y’’ Similarly, the English words “paw”, “foot”, or “leg” may all be translated by the Vietnamese word ‘‘ch©n’’, which does not suggest any problems of comprehension in Vietnamese, as it should be clear from the context which of these words is meant Another example can be found in a manual on community development, which translates the word “matrix” by the Vietnamese word ‘‘ma trËn’’ However, in Vietnamese, ‘‘ma trËn’’ has a specific use in mathematics only, and does not have the additional sense of a model or a plan according to which something is developed In this example, “matrix” is better translated ‘‘b¶n’’, which is a more general word used to classify a written plan or formula

1.3 Translating by cultural substitution

This strategy involves replacing a culture-specific item or expression with one of the different meanings but similar impact in the translated text Because of their self-described “respect”

for the original text, most Vietnamese translators object to this strategy and tend to translate directly, even though it is in appropriate For example, a farmer‟s manual that has been translated into Vietnamese suggests the planting of different types of fruit trees which are not even grown in Vietnam The original manual, which was developed in other parts in Asia, was not modified at all for the Vietnamese context Though some translators argue that it is not the responsibility of the translator to chance the text in this way, the translator is in fact playing

an important role in this task Translators should be encouraged to consider the appropriateness of the documents they are translating and suggest changes to make them more culturally appropriate However, this is not only the burden of the translator, but also of the commissioners of the translation and the editor

1.4 Translating by using a loan word plus explanation

There is some objection to this strategy in Vietnam, as many translator prefer to coin new words in Vietnamese rather than borrow English words However, this strategy is very useful when the translator deal with concepts or ideas that are new to Vietnamese audience, culture-specific items, and proper names of diseases or medicines that are widely known in English names For instance, HIV and AIDS are two loan words that are frequently used in Vietnamese, as they are referred to by their English names in almost every part of the world Because these words have been in common used in Vietnam for a long time, they are often used without any accompanying explanation Whenever a loan word is used , it is better to give an explanation Another example is the acronym for oral dehydration salts, or ORS, which is printed on every package and hence easily recognized; this is normally written in English with an explanation in Vietnamese : ORS (muối bù mất n-ớc)

1.5 Translating by using a paraphrase

This strategy can be used when we translate an English word or concept that does not exist in Vietnamese, or when the Vietnamese term for it does not include all the meanings conveyed

by the English term for the same concept For example, in the sentence: “ Pregnant women should avoid alcohol.”, the English „alcohol‟ includes all alcoholic drinks in its meaning The Vietnamese word ‘rượu’ does not include beer in its definition, so the Vietnamese translation should add the word beer to reflect the full meaning of the source language sentence Another example is that the English words „abuse‟ and „neglect‟ signify a whole range of behaviors, some of which are not conveyed by the Vietnamese words alone As a

result, the English sentence: “Children should be protected from abuse and neglect.” cannot

be translated as simply as ‘‘trẻ em nên đ-ợc bảo vệ khỏi sự lạm dụng và

lơ là.’’ This translation does not account for their full meaning , which must be

unpacked for better understanding This can be done by paraphrasing as a translator has

attempted in the following translation: ‘‘trẻ em cần bảo vệ chống lại mọi

hình thức bạo lực, gây tổn th-ơng hay xúc phạm, bỏ mặc hoặc xao nhãng trong việc chăm sóc’’ Back translated roughly into English, this sentence

reads, : “Children must be protected from all forms of violence causing harm or offense, and

from abandonment and negligence in their care.”

1.6 Translating by omission

Though some translators may reject this strategy as too drastic, it is sometimes appropriate to omit words or phrases that are not essential to the meaning or impact of the text This is especially true for words that would require lengthy explanations, awkward paraphrases, or literal and unnatural translations, which would interrupt the flow of the text and could distract

the reader from the overall meaning For example, the sentence “ Much can be done even without being physically present in the meeting.” is best translated into Vietnamese by, ‘‘ nhiều việc có thể làm ngày cả khi không có mặt tại cuộc họp’’ which omit the word “physically” in the translation The difference in meaning between “ being physically present” and being present” is so minimal that it does not justify translation into Vietnamese, which cannot easily express the slight emphasis implied here by the author, and would not do so by emphasizing the physicality of a person‟s presence

STRATEGY 2 : How to deal with idioms and set expressions

Idioms and set expressions can be dealt with in the ways similar to those mentioned above With idioms, however, there is another difficulty that the translator may not realize that s/he is dealing with an idiomatic expression, since more idioms may make sense when translated literally

2.1 Using an idiom or a set expression of similar meaning and form

It is sometimes possible to find a Vietnamese idiom or expression with a similar meaning to

an English idiom or expression, and which is expressed in the same way One example is the idiom “ to fight like cats and dogs”, which is expressed using the same words in Vietnamese:

‘‘ cãi nhau nh- chó với mèo.’’; another is “ Better than never.”, which is translated : ‘‘Thà muộn còn hơn không đến’’ It is ideal if such a match can be found, but this kind of correspondence is not common, and it is usually necessary to use other strategies in dealing with idioms and set expressions

2.2 Using an idiom or a set expression of similar meaning but different form

It is possible and easy to find a Vietnamese idiom with a similar meaning for an English idiom or set expression A good example can be found is the translation for to carry coals to Newcastle”: ‘‘Chở củi về rừng." ,which is translated as “ to carry firewood to the forest.” The meaning here is clearly the same for both idioms- to bring something to a place that has an abundance of that thing- but the way in which each language expresses is bound to

be the culture of that language It is far more cumbersome to translate this idiom literally into Vietnamese with an explanation that Newcastle is a well-known coal-producing city in England (as was suggested by some Vietnamese translators), which would unduly interrupt the flow of the text and greatly diminish the idiom‟s impact By substituting a similar Vietnamese idiom, then, the flow and the impact of the source text are retained in the translation

2.3 Translating by paraphrasing

When Vietnamese equivalents cannot be found, paraphrasing may be the best way to deal with an idiom or set expression in English A good example can be found in an article on maternal mortality, which includes the sentence, “ But before the new estimates replace the old as a way of packaging up the problem, it should be said that a mistake has been made in allowing statistics such as these to slip into easy language The expression “packaging up the problem” caused the problems in translation, as it was misinterpreted to mean “assembling” or

“gathering” However, even if this phrase were clearly understood, it would be difficult to find

a precise equivalent in Vietnamese In fact, it would be difficult to restate concisely in English This phrase is best dealt with by paraphrasing, which in English could be understood

as something like “summing up the problem by referring to it simply as a number, which does

not reflect its true magnitude or impact.” The expression “to slip into easy usage” is problematic for the same reasons, and is also best dealt with by paraphrasing, as a literal translation into Vietnamese would be meaningless

of the phrase could be that a person is suffering from positive HIV and that s/he should have

an optimistic outlook on life This may be clear to the translator , who may interpret the phrase to mean that this book is for and about people who are HIV positive However, the double meaning should be made clear through collaboration with the commissioner, after which a choice must be made between the two meanings, for it would not be possible to translate both meanings by one Vietnamese phrase As the emphasis is on positive outlook on life but not on the fact of being HIV positive, one translator has suggested the translation:

‘‘Hãy Sống Yêu Đời Dù Nhiễm HIV’’ This translation expresses the notion of being positive about life without mentioning anything about being HIV positive status

STRATEGY 3 : How to deal with voice, number and person

2.1 Voice

The passive voice is used very often in English and poses some problems in Vietnamese translation Passive voice can be translated from English into Vietnamese in the following ways:

a English : A is/was/has been done by B

Vietnamese: (i) A đ-ợc+ động từ+(bởi B)

Tom is given a present by Mary

Tom đ-ợc Mary tặng một món quà

Tom was attacked by a stranger last night

Tom bị một kẻ lạ mặt tấn công tối hôm qua

b.English : A is/was/has been done

Vietnamese: (i) A đ-ợc+ động từ

(ii) A bị+ động từ

(iii) Ng-ời ta/ai đó + động từ + A

Example:

Tom has been promoted recently

Tom mới đ-ợc đè bạt gần đây

The CD has been broken

Chiếc đĩa CD đã bị vỡ/ Ai đó đã làm vỡ chiếc đĩa CD

The positive and negative connotation is not often conveyed in English, so it is difficult to know what way used to translate into Vietnamese

Example: The children were given injections

Vietnamese translation : ‘‘Các cháu đ-ợc tiêm.’’, or ‘‘Các cháu bị tiêm.’’

depending on whether the receiving injection is considered a positive or negative experience

On the other hand, when the positive or negative connotation of the sentence is clear it is more appropriate to retain the passive voice in Vietnamese

Example: The H‟Mong people do not like to be called Meo They prefer to

be called H‟Mong

Vietnamese: Ng-ời dân tộc Hơ Mông không thích bị gọi là dân tộc Mèo Họ

thích đ-ợc gọi là dân tộc Hơ Mông

In Vietnamese, there are some cases where one can see the words đ-ợc/bị but they are not

translated into English passive sentences at all

Example: - Anh ấy bị ngã : He fell

- Chị Lan bị ho : Lan has a cough

- Hôm nay chúng ta đ-ợc đánh chén no nê

We had and enormous meal today

2.2 Number

Though both languages have similar notions of number and countability, each language has its own way to express these notions In English, number is expressed as a grammar category; that is, there are different grammatical forms for singular and plural nouns In Vietnamese, however, no such distinction is grammatically made

Example : Phô n÷: can mean either woman or women

In Vietnamese, some plural markers such as ‘‘c¸c’’, ‘‘nh÷ng’’, tÊt c¶’’,

‘‘mäi" ,’’mçi’’ can be used in addition to the noun ‘‘c¸c’’ generally means all of the given category of things, whereas ‘‘nh÷ng’’ refers only to some of the total number of things being discussed ‘‘Mçi’’ emphasizes the identity of the individual member of the category without indicating anything of their totality; ‘‘mäi’’ expresses both the individuality of the items and the totality of the category If it is clear from the English context which of these plural markers should be used in the Vietnamese, then the translator should choose accordingly

2.3 Person

Participants‟ roles and forms of address are expressed in Vietnamese through a very complicated system of personal pronouns based largely on kinship terms Unlike English pronouns, Vietnamese pronouns bear a number of semantic components depending on the relationship within a family, age, sex, familiarity, social status, and even one‟s particular mood or attitude in a given situation These distinctions are not always explicitly expressed in English and can usually be determined by the context in which the language operates If it is not possible to determine the distinctions of the English pronouns, the attention should be focused on the tone and the overall purpose of the text to be translated

Example: A book on health-care contains many sections written especially for children and adults In the sections for children the pronoun “you” is translated as “em” or ‘‘c¸c em’’

In the sections for adults, “you” should be translated as ‘‘chóng ta’’

4 STRATEGY 4 : How to deal with non-subject sentences

( Vietnamese- English translation)

The following techniques could be used to translate the non-subject sentences in Vietnamese texts:

Industrialization and modernization should be promoted

Or: It is necessary to promote industrialization and modernization

VÉn ch-a cã c¸ch ch÷a khái bÖnh AIDS

There has been no cure for AIDS

5 STRATEGY 5 : How to deal with newspaper headlines

Some main characteristics of newspaper headlines are as follows

5.1 Present tense = past events

5.2 Present participle = event in progress

5.3 To infinitive = future events

5.4 Past participle = passive voice

5.5 Nouns

5.6 Verb + noun

Example:

1 Chinese Professors Turn To Business

C¸c gi¸o s- Trung Quèc chuyÓn sang kinh doanh

2 US President Visiting Vietnam

Tæng thèng Hoa Kú ®ang th¨m ViÖt Nam

3 Oil Price To Rise?

Gi¸ dÇu sÏ t¨ng

4 Three More Investment Projects Licensed This Year

Thªm ba dù ¸n ®Çu t- n÷a ®-îc cÊp giÊy phÐp trong n¨m nay

What is mother tongue interference in translation?

In the narrow definition, interference in translation takes place when apparently, any feature

of the source language – notably a syntactic structure, a lexical item, and idiom, a metaphor,

word order or culture is carried over or literally translated as the case may be into the target language(TL) text

In a wider definition, interference includes cases when sentence length, punctuation, proper names, culture words are evidently transferred in the translation in fact all cases where the language of the translation is manifestly affected whether appropriately or not by the language

of the original

When the mother tongue interference is an error, a “false friend”, a sign of the translator‟s ignorance, a mark of the effect of the source language (SL) or the SL culture, it can be categorized as follows

1 LINGUISTIC ERRORS

The linguistic errors can be divided into the following groups:

1.1 Lexical Errors

Lexical interference traps are common enough but more invidious are innocent looking collocations which appear to make sense until one asks oneself what they mean in particular context

E.g in English “ to cook an account” translated as ‘‘nấu sổ sách’’ is meanigless and it must be translated as ‘‘giả mạo sổ sách’’ Lexical interference is very dangerous because it can distort the meaning of a sentence

1.1.1 Context

The context itself determines the meaning of words Therefore, their meaning should be solved in the context It is commonly known that a word may have equivalents and accordingly the analysis of its meaning has to be made carefully in order to pick out the most appropriate word There are many ways of translating of some nouns related to professions, classes, fields in society For example, in a text written about Buddhism in which there are two words “clergy” and “death” Some translated transferred “clergy” as ‘‘giáo sĩ’’ and

“death” as ‘‘cái chết’’ for Buddha It sounds strange and funny In fact, “clergy” translated as ‘‘giáo sĩ’’ for Catholicism but ‘‘giới tăng đồ’’ for Buddhism The word “death” is normally translated as ‘‘cái chết’’ but ‘‘vua băng hà’’ in

“King‟s death” and as for Buddhism this word should be translated as ‘‘viên tịch’’ When translators are asked to translate these sentences into English

a Kha Luân Bố đã tìm ra Tân thế giới vào năm 1842

b Tôi đang tìm cuốn sách

c Michael Faraday đã tìm ra máy phát điện

Obviously, there are many equivalents in English for the word ‘‘tìm’’ such as “seek”,

“look for”, “search for”, “find”, “find out” In addition, there are two more words related to this meaning: “to invent” and “ to discover” However, in sentence (1) the word ‘‘tìm’’ has

an equivalent in English as “discover” In sentence (2) the word ‘‘tìm’’ is understood as

“look for”, search for” or “seek” In sentence (3) the word ‘‘tìm’’ has an equivalent as

“invent”

The three above-mentioned sentences can be translated as follows

1 The New World was discovered by Christopher

2 I am looking for my book

3 Michael Faraday invented the generator

It is characteristic of word that a single lexical item may have several meanings For example, the word “ head” in isolation means something like” the upper part of the body” But the same word used in the context of talking about a company or an organization has nothing to do with the human body though the idea of the upper position of something still remains

The following examples show that the translators do not treat words in context but rely on the meaning in dictionary:

1 “In 1999, some major commodities were stockpiled because of poor quality.” It is not

accurate at all when “stockpiled” was translated ‘‘l-u trữ’’ In fact, due to poor quality,

major commodities were not sold out leading to stockpile Therefore, the sentence should be

translated as ‘‘ Năm 1999 một số mặt hàng chủ yếu bị tồn kho do chất

l-ợng kém.’’

2 “The Prime Minister has also assigned relevant agencies to formulate a law on industrial

zones to provide a complete legal background/frame for the operation of Izs and EPZs in Vietnam.” was translated ‘‘Thủ t-ớng đã bổ nhiệm những chính sách thích

hợp để đ-a ra luật về khu công nghiệp để cung cấp một bối cảnh hoàn toàn hợp pháp cho các hoạt động của khu công nghiệp, khu chế xuất Việt Nam ’’ This translation is quite vague in Vietnamese In fact, a word

in source language has many equivalents in target language The word “ assign” is equivalent with ‘‘phân công/ bổ nhiệm’’; “ relevant with ‘‘thích đáng, thích hợp,

có liên quan’’; ‘‘ agency’’ with ‘‘ đại lý, cơ quan, chi nhánh’’; “foundation’’ ‘‘nền móng, nền tảng, cơ sở’’ For this reason, in

this context it should be chosen the most appropriate equivalents to create an idiomatic translation: ‘‘ Thủ t-ớng đã giao cho các cơ quan có liên quan ban hành bộ luật về khu công nghiệp nhằm cung cấp một số cơ sở pháp

lý hoàn chỉnh cho việc hoạt động của khu công nghiệp và khu chế xuất ở Việt Nam.’’

In brief, the translators have a habit of translating literally and depending largely on the meaning in dictionary due to the mother-tongue interference In order to avoid committing errors of context, words should be solved in context and the analysis of their meaning has to

be made carefully to pick out the most appropriate equivalent

1.1.2 Word collocation

Word collocation consists of the associations a word acquires on account of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its environment Each of language has its own principle in word collocation For example, the word “ pretty” often goes with girls and women, while the word

“handsome” often goes with boys or men Some translators do not realize this, which leads to wrong and funny collocation For instance, in Vietnamese the word ‘‘uống’’ (drink) can go with many different kinds of liquid including water, beer, alcohol, medicine and even poison However, in English these are clear distinction as follows:

Drink beer/ water/ wine/ coffee

Take medicine/ poison

Another example indicates that in Vietnamese the word ‘‘nói’’ (say) can be collocated with ‘‘lời tạm biệt’’ “goodbye”, ‘‘lời chào hỏi’’ “hello”, ‘‘dối’’ “a lie”,

‘‘sự thật’’ “ the truth”, ‘‘tiếng Pháp’’ “French” However, in English it is quite different

Say hello/ goodbye/ yes/ no

Tell a lie/ the truth/ a story

Speak English/ French/ Chinese

In Vietnamese, the word ‘‘đàn’’ can be collocated with many different nouns such as

‘‘cá’’(fish) “chim” ( bird), ‘‘s- tử’’ (lion), ‘‘gia súc’’ (cattle) On the contrary, in English there are many words meaning ‘‘đàn’’ as follows

A flock of birds/ sheep: Đàn chim/ cừu

A herd of cattle/ buffaloes: Đàn gia súc/ trâu

A pack of dogs/ calves: Đàn chó/ bê

A school of fish/ chickens: Đàn cá/ gà

A pride of lions/ deer : Đàn s- tử/ nai

Similarly, the word “decision” can be collocated with many word such as “to make/ to

reach/ to arrive at/ to come to a decision” The following examples show the wrong

collocations of some translators:

1 Chính phủ đã tiến thực hiện nhiều biện pháp nhằm ngăn chặn việc buôn lậu ma túy

(The government has made many measures to stop the drug smuggling.)

2 Chúng tôi phải hoàn thành nhiệm vụ tr-ớc khi tổ kiểm tra chất l-ợng sản phẩm

( We have to complete our duty before the investigators control the product quality.)

3 Sau khi nghiên cứu thị tr-ờng, chúng tôi quyết định đ-a ra thị tr-ờng một sản phẩm gây ấn t-ợng có sức cạnh tranh với hàng ngoại nhập

(After making a market research, we decided to launch an impressive product which can

compete against the imported ones.)

4 Từ khi Mỹ bỏ lệnh cấm vận Viẹt Nam, nhiều n-ớc trên thế giới

đx đầu t- vào các lĩnh vực khác nhau

(Since the USA abolished the embargo against Vietnam many foreign countries have been

investing in many different fields.)

It is the mother tongue interference that leads to the mechanic collocation which is unacceptable in target language In fact, each language has its own principles of word collocation Neither English nor Vietnamese is an exception As a result, the above-mentioned examples should be translated more accurately and idiomatically as follows

1 “The government has made many measures to stop the drug smuggling.” should be

corrected as “The government has taken many measures to stop the drug smuggling.”

2 “We have to complete our duty before the investigators control the product quality.” should

be corrected “We have to fulfill our duty before the investigators control the product quality.”

3 “After making a market research, we decided to launch an impressive product which can

compete against the imported ones.” should be corrected “After doing a market research, we

decided to launch an impressive product which can compete against the imported ones.”

4 “Since the USA abolished the embargo against Vietnam many foreign countries have been

investing in many different fields.” should be corrected “Since the USA lifted the embargo

against Vietnam many foreign countries have been investing in many different fields.”

In a word, it is inevitable for the translators to obey the principles of English and Vietnamese word collocations In order to avoid this type of errors, the translator should read as many English books and magazines to take notes of collocated words under the English standard

1.1.3 Misuse of personal pronouns and prepositions

In Vietnamese, there are many ways to express the thoughts and feelings or attitude which differ from those in English The social status, age, sex, and the family order are distinguished clearly and systematically This is reflected in a distinguished clearly and systematically This

is reflected in a number of words for addressing such as ‘‘cô, «ng, bµ, b¸c, c«, chó, thÝm, d×, d-îng, cËu, anh, chÞ, ngµi, quÝ vÞ, mµy, em, ’’ such words are generally expressed by English people in one word “you”

The following examples show clearly that the translator sometimes do not master the relationship between the speaker and the hearer leading to a funny translation A mother was taking care of her child in hospital She said: “ I love you very much, dear.” Which was translated as ‘‘ Em yªu anh l¾m , c-ng µ.’’ instead of ‘‘ MÑ yªu con l¾m, c-ng µ.’’

In Vietnamese, each preposition has a fixed meaning which does not change regardless of the noun, adjective or verb proceeding it On the contrary, the meaning of a preposition in English depends on its preceding word This difference leads to errors in using prepositions of TL For example, the Vietnamese preposition ‘‘vÒ’’ can be expressed by different prepositions in English:

a talk on history : mét cuéc nãi chuyÖn vÒ lÞch sö

be disappointed in : thÊt väng vÒ

be interested in : quan t©m vÒ

lay emphasis/ stress on : nhÊn m¹nh vÒ

be worried about : lo l¾ng vÒ

be proud of/ take pride in : tù hµo vÒ

be famous for : næi tiÕng vÒ

instead of “disappointed about”, “ proud about”, “famous about” as the translator may use These are the typical errors made by the translators:

1 “According to Mr Thien, his plant currently produces lubricants under the API (American

Petroleum Institute) standards”

(Theo «ng ThiÖn th× hiÖn nay nhµ m¸y cña «ng ®ang s¶n xuÊt

dÇu nhên d-íi tiªu chuÈn cña