Phong cách lãnh đạo của nhà quản lý các trường Đại học hướng tới việc thỏa mãn yêu cầu công việc, cam kết làm việc và hành vi ứng xử

Phong cách lãnh đạo của nhà quản lý các trường Đại học hướng tới việc thỏa mãn yêu cầu công việc, cam kết làm việc và hành vi ứng xử

SOUTHERN LUZON STATE UNIVERSITY THAI NGUYEN UNIVERSITY

Republic of the Philippines Socialist Republic of Vietnam

LEADERSHIP STYLES OF UNIVERSITY MANAGERS TOWARD JOB

SATISFACTION, WORK COMMITMENT AND

APPROVAL SHEET

This dissertation entitled “Leadership Styles of University Managers Toward Job Satisfaction, Work Commitment and Behavioral Outcome” submitted by PHI DINH KHUONG, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of

Education Management been examined and is recommended for acceptance and approval

DR BELLA MUELLO

Adviser

Approved by the Oral Examination Committee, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Education Management by Southern Luzon State University, Republic of the Philippines in collaboration with Thai Nguyen University, Socialist Republic of Vietnam

ACKNOWLEGDEMENT

The researcher wishes to express his heartfelt appreciation and gratitude to:

Dr Cecilia N Gascon, President of the Southern Luzon State University,

Republic of the Philippines for permission of training for Doctor of Philosophy in Educatinal Managenent in International training center, Thai Nguyen University;

Dr Dang Kim Vui, President of Thai Nguyen University for allowance the

training for Doctor of Philosophy in Educatinal Managenent in International training center, Thai Nguyen University;

Dr Bella R Muello, his research adviser, who from the very preparation of the

study had always been there to give valuable suggestions and ideas for the completion of this study;

Dr Apolonia A Espinosa, for sharing her statistical skills in evaluating this

study and suggestions;

Dr Tran Thanh Van, head of postgraduate, Thai Nguyen University and Dr Dang Xuan Binh, director of International training center for their kind support

throughout the course of this study;

Leaders of universities and colleges in Thai Nguyen for providing respondents

and for their untiring support to pursue this study;

Dr ,

Prof , members of the panel, for their

precious suggestions and supports for the completion of this study;

Dr , who served as critic reader during

the oral defense, for his comments and suggestions;

Mr for his proficient insights

and valuable suggestions in the finalization of this study;

ITC staff, for providing the necessary research materials;

His beloved mother and wife for the encouragement, help and moral support as

his sources of strength and inspiration;

The teacher – respondents of the study, for their active involvement and

cooperation; and

To all who have contributed to make this study a success

LXT

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE

APPROVAL SHEET

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES

LIST OF FIGURES

ABSTRACT

Chapter I INTRODUCTIOIN Background of the Study

Objectives of the Study

Hypothesis

Significance of the Study

Scope and Limitation of the Study

Definition of Terms

Chapter II REVIEW OF LITERATURE AND STUDIES Conceptual/ Theoretical Framework

Research Paradigm

Chapter III RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Locale of the Study

Research Design

Population and Sampling

Instrumentation

Data Gathering Procedures

Statistical Treatment

Chapter IV RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Chapter V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Summary

Findings

Conclusions

Recommendations

BIBLIOGRAPHY

APPENDICES

RESEARCHER’S PROFILE

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LIST OF TABLES

1 Frequency, Percentage and Distribution of the Respondents

2 Mean Distribution of Responses as to Ethical Leadership

3 Mean Distribution of the Responses as to Job Satisfaction …………

4 Mean Distribution of Responses Commitment to work

5 Mean Distribution of Responses Behavioral Outcomes

AB STRACT

Title of Dissertation : Leadership Styles Towards Job Satisfaction, Work

Commitment and Behavioral Outcome Researcher : Complete Name (NADAL)

Adviser : Dr Bella R Muello

Academic Year : April 2014

This research determined to find out the most dominant leadership style and to correlate it with job satisfaction, work commitment and behavioral outcome It answered the following objectives: 1 Determine the most dominant leadership style; 2 Ascertain the level of job satisfaction of the respondents; 3 Find out the degree of work commitment; 4 Find out the behavioral outcome of the subjects; and 5 Correlate the most dominant leadership styles with the three variables It used the descriptive correlation type of research where 300 respondents from Thai Nguyen University were utilized Random sampling was used The gathered data were computed using weighted mean, rank, and chi-square Based from the interpreted data the following findings were drawn: 1 Transformational leadership style is the most dominant with an AWM of 3.36 (SA) 2 The level of job satisfaction is very satisfied with an AWM of 3.27 3 AWM of 3.34 was obtained in level of commitment to work (Vc) 4 On behavioral outcomes, it got an AWM

of 3:30 (strongly agree) 5 With a chi-square of 3.65, 1.23 and 4.26 consecutively on the three variables, it revealed that the computed value is higher than the critical value at 01 level of significance, thus the null hypothesis is rejected From the findings, the following conclusions were made: 1 the most dominant leadership style is transformational leadership 2 The respondents are highly satisfied on the level of job satisfaction 3 The degree of work commitment is very evident 4 The respondents practice good behavior in

their work 5 The correlation between transformational leadership and the three variables are positively related In view of the results of the study, the researcher recommends to use different samples coming from another institution to prove the reliability of the findings.

Chapter I INTRODUCTION

In recent years, the leaders in Thai Nguyen University have paid considerable attention to education and university performance as key to sustainable development and stability Such recognition makes education an indispensable means for effective participation not only in the socio-economic development of the country but also in the on-going rapid globalization Throughout the years, it has been the goal of the educational system in Thai Nguyen to regard education as instrument for excellence for national development It follows therefore that the realization of the country’s educational policies and the performance of the administrators, lecturers and students at all levels of the system are intertwined

The kind of education can be reflected on the leadership style of managers In any organization the leader behavior is partly reflected on how their constituents perform Their roles and expectations can induce change in the behavior of the members Their commitment to do their job can also be ascertained on how they accomplished their duties More so, their job satisfaction can also be observed

As such the success of any work group or organization depends on leadership A major factor in an effective university is a strong leader who steers the organization toward the achievement of the mission

Background of the study

Thai Nguyen University (TNU) established by Decree No 31 dated on April 4th

1994 of the Government on the basis of the arrangement, reorganization of the university and vocational training under the Ministry of Education and Training in Thai Nguyen Currently TNU consists of seven universities, one college and two faculties, a defense

education center, a learning resource center, publisher, hospital and high university for practicing, the functional and scientific units for training and research

The establishment of TNU is implementing the guiding ideology of the party expressed through resolutions of the eighth National Party Congress, which is to build training centers for research education and high-quality technology transferring in the region For over 10 years, the consistent policy of the Party and the State is to build and develop TNU and in fact, TNU has demonstrated the role, his position in the Vietnamese higher education system, particularly with the midlands and mountainous areas of northern Vietnam

Currently, at TNU there are 2587 teaching staff, including 230 doctors, 2 professors, 65 associate professors, over 780 masters and 200 PhD students, percentage of lecturers on the payroll process postgraduate degree from universities accounted for 66% Facilities, equipment and service of scientific and technological research of TNU are now considered fairly uniform and modern with 03 research institutes, 01 research centers and transferring technology, 07 key laboratories equipped with fairly uniform and modern

In addition, There are Learning Resource Center, Publisher, Hospital Center for practicing and 05 centers, 01 Co., Ltd belongs to the members

TNU not only contributes positively to the training of highly qualified human resources for the country, but also has an important role in scientific research, technology transferring for training and socio-economic development of the country At TNU, teaching staff is common to share, teaches at the university and teaching units according to the needs of each unit

Despite this truth, records have shown that students performance in Thai Nguyen among other students in other regions, for example, Ha Noi, Ho Chi Minh City is quite below average Hence, principals and teachers of the university as a whole are held

accountable for such malady The government’s inability to effectively sponsor education and motivate teachers to enhance their productivity is another factor viewed Additionally, principals’ leadership style might tremendously influence how scholastic performance progresses Manner and approach of providing values, vision, voice and virtue define what ethical leadership is With varying extent from authoritarian, participative to delegative (Lewin, 2000), one is not said to be effective over the others Nevertheless, it depends upon what is more acceptable and workable in the university system

Likewise, leadership, being a factor to the upliftment of university performance, has been at the care of much research and controversy for so many years

Taking leadership and all the variables as a whole, the university performance can

be best viewed in a clearer and more thorough perspective In effect, monitoring of the university’s performance in the locality makes this research even more imperative

Objectives of Study

The main purpose of this was to find out the dominant leadership style of the principal which influence the level of job satisfaction, commitment and behavioral outcomes of the respondents at Thai Nguyen University year 2012 – 2013

Specifically, it was conducted to:

1 Determine the dominant leadership style of principals as perceived by the respondents

2 Find out the level of job satisfaction of the respondents

3 Ascertain the commitment to work of the respondents

4 Find out the behavioral outcomes of the respondents

5 Correlate the dominant leadership style with these three mentioned variables

Null Hypothesis

None of the above mentioned variables predict ethical leadership style of school manager

Significance of the Study

This study attempts to know the influence of the dominant leadership style toward the level of job satisfaction, work commitment and behavioral outcome With this is mind,

this study will be beneficial to the following:

Leaders It is hoped that the study may contribute in giving a new dimension in the

administration and supervision of Thai Nguyen University The study would provide leaders with a clear idea on how effective and successful the principals are in the work as university administrators In the same manner, their ethical leadership could give a fresh perspective in terms of its influence to the overall university standing in the academic aspect

Teachers The outcome of the study is of great help to teachers because they will

be made aware of the different leadership styles that would affect changes and improvements of the university The researcher may contribute to a new avenue in her search for better ways to improve oneself and her work environment In this way, it would ultimately lead to a better quality performance in the teaching force

Students They will be benefited by this study since they are the main concerns of

educators and any wholesome environment and relationship could create positive effect on the teaching and learning process The researcher hopes that the results and findings of the study will bring understanding and harmonious relationship among members of Thai Nguyen University

Future Researchers This study could provide references for future proponents

who wish to venture a study similar to the nature of this ongoing research Thus, basic tenets on ethical leadership and its variables could serve as resources for other studies

Scope and Limitation of the Study

This study was concerned on the dominant leadership traits of university managers towards job satisfaction, work commitment and behavioral outcomes of the respondents of Thai Nguyen University

There were 255 teachers used as respondents with questionnaire and interview as the main instruments in gathering the data

Leadership is responsible for influencing followers to perform an action, complete

a task or behave in a specific manner

Leadership style focuses on identifying personality traits associated with effective leadership and understanding the impact of situational factors on the leadership process (Chemers & Ayman, 1993)

Transformational style encourages subordinates to put in extra effort to go beyond what his subordinates expected from him (Burne, 1978)

Transactional style focuses mainly on the physical and the security needs of his subordinates The relation that evolves between the leaders and the follower is based on bargaining exchange or reward system (Bass, 1985; Bass & Avolio, 1993)

Chapter II REVIEW OF LITERATURE AND STUDIES

This chapter presents the relevant readings and related literature which bear significance and similarities in this study This also includes the discussion of variables, theoretical framework, research paradigm that could help the readers to fully understand the context of this study

a leader’s moral character, ethical values, choices, and actions are the “pillars” of leadership (p 181) We assert that character strengths provide a comprehensive framework, systematic approach, and a common language (Park & Peterson, 2008) to further assess this potential Our research uses this scaffolding to test character strengths’ semantic and practical contributions to our existing nomological network regarding leadership.Through their focus on the virtuous, moral, ethical, and relational aspects of leadership, three well - studied models of leadership theory share the greatest conceptual similarities with our proposed construct of leader character: transformational leadership (Bass, 1985), ethical leadership (Brown,Trevino, & Harrison, 2005), and leader - member exchange (Graen & Uhl - Bien, 1995) Ethical leadership is defined by social learning theory and represents “the demonstration of normatively appropriate conduct through personal actions and interpersonal relationships, and the promotion of such conduct”(Brown et al., 2005, p 120) As such, ethical leaders exert a positive, “virtuous

influence” on followers through role modeling and relationship - building (Neubert et al.,

2009, p 165) and contribute to a “win - win” environment for both businesses and employees (Ruiz - Palomino, Ruiz - Amaya, & Knörr, 2011)

a leader is jointly determined by the leader’s behavior, expertise, and aspects of the situation” (Kindle Location 6939) Exceptional behaviors and expertise aside, contextual factors such as a crisis play a significant role in the attribution of charisma (Conger & Kanungo, 1987) Therefore, the basic premise of this study is that followers will attribute charisma to a leader when that leader possesses exceptional behavior and expertise and when the situational context is conducive Ronald Reagan is used as an exemplar of charismatic leadership Reagan’s communication skills, visionary attributes, integrity, humor, expertise, and the situational context of his presidency willbe examined, pertaining to how followers attributed charisma to him Effective communication is an essential quality in any leadership style In that regard, charismatic leadership is no different, but charismatic leaders act differently than noncharismatic leaders (Fiol, 1999) For the charismatic leader, effective

communication requires more than merely the dissemination of information To be effective, charismatics often include emotional appeals within their rhetoric (Yukl, 2010) This includes the use of dramatic, symbolic, and metaphoric language that lends credibility to the communication (Conger & Kanungo, 1987) Ideas, thoughts, and concepts must be articulated in an inspirational and motivating manner (Conger, Kanungo,

& Menon, 2000) When charismatics communicate with passion, emotion, inspiration, and motivation, followers are likely to attribute charisma Additionally, charismatics must appear confident and communicate that self-confidence in their rhetorical efforts This is especially true for distant charismatic leaders who only communicate with followers through media such as television, radio, or Internet (Yukl, 2010) Therefore, it is expected that a charismatic leader would be recognized for exciting and passionate public oratory The methods of this communication are integral to the attribution of charisma The message is obviously important, but the importance of the delivery of the message supersedes that of the message itself Charismatic leaders may be best known and/or remembered for rousing public speeches where the crowd became frenzied with excitement Charismatic leaders must also bridge the distance gap and effectively communicate through a variety of media in order to be considered charismatic by larger groups of people

The first scholar to discuss charismatic leadership was Max Weber In particular, he discussed three types of authority as forms of control that people will accept: traditional, legal/rational, and charismatic Weber (1947, pp 358 ± 359) defined charisma as being set apart from ordinary people and treated as endowed with supernatural, superhuman, or at least specifically exceptional powers or qualities ¼ regarded as of divine origin or as exemplary, and on the basis of them the individual con- cerned is treated as a leader Despite the important influence of Webers work on researchers thinking about

organizations, his work on charisma lay dormant until the mid 1970s Robert House (1977) further developed Weber concept in articulating a theory of charismatic leadership that, at its core, argued that followers use an attributional process regarding their leaders Based on certain behaviors displayed by leaders, followers attribute extraordinary or heroic leadership abilities to those leaders Based on Houses theory, researchers then began to uncover and identify key characteristics of charismatic leadership A widely accepted framework is that of Conger and Kanun go (1998), who explain that charismatic leadership

is typified by four key characteristics: possessing and articulating a vision, willing to take risks to achieve the vision, exhibiting sensitivity to follower needs, and demonstrating novel behavior

Three interesting conceptual issues are worthy of discussion here First, much of the work on charismatic leadership has eschewed the Weberian perspective that charismatic leaders are rare or extraordinary Conger (1989, p 161), for example, opined that charisma ªis not some magical ability limited to a handful.º As Trice and Beyer (1986) and Beyer (1999) noted, charismatic leadership has been tamed in that it is assumed that charisma is a property possessed by all individuals, to a greater or lesser degree On the one hand, if we are to empirically study charismatic leadership, we cannot do so based on the assumption that it is a quality held by a handful of individuals (there are not enough such leaders to study) On the other hand, if charisma is seen as relatively prosaic, have we damaged the concept? Clearly, the charismatic qualities of political leaders from Lincoln to Hitler, religious leaders from Martin Luther to Pope John Paul II, and business leaders from Estle Lauder to Jack Welch, do not seem to be a general commodity

Second, some researchers would distinguish charisma as a trait or personal quality from the charismatic leader- ship process House, for example, argues in favor of the latter (House, 1977) Locke and colleagues, conversely, clearly distinguish a charismatic

communication style from other leadership qualities (e.g., see Kirkpatrick & Locke, 1996) This is a topic to which we return later

Finally, though Conger (1990) has often described the dark side of charismatic leadership, judging from the research literature, he seems like a lone voice As the afore mentioned examples of charismatic leaders suggest, however, charismatic leadership seemingly can be used for either good or bad ends, depending on ones perspective and the hindsight of history It seems obvious that charismatic leadership is neither inherently good nor evil, but the implicit assumption in the literature has been that it is a positive force in organizations

Transactional style

Transactional Leadership, also known as managerial lea dership, focuses on the role of supervision, organisation, and group performance; transactional leadership is a style of leadership in which the leader promotes compliance of his followers through both rewards and punishments Unlike transformational leadership, leaders using the transactional approach are not looking to change the future, they are looking to merely keep things the same These leaders pay attention to followers' work in order to find faults and deviations This type of leadership is effective in crisis and emergency situations, as well as when projects need to be carried out in a specific fashion

Within the context of Maslow's hierarchy of needs, transactional leadership works at the basic levels of need satisfaction, where transactional leaders focus on the lower levels of the hierarchy Transactional leaders use an exchange model, with rewards being given for good work or positive outcomes Conversely, people with this leadership style also can punish poor work or negative outcomes, until the problem

is corrected One way that transactional leadership focuses on lower level needs is by stressing specific task performance (Hargis et al, 2001) Transactional leaders are effective

in getting specific tasks completed by managing each portion individually Transactional leaders are concerned with processes rather than forward-thinking ideas These types

of leaders focus on contingent reward (also known as contingent positive reinforcement) or contingent penalization (also known as contingent negative reinforcement) Contingent rewards (such as praise) are given when the set goals are accomplished on-time, ahead of time, or to keep subordinates working at a good pace at different times throughout completion Contingent punishments (such as suspensions) are given when performance quality or quantity falls below production standards or goals and tasks are not met at all Often, contingent punishments are handed down on a management-by-exception basis, in which the exception is something going wrong Within management-by-exception, there are active and passive routes Active management-by-exception means that the leader continually looks at each subordinate's performance and makes changes to the subordinate's work to make corrections throughout the process Passive management-by-exception leaders wait for issues to come up before fixing the problems With transactional leadership being applied to the lower -level needs and being more managerial in style, it is a foundation for transformational leadership which applies to higher-level needs

In contrast with a transformational leader which will be discussed later, a transactional leader accomplishes goals by rewarding employees who meet expectations (Bass, 1990) These rewards come in the form of recognition, pay increases, and advancement Employees who fail to perform per expectations, however, are penalized Such transactions or exchanges the promise of reward for good performance, and discipline for poor performance characterizes effective transactional leadership (Bass, Avolio, Jung and Berson, 2003) Hence, transactional leadership becomes less appealing and appears mediocre when the leader relies heavily on passive management by exception

Management by exception is, "when leaders transact with followers by focusing on mistakes, delaying decisions, or avoiding intervening until something has gone wrong, or rewards focused on recognizing the work accomplished" (Howell & Avolio, p 892) This implies that the leader only interacts with his followers when expectations are not met and standards and procedures not followed (Bass, 1990)

Since transactional leadership is based on a system of rewards and penalties, it does not offer much in terms of inspiration, to motivate people to go beyond the basics Given this fact, the followers of transactional leaders might get complacent and develop a tendency to achieve minimal expectations only that would help them avoid penalties (Bass, 1990) Thus, the leader and the follower are in an agreement on what the follower would receive upon achieving the negotiated level of performance (Bass, 1990) The success of such leadership depends on the level of satisfaction the leader and followers have in following this system of performance based appraisals (Bass, 1990)

A study conducted by Howell and Avolio (1993) confirms that contingent reward leadership has a negative impact on the followers' performance Contingent reward is viewed as "an active and positive exchange between leaders and followers whereby followers are awarded for accomplishing agreed upon objective" (p 892) If managers do not effectively follow-up on the contingent reward promises, thereby displaying behavioural inconsistency, they are viewed as ineffective leaders Furthermore, research (Howell and Avolio, 1993) suggests that the level of contingent reward leadership is dependent on organizational context and settings For example, an organization undergoing change might suffer from a transactional leadership style (Howell and Avolio, 1993) The penalties, awarded in such a system of managing by exception, have a negative impact on performance and satisfaction (Bass, no date) This stems from the fact the leader passively awaits problems before taking any action By following this strategy, the leader ensures

that corrective action is taken when required and in doing so he reinforces the roles and expectations for the followers Hence, this behaviour represents an important aspect of transactional leadership (Bass, 1990) As can be seen, a transactional leader relies heavily

on power and authority to lead his members Power play and the use of a "reward and penalty" system thus play an integral role in such a leadership style As discussed through various researches, transactional leadership measures are not so effective and in most cases can de motivate employees

A number of researchers have investigated the leadership styles and behavior of managers across hierarchical levels in organisations Stordeuret al (2000) examined the cascading effect of leadership styles across hierarchical levels in a sample of nursing departments in Belgium, with eight hospitals including 41wards The authors also investigated the effect of hierarchical level on the relationships between leadership styles and various work outcomes The results of their work provided no support for a cascading effect of leadership across hierarchical levels The variation of leadership scores in their study was explained primarily by the organisational context They concluded that the hospital’s structure and culture were major determinants of leadership styles McDaniel and Wolf (1992) conducted an empirical study that examined transformational leadership across hierarchical levels in nursing departments and found evidence for a cascading effect

of leadership style The results of their research suggested that leadership patterns tend to replicate from upper to lower organisational levels

However, only a single institution was investigated by the authors Bass et al (1987) used samples of 11 middle level administrators of nursing and 56 first-level supervisors from a government agency in their investigation, which also found evidence for a cascading effect of leadership styles Hence, the results of the research by Stordeuret

al (2000) contradict the earlier findings by Basset al (1987) and McDaniel and Wolf

(1992) Although it is likely to be practised at all organisational levels, Tichy and Ulrich (1984) and Avolio and Bass (1988) found transformational leadership to be particularly evident and stronger at the top level It is suggested that high-level leaders have the opportunity to change organisations through strategic decision-making In contrast, middle and especially first-level leaders are likely to be more transactional in their leadership activities Transactional leaders are concerned with changes through day-to-day activities (Graen and Cashman, 1975) and not with strategic transactions In contrast, transformational leaders are change agents who motivate followers to do more than they initially thought possible Dunham and Klafehn (1990) suggest that transformational leaders transmit a sense of mission and are concerned with long-term objectives These leaders are usually associated with the four “I”s, a description of their activities and roles

in the organisation They treat each worker as an individual (individual consideration), transmit their values and ethical principles (idealised influence), provide challenging goals and communicate a vision of the future (inspirational motivation) and encourage innovative ways of problem solving (intellectual stimulation) Basset al (1987) suggested that more transformational leadership was evident among second-level managers than among first-level managers in the New Zealand organisations they surveyed The authors also showed that individualised consideration and intellectual stimulation correlate across hierarchical levels in their sample It is suggested that whether or not a supervisory leadership style is effective depends on the supervisor’s influence in the hierarchical system Wagner (1965) investigated this claim and the results of his study show that hierarchical influence is a less powerful variable compared with the supportive style of leadership in contributing to the fulfilment of supervisory role obligations However, the author argues that hierarchical influence facilitates the relationship of the style of leadership in several areas of role obligations Writing almost 30 years later, Wang and

Satow (1994) in their study of the leadership styles and behaviour of managers in Japanese joint ventures, found no significant differences between senior and middle-level management They found that while senior level managers scored higher than the middle-level managers in all the functional leadership dimensions examined, the differences recorded were not statistically significant Edwards (2000) summarises in a monograph, the views of several authors on differences in leadership styles and behaviour across hierarchical levels in organisations He reviews the contentions of Peters (1992) and Zuboff (1995) that organisational hierarchies are outdated vis-a `-vis the views of Jacques (1990) who believes otherwise Writing in praise of hierarchy, Jacques (1990, p 127) argues that “properly structured, hierarchy can release energy and creativity, rationalise productivity, and actually improve morale” Edwards (2000) also indicates the belief of Brosnahan (1999) that “hierarchy smothers leadership” versus the views of other contemporary scholars who suggest that hierarchy can be used as a framework for effective organisational leadership (Tichy, 1997) On hierarchy and success, Khaleelee and Woolf (1996) and Nicholls (1994) recommend that leadership should be demonstrated at all levels

Chinese-of an organisational hierarchy, as they believe that effective leadership is a prerequisite for organisational success Khaleelee and Woolf (1996) presented two case studies in their paper to buttress their convictions of the benefits of hierarchical structure in organisations Basset al (1987) reported an interesting relationship within the theory of transactional and transformational leadership, which they call the “falling dominoes effect” It refers to the extent to which transformational leadership behaviour observed at one level of management tends to be seen also at the next level of management Bass et al (1987) gave some reasons for the occurrence of this relationship They suggested that followers may model the behaviour of their superiors or the superiors may select lower-level supervisors who tend to have similar styles of behaviour with themselves It is also possible that certain

leadership behaviours are reinforced by the norms and culture of organisational sub-units The cascading effects revealed in their study may therefore be due, in part, to the culture, values and beliefs within their organisations

Transactional leadership factors:

* Contingent reward.This factor is based on a bargaining exchange system in which the leader and subordinates agree together to accomplish the organizational goals and the leader will provide rewards to them Leaders must clarify the expectations and offer recognition when goals are achieved

* Management-by-exception (active).The leader specifies the standards for compliance, as well as what constitutes ineffective performance, and may punish subordinates for being out of compliance with those standards This style of leadership implies closely monitoring for mistakes, and errors and then taking corrective action as quickly as needed

* Management-by-exception (passive).Passive leaders avoid specifying agreements, clarifying expectations and standards to be achieved by subordinates, but will intervene when specific problems become apparent This style does not respond to situations and problems systematically

needs which agrees with Maslow’s (1954) hierarchy of needs Bass (1985) refined and expanded Burns’ leadership theory Bass said that a leader is “one who motivates us to do more than we originally expected to do” (p 20) He said that this motivation could be achieved by raising the awareness level about the importance of outcomes and ways to reach them Bass also said that leaders encourage followers to go beyond self-interest for the good of the team or the organization An expanded and refined version of Burn’s transformational leadership theory has been utilized in organizations since the 1980s (Bass, 1985; Bass, Waldman, Avolio, & Bebb, 1987; Tichy & Devanna, 1986) The use of this theory concentrated on exchanges between leaders and followers inside the organization Transformational leadership serves as a means to “create and sustain a context for building human capacity by identifying and developing core values and unifying purpose, liberating human potential and generating increased capacity, developing leadership and effective followership, utilizing interaction-focused organizational design, and building interconnectedness” (Hickman, 1997, p 2)

Transformational leaders work to bring about human and economic transformation Within the organization they generate visions, missions, goals, and a culture that contributes to the ability of individuals, groups, and the organization to “practice its values and serve its purpose” (Hickman, 1997, p 9) These leaders are reliable leaders who generate commitment from followers which results in a sense of shared purpose (Waddock

& Post, 1991) The leader’s ability to inspire, motivate, and foster commitment to a shared purpose is crucial (Bass, Waldman et al., 1987) Several studies have documented important connections between transformational leadership and organizational operation Transformational leadership has been linked to an array of outcomes, such as employee commitment to the organization (Barling, Weber, & Kelloway, 1996) and job satisfaction and satisfaction with a leader (Koh, Steers, & Terborg, 1995; Lowe & Kroeck, 1996)

Bryman (1992) discovered that transformational leadership is positively related to a number of important organizational outcomes including perceived extra effort, organizational citizenship behaviors, and job satisfaction According to Trice and Beyer (1993) and Schein (1985), leadership can change and sustain the culture of the organization

by generating new or reinforcing established sets of beliefs, shared values, practices, and norms within organizations Trust in the workplace is another outcome that is developed through the organization’s leaders (Creed & Miles, 1996; Shaw, 1997) Literature concerning trust suggests that it is a central feature in the relationship that transformational leaders have with their followers (Butler, Cantrell, & Flick, 1999; Gillespie & Mann, 2000; Podsakoff, MacKenzie, & Bommer, 1996)

Transformational leaders are assumed to “stimulate followers to perform beyond the level of expectations” (Bass, 1985, p 32) Therefore, itseems likely that transformational leaders, by stimulating followers’ organizational citizenship behavior (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Moorman, & Fetter, 1990), enhance quality and quantity of follower performance Bass (1990) theorized that transformational leadership creates employees who are unselfish, faithful, and connected to the organization These types of employees often perform beyond what is expected of them (Bass, 1985) inrelation to their job descriptions Several studies have shown a direct connection between transformational leadership and the following organizational citizenship behaviors: virtue, helping, sportsmanship, courtesy, and altruism (MacKenzie et al., 2001; Pillai, Schriesheim, & Williams, 1999; Podsakoff et al., 1990) Based on past empirical research (Zellars, Tepper,

& Duffy, 2002; Koh et al., 1995), Schlechter and Engel brecht (2006) concluded that transformational leadership has a direct and an indirect impact on organizational citizenship behavior

The influence of transformational leaders on organizational cultures can be seen in the employees who work in the organization (Tucker & Russell, 2004) Transformational leaders help subordinates discover who they are and whatpart they play in helping the organization achieve its mission By interacting with subordinates in this manner, transformational leaders help subordinates increase their level of commitment to the organization (Tucker & Russell) Transformational leaders also influence the organization’s culture through its impact on organizational productivity When the values and the culture of an organization are accentuated by transformational leaders, productivity and innovation within the organization improves (Niehoff, Enz, & Grover, 1990) Moreover, transformational leaders influence organizational culture by helping organizations see the world in different ways (Mink, 1992) As the external environment of the organization changes, transformational leaders influence organizational culture by helping organizations adapt to this new environment (Smith, 1990) Studies in various organizational types such as the military (Bass, Avolio, & Goodheim, 1987), religious organizations (Smith, Carson, & Alexander, 1984), industry (Avolio & Bass, 1987; Hatter

& Bass, 1988), technology (Howell & Higgins, 1990), and laboratory settings (Waldman, Bass, & Einstein, 1987) all demonstrate that transformational leaders provide the leadership style which produces effective organizations (Sashkin, 1987) According to Schein (1992), “Organizational culture can determine the degree of effectiveness of the organization either through its strength or through its type” (p 24) Weese (1995) conducted a study on several university sports programs and the results showed that transformational leaders have organizations with strong cultures and are better than other leaders at providing activities which continue to build culture

Transformational leadership has four components: idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration (Bass, 1985) which

involves motivating people, establishing a foundation for leadershipauthority and integrity, and inspiring a shared vision of the future (Tracey & Hinkin, 1998) Idealized influence and inspirational motivation are connected with the leader’s ability to formulate and articulate a shared vision (Dionne, Yammarino, Atwater, & Spangler, 2004) The leader exudes power and impacts followers through visionary means (Bass, 1985) Developing a transparent vision and inspiring subordinates to pursue the vision is ofgreat importance to transformational leaders (Lievens, Van Geit, and Coetsier, 1997) According to Tucker and Russell (2004), Transformational leaders emphasize new possibilities and promote a compelling vision of the future A strong sense of purpose guides their vision Transforming organizations led by transforming leaders appeal to human characteristics that lift their sights above the routine, everyday elements of a mechanistic, power-oriented system Transformational leaders manifest passionate inspiration (Hersey & Blanchard, 1996) and visibly model appropriate behaviors (Kouzes & Posner, 1987) The goal is change that raises the organizations to new and exciting possibilities To reach the goal, organizations must receive new energy and vision from their leaders The process of transformational leadership grows out of this sense of vision and energy (p 105) Several studies (Davidhizer & Shearer, 1997;Keller, 1995; King, 1994; Mink, 1992; Wofford & Goodwin, 1994; Zaccaro & Banks, 2001) have been conducted that demonstrate a positive relationship between transformational leaders and organizational vision Transformational leaders are necessary in all organizations The primary goal of these leaders is to change the current structure of the organization and inspire organizational employees to believe in

a new vision that has new opportunities (Tucker & Russell)for the individual and the organization as a whole

Coad (2002) presents a counterpoint to a “falling dominoes effect”, whereby transformational leadership at high levels in a managerial hierarchy appears to cascade to

lower levels The author presented a case study which shows that the effect may be blocked by the delegation of authority, by self-serving behaviour by a powerful group member, and through a lack of appropriate training and development at middle management levels Coad therefore cautions against the assumption that the falling dominoes effect is automatic The research by Nealey and Blood (1968) was based on the hypothesis that effective leadership style and behaviour patterns would differ across supervisory levels Their hypothesis was confirmed in the study Task-oriented leaders received higher performance ratings at the first level of supervision while relationship-oriented leaders performed better at the second level of supervision This suggests that satisfaction with a leadership style at one level doesn’t necessarily transfer to the organisational level above or the level below From the results of their meta-analysis, for example, Lowe et al (1996) found transactional leadership at higher organisational levels and transformational leadership at lower levels Their results thus contradict those of Basset al (1987) and Avolio and Bass (1988) Kabacoff (1999) presented a paper that showed differences in the leadership styles and practices of individuals representing seven management levels and nine job functions within North American organisations Hunt (1996) commented on the large number of studies that examine some aspect of leadership

by hierarchical level While he claims that the studies do not advance our knowledge much and indeed, that they have little conceptual justification, he nevertheless felt that the studies reveal the intuitive feeling by researchers that organisational level must be an important leadership contingency Perhaps, since a certain amount of authority rests with incumbents at various organisation levels, with greater authority at higher levels, the management concept of scalar chain of command tends to be automatically transferred and applied to leadership situations within organisations This is the argument by scholars such

as Simon (1977) and by organisation theorists such as Osbornet al (1980) The systems

model, Katz and Kahn (1978), is an embodiment of such work Indeed, the work by (Mintzberg, 1980) contains a number of propositions about variations in the content of managerial work and role by organisational level Similarly, Yukl (2002) suggests that there are differences in job requirements and discretion across levels in organisations and that hierarchy is one of the determinants of leadership style

From the various studies reviewed so far, we can identify a number of specific findings On transactional leadership, Bass et al (1987) found that “management-by-exception” was more evident at lower levels of the organisation compared with the higher levels Bass (1998) therefore inferred that “management-by-exception” is likely to be more frequently exhibited at lower levels of management in both the New Zealand and the US managers, which he studied In his 1987 study, Bass found that “contingent reward” was more evident at higher organisational levels On “intellectual stimulation”, one of the transformational leadership factors, Loweet al (1996) found that the variable is equally important in its relationship with effectiveness for low and high-level leaders This finding contradicts those of Tichy and Devanna (1986) that “intellectual stimulation” of subordinates is more important at higher levels of the organisation Colvin (2001) presented a paper, “Leading from the middle: a challenge for middle managers” at the Festschrift for Bernard Bass After explaining the context of the middle manager, the paper discusses some problem areas for middle managers and followers It discusses the role of middle managers and did not particularly concern itself with the leadership styles and behaviour of this group It is a reflective paper and it had no empirical results to discuss It would have been interesting to see, in an empirically based paper, the aspects of leadership styles and leadership behaviour dimensions where middle-level leaders differ significantly from either senior or lower-level leaders It can thus be seen that the literature on leadership styles and behavior contains some disagreement regarding the relationship of

transformational leadership to level in the organisational hierarchy-some researchers reporting transformational leadership to be more prevalent at higher levels of the organisation while others suggesting little evidence of such hierarchical differences Ditto for transactional leadership There is, therefore, inconsistency in findings from studies of transformational and transactional leadership The following research was designed to test, among other things, whether there are differences in leadership styles and behaviour across hierarchical levels in UK organisations, where there are very few published articles on the subject

The Full Range Leadership model, developed by Bass and Avolio (see Avolio & Bass, 1991) is comprised of both transactional and transformational leadership Elements

of both types of leadership are arranged on a vertical axis measuring effectiveness (ineffective to effective) and a horizontal axis measuring involvement (passive to active) Transactional leadership styles tend to fall in the ineffective and passive quadrant, while transformational leadership styles largely fall in the effective and active quadrant of the model Although this seems to indicate that transformational leadership is superior to transactional leadership, transformational leadership researchers argue that the two may actually complement each other To further clarify between the two, we now examine the four dimensions of each type of leadership

The four dimensions of transactional leadership are generally referred to as contingent reward, management by exception (active), management by exception (passive), and laissez-faire In the case of contingent reward, leaders provide resources in exchange for follower support (Bass, 1990) Management by exception has two facets, active and passive In the active sense, leaders monitor followers performance and take corrective action when necessary In the case of passive management ment the effects of

transactional leadership, which suggests that the best leaders tend to be both transactional and transformational (Bass, 1985)

Comparison between transformational and transactional leadership

James Macgregor Burns distinguished between transactional leaders and transformational by explaining that: transactional leader are leaders who exchange tangible rewards for the work and loyalty of followers Transformational leaders are leaders who engage with followers, focus on higher order intrinsic needs, and raise consciousness about the significance of specific outcomes and new ways in which those outcomes might be achieved (Hay, 2012) Transactional leaders tend to be more passive as transformational leaders demonstrate active behaviours that include providing a sense of mission Transactional vs Transformational Leadership is responsive Leadership is proactive Works within the organisational culture works to change the organisational culture by implementing new ideas employees achieve objectives through rewards and punishments set by leader employees achieve objectives through higher ideals and moral values Motivates followers by appealing to their own self interest Motivates followers by encouraging them to put group interests first Management by exception: maintain the status quo; stress correct actions to improve performance Individualised consideration: Each behaviour is directed to each individual to express consideration and support Intellectual stimulation: Promote creative and innovative ideas to solve problems Douglas McGregor's Theory Y and Theory X can also be compared with these two leadership styles Theory X can be compared with Transactional Leadership where managers need to rule by fear and consequences In this style and theory, negative behaviour is punished and employees are motivated through incentives Theory Y and Transformational Leadership are found to be similar, because the theory and style supports the idea that managers work to encourage their workers Leaders

assume the best of their employees They believe them to be trusting, respectful, and motivated The leaders help to supply the followers with tool they need to excel

self-Leadership and Its Nature

Different definitions of leadership

1.1 The process by which an agent induces a subordinate to behave in a desired manner (Bensis, 1959)

1.2 The presence of a particular influence relationship between two or more persons (Hollander and Julian, 1969)

1.3 The process of influencing and organized group toward accomplishing its goal (Roach and Behling, 1984)

1.4 Transforming followers, creating visions of the goals they may attaining and articulating the ways to attain those goals (Bass, 1985, Tichy and Devanna, 1986) 1.5 An interpersonal relation in which others comply because they want to, not because they have to (Merton, 1969; Hogan, Curphy and Hogan, 1996)

1.6 Actions that focus resources to create desirable opportunities (Campbell, 1996) When defining leadership, it is but natural to look at the relationship between it and management Management is associated in many people’s minds with words like efficiency, planning, paperwork, procedures, regulations, control and consistency Leadership is associated more with words like risk taking, dynamic creativity, change and vision

Leaders manage and managers lead but the two activities are not synonymous According o classical management theories, the purpose of management is to keep complex human system running optionally in line with established criteria Thus, managers traditionally have been thought to perform the planning, investigating, coordinating,

organizing, and controlling functions in an organization (Davis, 1942; Machenzie ,1969; Mahoney, Jerdee and Carroll, 1965)

Management theories have paid relatively little attention to the face to face interactions manager have with followers in order to accomplish organizational goals This face to face interaction with the followers are generally seen as leadership function; leaders focus more on resolving conflicts in groups, providing emotional support to group members, maintaining group cohesiveness and satisfaction and working with group members to set group goals (Bales, 1958; Bass, 1990; Mann, 1965)

Bennis (1985) characterized managers as people who do things right and leaders as who do right things Several more follow ( Bennis, 1989)

1 Managers administer; leaders innovative

2 Managers maintain; leaders develop

3 Managers control; leader inspire

4 Managers have a short-term view; leaders, along time view

5 Managers ask how and when; leaders ask what and why

6 Managers initiate, leaders originate

7 Managers accept the status quo; leaders challenge it

Leadership styles- are approach a manager use to influence others These elements

of a manager’s leadership style are composed of three parts: how they choose to motivate, their decision making styles and their areas of emphasis (orientation) in the work environment

1 Positive or Negative Motivation

Leaders influence others toward goal achievement through their approach to motivation Positive leadership style deals in praise and recognition, monetary rewards,

increase of security and the addition od responsibility Negative leadership emphasizes penalties; loss of the job, suspension and public reprimands

Positive leadership styles encourage development of workers through the creation

of higher job satisfaction while negative leadership styles are based on threats and the ability to withhold items of value from employees

Autocratic leadership style- the main consideration of this type of leadership style

is a strong emphasis on the task (production) and little concern for people making is solely made by the manager and announces it to the work group

Decision-Participative leadership- a leadership style where there is a large amount of concern for both production and people This style is characterized by the manager’s involving the subordinates in the decision The involvement in decision making is a matter of degree and can range from the first to the last four levels of participation that follow:

1 The manager presents a tentative solution subject to change based on employee input

2 The manager presents a problem to the employees, solicits their input and makes the decision

3 The manager defines the limit of the problem and the employees make the decision

4 The manager and the employees jointly make the decision

The free-rein style of leadership or laiszes faire is a leadership style in which the leader shares power with subordinates by basically permitting them to establish their own goals and to be responsible for their own performance It can work with some professionals, but it is too unstructured in most situations This style is characterized by the leaders’ encouraging the individual or group to function independently In this style, the

leaders’ role is to serve as a logistics specialist or representative of the group outside

groups

2 Task Orientation and Employee Orientation

The final element of leadership is the manager’s perspective on the most effective

way of getting work done There are two key areas of orientation: task and employee

orientation

A manager who favor a task orientation places emphasis on getting the job done

through better methods or equipment, control of the work environment, assigning and

organizing work, one-person decision making and monitoring through evaluation of

performance If this is the sole emphasis of a manager, it could lead to turnover,

absenteeism, and decreased job satisfaction

Different approaches of management

1 Contingency theories of Leadership by Fred Fiedler- which emphasizes that no one

style of leadership is completely effective for all situations A task-oriented leadership

is completely effective for all situations A task-oriented leader, for example, performs

most effectively in situations that are very favorable for the leader, whereas

relation-oriented leaders perform most effectively on situations that are moderately favorable

to the leader

He holds that the most appropriate style of leadership depends on the situation in

which a manager works; Situational favorableness was described by Fiedler in terms

of three empirically derived dimensions:

1 The leader-member relationship, which refers to the degree to which the leaders

is or feels accepted by the group

2 The degree of task structure concerns the nature of the subordinate’s job or task

It reflects the degree of structure in the job: a structured job would have complexity and variety and room for creativity

3 The leader position power describes the organizational power based from which the individual manager operates To what degree can the leader punish or reward within the organization? The power can range from strong (vice president of marketing) to weak (second staff assistant)

A close examination of Fiedler’s model will show us that task-oriented leaders perform best with either low or high concentrations of power and influence Employee-oriented leaders perform best with moderate power, control and influence over a situation

2 Path Goal Theory of leadership is a situational theory that recognizes that employees are motivated to the extent that the leader helps them to attain their goal It is concerned with the ways in which a leader can influence a subordinate’s motivation, goals and attempts at achievement It suggests that a leadership style is effective or ineffective on the basis of how the leader influences the perceptions of:

1 work goals or reward of subordinates

2 paths (behaviors) that lead to successful goal accomplishment

According to Robert House and Terrence Mithchell, subordinates are motivated by

a leader’s behavior This behavior influences both goal attractiveness and the paths available to reach the goals Their theory contains two propositions concerning leader behavior:

1 Leader behavior is acceptable and satisfying to subordinates to the extent that they view such behavior as either an immediate source of satisfaction or an instrument

to future satisfaction

2 Leader behavior will increase subordinates efforts if it links satisfaction of their needs to effective performance, and is supportive of their efforts to achieve goal performance

Briefly, the House version of the theory incorporates four major types or styles of leadership They are as follows:

1 Directive or instrumental leadership- subordinates know exactly what is expected of them and the leader gives specific directions There is no participation by subordinates

2 Supportive leadership- the leader is friendly and approachable and shows a genuine concerns for subordinates It is concerned for the welfare and needs of subordinates

3 Participative leadership- it involves using subordinates ideas in decision making

4 Achievement-oriented leadership- involves both developing a highly challenging climate for an employee and demanding good performance The leader sets challenging goals for subordinates and shows confidence that they will attain these goals and perform well

3 Transformational Leadership Theory by Burns and Bass (1994) refers to a leader who

is able to touch the needs and values of his/her followers in a way that raises the motivational levels of all concerned and often turns them in a new direction

Burns identified two types of political leadership, transactional and transformational (Howel and Avelis, 1992) The more traditional transactional leadership involves an exchange relationship between leaders and followers, but tarsnformational leadership is based more on leaders’ shifting the values, beliefs, and needs of their followers