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1 Structurally, how many types of word can be found in the English language? Structurally, there are 4 types of words + Root words (Words have only a root morpheme in its structure) Eg house, book, de.
1 Structurally, how many types of word can be found in the English language? Structurally, there are types of words: + Root words (Words have only a root morpheme in its structure) Eg: house, book, desk, plant, etc + Derived words (Words consist of a root and an affix or several affixes) Eg: teacher, careless, etc + Compound words (Words consist of two or more stems) Eg: mother-in-law, fanclub, etc + Shortenings/contracted words: (Words formed by contracting one/a certain element of an existing word or word group Eg: MP, CIA, UNICEF, gym, etc What is affixation? Affixation is a way of word-building in which a new word is formed by adding an affix or several affixes to a/some root morpheme/morphemes Eg: art → artist to care → careless (adj) → careness (n) careful (adj) → carefully (adv) What is conversion? Conversion is a process by which a word belonging to one word class is transferred to another word class without any morphemic change Advs Ns: ups and downs Conjunctions Ns: ifs Adjs Ns: a native Vs Ns: the walk Adjs Vs: green, yellow Ns Vs: access, eye What is composition? How many types can compounds be classified into? Composition/compounding: formation of new words by combining two or more existing words Structurally, compounds can be divided into: neutral, morphological, & syntactic compounds Neutral compounds (formed by combining stems without using any linking elements): - Simple neutral compounds (components are root words): Eg.: house-boat, blackboard, table-tennis - Derivational compounds (1 or more components are derived words): Eg: clear-sighted, stage-artist, eye-opener - Contracted compounds (1 component is a contracted word): Eg: CIA – agent, H-bomb Morphological compounds: formed by combining stems with the help of a linking vowel or consonant: E.g: sportsman, handicraft Syntactic compounds: are chunks/strings of words formed from segments of speech, preserving in their structure numerous traces of syntagmatic relations typical of speech: E.g: lady-in-waiting, know-all Semantically, compounds can be classified into: non-idiomatic & idiomatic compounds Non-idiomatic compounds: whose meanings can be regarded as the sum of the meanings of their components: Eg: school-bag, toy-car Idiomatic compounds: whose meanings not correspond to the meanings of their components: Eg.: greengrocer, money-under-the-table, butter-fly What is shortening? Clipping? Blending? Abbriviation? Shortening: formation of new words by contracting certain elements of existing words or word groups: Clipping: excluding certain part of the existing word: - Initial clipping: violoncello - cello - Final clipping: laboratory - lab - Initial-final clipping: detective - tec - Medial clipping: mathematics – maths Abbreviations: the process in which a word is formed from the initials of the word groups E.g: UNO (United Nations Organization) Blending: merging parts of existing words into one to form a new word E.g: camera + recorder = camcorder What are the main types of transference? Two main types of transference are: Metaphor: is the transference based on resemblance or similarity between two things (phenomena, qualities, etc.) • Patterns of metaphor: - Appearance: eye - part of human body → eye of the potato - Position: foot - part of human body → foot of the mountain - Function: key - to the door → key to the exercise - Quality, characteristic: star - celestial body → movie star, pop star fox - kind of animal → foxy Metonymy: Transference based on understood association (contiguity) or relatedness, name of one thing is replaced with another associated with it Patterns of metonymy: - Container for contained: glasses/bottles - Possessor for possessed/attribute: hand - Geographical names for products: bordeaux, cognac - Names of inventors for inventions: mackintosh - Materials for products: glass, silver - Represented entity for representative: the Kremlin, the White House - Whole for part: the village, the city - Part for whole: roof What is specialization? Generalization? Degeneration? Elevation? Generalization is the extension of semantic capacity of a word during its historical development process The meaning of a word becomes more general than its historical earlier form Eg: camp - military barracks → any place where people can stay for holiday Specialization is the restriction of semantic capacity of a word during its historical development process The meaning of a word becomes less general than its earlier historical form Eg: queen - any wife → wife of King meat - any food in Old English → flesh taken from any animal for food Degeneration is the acquisition of less emotive, less pleasant meaning of a word during its historical development process The meaning of a word becomes less positive or less favorable Eg: cunning - knowing, skillful → clever at deceiving people Elevation is the acquisition of more emotive, more pleasant meaning of a word during its historical development process The meaning of a word becomes more positive or more favorable Eg: nice (ignorant) foolish delightful, pleasant What is homonym? Traditionally, how many types can homonym be classified into? Homonyms: words that are the same in pronunciation & spelling, or at least in one of these aspects, but different in their meanings Traditionally, homonyms can be classified into types: + Homonyms proper: Words that are the same in sound and spelling Eg: Marriage is not a word but a sentence + Homophones: Words that are the same in sound but different in spelling Eg: I’ve never seen such a beautiful scene + Homographs: words that are the same in spelling but different in sound Eg: Record: (n) facts known about a person’s past (v) to officially state According to Smirnitsky, how many types can homonym be classified into? Full homonyms (full lexical homonyms): words which have the same category of parts of speech and paradigm E.g: ball (n) a gathering of people for dancing ball (n) a round object used in games Partial homonyms: Simple lexico-grammatical partial homonyms: words which belong to the same category of parts of speech Their paradigms have identical form, but it’s never the same form E.g: to fell (v) – fell (v) as P1 of fall Complex lexico-grammatical partial homonyms: words of different categories of parts of speech E.g: way (n) – weigh (v) right (n) – right (adj) Partial lexical homonyms: words of the same category of parts of speech which are identical only in their corresponding forms E.g: to lie (lay, lain) to lie (lied, lied) 10 What are synonyms? How many types can synonyms can be classified into? Words belong to the same part of speech and possess one or more identical or nearly identical denotational meanings, interchangeable in some contexts Ideographic synonyms: words conveying the same notion but different in shades of meaning E.g: lonely - alone Stylistic synonyms: words conveying the same notion but different in stylistic characteristics E.g: build - construct Absolute/perfect/complete synonyms: words coincide in all their shades of meaning and stylistic characteristics Absolute synonyms are rare E.g: spirant – fricative, Very Important Person - VIP Contextual synonyms: words that are similar in meaning only under some specific distributional conditions E.g: It was a big love with tears and vows, and I wanted nothing serious – no tears, no vows, no talks about the future Dominant synonym: a central word of a group of synonyms expressing the notion common to all synonyms of the group in the most general way, without contributing any additional information as to the manner, intensity, duration or any attending feature of the referent E.g: leave – depart – quit – retire – clear out 11 What are the main types of connotations? Connotation of intensity degree (shows how strongly/intensely an action is performed or takes place) E.g: to surprise – to astonish – to amaze – to astound Connotation of duration E.g: to talk – to speak Emotive connotation E.g: to chuckle – to sneer – to grin Evaluative connotation: convey speaker's attitude toward the referent (negative/positive) E.g: team – band - gang Causative connotation E.g: to shudder - to shiver Connotation of manner E.g: to ask – to question – to interrogate Connotation of attendant circumstances E.g: to peep – to peer Connotation of attendant features E.g: flat – villa – cottage - bungalow Stylistic connotation E.g: man – chap/fellow – bloke/guy – gentleman 12 What are antonyms? How many types of antonyms? Antonyms are two (rarely more) words of the part of speech which have contrasting meanings Three types of antonyms: Rootword (absolute) antonyms: words which are completely different in sound and form Gradable/polar antonyms: polar members of a gradual opposition which may have intermediate elements & always imply comparison which is clear from context: E.g: beautiful – pretty – good – looking – plain - ugly Complementary antonyms: complementarity = binary opposition; may include only members Denial of one member means assertion of the other E.g: not true means false Relational antonyms: relationship between members is reciprocal Converses denote the same subject as viewed from different points of view: E.g: husband – wife, before – after Derivational antonyms: words which are formed by derivation (they originate from the same root): E.g: code - decode Antonymic pairs from set expressions: E.g: by accident – on purpose 13 What are euphemisms? How to create euphemisms? Euphemism is substitution of a mild, indirect or even a vague word or expression for an offensive, direct or unpleasant one Foreign words: E.g brassiere; lingerie; urination; etc Abbreviations: E.g PMS (premenstrual syndrome); the F-word; LGBT; etc Abstractions: E.g it; problem; thing; etc Indirectness: E.g Go to the toilet (pooping) = excuse oneself for a few minutes, to be back shortly Understatements: E.g to lie = not to be completely truthful to fire someone = to let (sb) go to be fired = to receive a pink slip Lengthy expressions: E.g loss = negative contribution to profit drug addict = get high, go on a trip, get a fix Phonetic alterations/distortions: E.g F - = Fustercluck Motherchucker Basshole God damn it = Dadgummit Slang: E.g Large amount of money = big bucks Small change of money = chickenfeed Event-based euphemisms: often short-lived, but some are durable E.g duty = sex (in the ancient Rome) homosexuality = the passion of the cut sleeve 14 Find cases of conversion and say why you can deduce the meaning of the converted words Hand in your papers, please Hand (n): a part of the human body Hand (v): to pass or give something to somebody The new agreement has just been inked Ink (n): coloured liquid for writing, drawing and printing Ink (v): to sign a document Why didn’t you email me? Email (n): a way of sending messages and data to other people Email (v): to send a message to somebody by email You should learn all the dos and donts in their families Do (auxiliary verb): used before a full verb to form negative sentences and questions Dos and don’ts (n): rules that you should follow Don’t talk the talk if you can’t walk the walk Talk (v): to say things Talk (n): a conversation or discussion Walk (v): to move or go somewhere on foot Walk (n): a journey on foot 15 Define the type of transference used in the following proverbs 1 Many hands make light work metonymy - part and the whole Birds of a feather flock together metaphor - quality, characteristics Two heads are better than one metonymy - part and the whole Barking dogs seldom bite metaphor - quality, characteristics Necessity is the mother of invention metaphor – cause and effect Diamond cut diamond metaphor – quality, characteristics There is no smoke without fire metaphor – cause and effect Blood is thicker than water metaphor – quality, characteristics Still waters run deep metaphor – quality, characteristics 10.The last drop makes the cup run over Metonymy – notion and symbol 16 Indicate the homonyms in the following extracts Classify them into homonym proper, homophones, homographs Q: Where does this road lead to? A: A lead mine Lead (v) – lead (n): homographs Why was six scared of seven? Because seven ‘ate’ nine Eight – ate (v): homophones Q: Why did the Tomato go out with a prune? A: Because he could find a date! Date (n) – Date (n): homonym proper Q: What happens to grapes when you step on them? A: They whine Whine (v) – Wine (n): homophones A: Why did he refuse to eat the food? B: He thought it refuse Refuse (n) – Refuse (v): homographs 17 Provide homonyms for the italicized words in the following jokes and classify in accordance with Smirnisky’s view A: My friend’s dog has chased and snapped a bird B: a little swallow Swallow – uncoutable N Swallow – countable N Simple lexico-grammatical partial homonyms A: She contracted a lust for money B: Any change? Change – uncoutable N Change – countable N Simple lexico-grammatical partial homonyms A: How athletes stay cool during a game? B: They stand near the fans Fan – coutable N Fan – coutable N Full homonyms A: What lights up a football pitch at night? B: A football match Match – coutable N Match – coutable N Full homonyms A: What oceans often say to each other? B: Nothing They just wave Wave (n) – Wave (v) Complex lexico-grammatical partial homonyms 18 Decide the way through which the following euphemisms were created • Oh my gosh, Frickin, "Darn", "Oh, shoot" Phonetic distortion • Not so big for "short" Understatement • Not true for a lie; hurt for injured Understatement • Janitor (Latin) for doorman Foreign word • Uncertain period or transition to democracy for military coup d'état Lengthy expression • It for excrement Abstraction • Going to the other side for death Lengthy expression • Drinking for consuming alcohol, "men's room" for men's toilet Abstraction • Inspired by instead of "ripped off" or "plagiarized" Understatement • Hooked up, laid for sexual intercourse; hooker for prostitute Slang • STD for sexually transmitted diseases Abbreviation 19 Find the antonyms in the following sayings Classify them into subgroups In harmony with the inner and so with the outer, with causes in harmony with conditions, in peace and well-being one is truly free Inner – outer: Complementary antonyms The relationship between a husband and a wife is governed by martial arts, not logic Husband – wife: Relational antonyms To criticize less and praise more is a good way to avoid creating nagative karma of speech Criticize – praise: Complementary antonyms Less – more: Gradable/polar antonyms Cultivate a big heart – but a small ego Big – small: Gradable/polar antonyms Keep your ears and eyes wide open, but mouth tight shut; be quick your hands and legs, but slow to spend Wide – tight: Relational antonyms Shut – Open: Relational antonyms Slow – quick: Gradable/polar antonyms Ears and eyes – hands and legs: Relational antonyms 20 Analyze the connotations of the synonyms in the following extracts Say what group of connotations they can belong to Prices have soared and incomes plunged Between August and November prices of consumption gods shot up 32,6%, compared to an increase of 15.5% in the first half of 2013 under the former communist-led government The inflation rate skyrocketed to 66% in the August-November period, compared to 16% in the first six months of the year Connotation of intensity degree The government's four year plan, announced at the end of 2013, aims to privatize 60% of state property The focus areas for 2014: land, housing, and state enterprises The objective is to ensure the goal of development Causative connotation The real income of the population decreased by 30% during the first four months of the new government The currency also took a beating By the year end, the tugrik had dropped to around 700 to the dollar, from 550 to the dollar on July Connotation of intensity degree The condominium boom began in early 1990s, when bubble economy collapsed and land prices began to plunge Emotive connotation The number of new tower condo units in central Tokyo reached 3.944 in 2000, a rise of 150% from 1999 The Tokyo-based Real Estate Economic Institute estimates construction of these buildings will continue to surge for the next few years Connotation of intensity degree The majority of buyers were middle-aged and elderly couples who wanted a more convenient way of life than available in the suburb, but the time is long past when any old high-rise condo will sell well Stylistic connotation