Lý thuyết tiếng tổng hợp (for internal use only)

THE MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING HA NOI OPEN UNIVERSITY ***** LÝ THUYẾT TIẾNG TỔNG HỢP (Integrated Theories of English Language) (For Internal Use Only) Edited by Võ Thành Trung, MA Hồ Ngọc Trung, Dr Hoàng Tuyết Minh, Dr Lê Thị Vy, MA Nguyễn Thế Hóa, MA HANOI – 2021 CONTENTS CONTENTS .1 ABBREVIATION .5 PREFACE CHAPTER I ENGLISH PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY .7 UNIT 1: ENGLISH PHONEMES Phone, Phoneme, and Allophone 2.Sound Classes: Vowels, Consonants .8 2.1 Vowels 2.2 Consonants 11 UNIT 2: ENGLISH SYLLABLE AND STRESS 14 I The English syllable .14 The nature of syllable 14 The structure of the English syllable .14 Strong and weak syllables .15 English stress 16 UNIT 3: ASPECTS OF CONNECTED SPEECH .21 I Rhythm 21 II Assimilation 21 Kinds of assimilation across word boundaries 22 Rules 22 Assimilation of manner of articulation 23 Assimilation of voicing 23 III Elision 23 IV Linking .24 UNIT4: ENGLISH INTONATION .25 I Definition 25 II Functions of intonation 25 Attitudinal function 25 Accentual function 26 Grammatical function 26 Discourse function 26 III The basic English tunes 26 The falling tune - The glide down 26 The first rising tune - The glide up .27 The second rising tune - The take off 28 The falling-rising tune - The dive 28 REFERENCES 30 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 31 PRACTICE 35 CHAPTER 2: LEXICOLOGY-SEMANTICS .51 Overview 51 UNIT 1: WORD STRUCTURE AND FORMATION 53 I The morpheme .53 I Word formation 54 UNIT 2: LEXICAL MEANING 58 I Classification of meaning 58 II The motivation of English words 58 III Homonymy and polysemy 59 Homonyms 58 Polysemy 58 Synonymy .60 Lexical variants and paronyms 61 Antonymy 62 Full and empty words 62 The change and development of meaning 62 UNIT 3: SENTENCE MEANING AND UTTERANCE MEANING 67 I Sentence meaning 67 Structural meaning 67 Representational meaning: 67 Interpersonal meaning: 67 II Textual function: 68 Proposition 68 III Utterance meaning 68 Performative utterance and constative utterance 68 Components of a speech act 69 Indirect speech acts .69 Presupposition .69 Implicature 70 LECTURE IV: PHRASEOLOGY 71 Structural features of set expressions 71 Semantic features of set expressions .71 Proverbs and idioms 72 REFERENCES 73 QUESTION FOR DISCUSSION 74 PRACTICE 78 CHAPTER GRAMMAR .93 Overview 93 UNIT 1: PARTS OF SPEECH 95 I Parts of speech – the classification .97 The Noun: 97 The Verb: 95 The Adjective: .97 The Adverb: 97 II Parts of speech – the grammatical categories 97 The Noun: .97 The Verb 98 The Adjective & Adverb: 98 UNIT 2: PHRASES- STRUCTURES AND SYNTACTIC FUNCTIONS 99 I Noun phrase: 100 Structure 100 Syntactic functions 101 II Verb phrase: .101 Structure 101 Syntactic functions 102 III Adjective phases: 101 IV Adverb phrases .103 Structure .103 Syntactic functions .103 V Prepositional phrase: .103 Structure 103 Syntactic functions 103 UNIT 3: CLAUSES 104 I Classification 104 Based on usage 104 Based on structure .103 UNIT 4: SENTENCES 108 I Sentence/clause elements 112 II Classification 114 III Applications of the basic structures 116 REFERENCES 118 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 119 PRACTICE 123 SAMPLE TEST No1 .163 SAMPLE TEST No 166 SAMPLE TEST No 170 ABBREVIATION A: Adverbial Adj: Adjective Adv: adverb Attr: Attributive C: Complement C: Consonant Cadj: Adjective complement Co: Object complement Cprep: Prepositional complement Cs: Subject complement Det: Determiner FCL: Finite clause N: Noun NFCL: Non-finite clause NP: Noun phrase O: Object Post-mod: Post-modifier Pre-mod: Pre-modifier Prep: Preposition Prep: Preposition(al) S: Subject Stat: Stative Sub-Cl: Subordinate clause V: Verb V: Verb phrase V: Vowel PREFACE As a system, language is sub-divided into three basic sub-systems, each of which is a system in its own turn They are the phonological, lexical and grammatical systems The phonological system includes the material units of which language is made up: sounds, phonemes, different intonation models, and accent models The phonological system of language is studied by a separate branch of linguistics called phonology The lexical system includes all the nominative (naming) means of language – words and stable word-combinations The lexical system is studied by lexicology The grammatical system includes the rules and regularities of using lingual units in the construction of utterances in the process of human communication The grammatical system is described by grammar as a branch of linguistics Each sub-system distinguishes not only its own set of elements, but its own structural organization The textbook, An Integrated Language Theories Course Book, is compiled basing on the syllabus and the curriculum of the Faculty of English approved by Hanoi Open University in accordance with the educational regulations of the Ministry of Education and Training This material is designed mainly from theoretical and practical perspective, and it comprises parts, Phonetics and Phonology, Lexi-Semantics and Grammar, each with several lectures, which are expected to correspond to credits (45 classroom hours) assigned in the curriculum Each lecture is made up of objectives, main contents, questions for discussion and exercises All the information on the theory and in practice is presented and arranged logically from the general concepts to the specific features This textbook is just for internal use only The textbook can be considered as a guidebook which summarizes, highlights and emphasizes the essential matters that students of English should firmly grasp and thoroughly understand so that they can make use of the English language in a precise and expert way The textbook is edited mostly by lecturer Vo Thanh Trung and it cannot be completed without the help from other lecturers, Associate Professors Ho Ngoc Trung and Hoang Tuyet Minh who are in charge of parts of Chapter II and III, Lê Thị Vy, Nguyen The Hoa who are in charge of parts in chapter I and II Many sincerely grateful thanks go to colleagues at the Faculty of English of Hanoi Open University, who assisted and made valuable suggestions Hopefully, students will find this textbook helpful and benefit from it CHAPTER I ENGLISH PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY UNIT 1: ENGLISH PHONEMES Objectives The objective of the lecture is to help the learners review some basic concepts of Lecture I: ENGLISH PHONEMES phonetics and phonology as well as English phonemes: vowels and consonants Over-view: The Object of Phonetics and Phonology Phonetics and phonology are the branches of linguistics concerned with sounds, thus the main object of investigation in this course is a sound The English alphabet is comprised of 26 letters, while the sound system of English contains 44 sounds as phonemes Both branches investigate the sounds from different perspectives: ■ Phonetics is concerned with the physical manifestation of language in sound waves and how they are produced, transmitted, and perceived, and also ―provides methods for their description, classification, and transcription‖ (Crystal 2008: 363) ■ Phonology ―studies the sound systems of languages‖ and how sounds function in relation to each other in a language Phone, Phoneme, and Allophone The term sound is often regarded as not being a precise one in the fields of phonetics and phonology and is thus replaced by the term phone Sound could mean any noise or sound, while phone is restricted to the human voice (‗Phone‘ comes from a Greek word ‗phone‘ [human voice] and is regarded as a speech sound which can be cut out from the speech stream Crystal (2008) defines phone as ―the smallest perceptible discrete segment of sound in a stream of speech‖ (2008: 361) A phoneme includes all the phonetic specifications of phones and is the smallest independent unit that can bring about a change in meaning Roach (2009) calls phonemes ―abstract sounds‖ as there may be slightly different ways to realise the same phoneme An example of a phoneme is the sound /t/ in the words team and steam The slight difference in the realisation of this phoneme is that the /t/ in team is aspirated [th], while the /t/ in steam is not [t] Phones that belong to the same phoneme, such as [t] and [th] for English /t/, are called allophones Allophones not affect the semantic meaning of the word, while a substituted phoneme could bring a semantic change For example, team pronounced with any allophone of the phoneme /t/ maintains its meaning, but if it is substituted with the phoneme /b/, then it brings about a semantic change These two words then (team /ti:m/ and beam /bi:m/) form a minimal pair, which is an opposition of two words showing the existence of these two phonemes For a set of words to form a minimal pair, they may differ in one phoneme only Phonemes cannot, in fact, be pronounced - in actual speech, they are realised through allophones 2.Sound Classes: Vowels, Consonants Speech sounds are generally divided into two classes: vowels and consonants Vowels are produced with a comparatively open vocal tract for the airflow to pass unimpeded As a result, vowels are considered to be open sounds, whereas consonants are produced with a certain constriction in the vocal tract Roach (2009) gives the following characterisation of the sounds: ■ Vowels are the class of sounds that are associated with the least obstruction to the flow of air during their production ■ Consonants are the class of sounds that are associated with obstructed airflow through the vocal tract during their production Vowels can also be distinguished from consonants as they display a different acoustic energy: vowels are highly resonant and intense and have greater sonority than consonants Vowels also have the function to be syllabic (a syllable can contain a minimum of one vowel), while consonants are units that function at the margins of syllables, either singly or in clusters, and are optional Vowels typically involve the vibration of vocal folds, so they are voiced, while consonants split into voiced and voiceless forms 2.1 Vowels The characterisation and classification of vowels is challenging Clark and Yallop (1992) state that the quality of vowels depends on the size and shape of the tract, which can be modified using the tongue and the lips The major challenge is to define the position of the tongue as it moves without forming any significant obstruction in the oral cavity As a result, vowels are produced without any specific point of blockage The other fundamental articulatory feature of vowels is determined by the shape and degree of protrusion of the lips The Height of the Tongue ■ high or close vowels articulated with the tongue located as high as possible in the oral cavity, thus narrowing the passage for the airflow: / ɪ /, / i:/, /u/, /u:/; ■ mid or mid-open vowels with the tongue lowered to the mid position in the oral cavity: /ɒ/, / ʌ /, / ə:/ / ɜ:/ ■ low or open vowels produced with the tongue positioned as low as possible in order to leave a lot of space for the airflow: /e/, / ɔ:/, /æ/, / ɑ:/ The Advancement of the Tongue ■ front vowels articulated with the tongue far forward in the oral cavity toward the hard palate: / i:/, / i /, /e/, /æ/; ■ central or mixed vowels produced with the tongue retracted to the middle position in the oral cavity: / ʌ /, / ɜ:/, /ə/; ■ back vowels produced with the tongue retracted as far as possible to shape the space in the front part of the oral cavity: /ɒ/, /ɔ:/, /ʊ/, /u:/, / ɑ:/ The Shape of the Lips Vowels may also be different from each other with respect to the rounding and shaping of the lips necessary to enlarge or diminish the space within the mouth The following sets of vowels are identified: ■ rounded vowels, as the lips shape into a circle or a tube: /ɒ/, /ɔ:/, /ʊ/, /u:/; ■ spread vowels, as the corners of the lips are moved away from each other: /ɜ:/,/e/, /i:/, /I/,/ æ/ ■ neutral vowels, as the position of the lips is not noticeably rounded or spread: /ʌ/, /ə/, / ɑ:/ Tenseness and Length According to the tenseness of the organs of speech, vowels are classified into one of two groups: tense and lax Tense vowels are relatively higher and more marginal, while lax are shorter, lower, and slightly more centralised Of 12 English pure vowels, five are termed as long in duration and the remaining seven are termed as short in duration The symbols for long vowels are followed by a length mark of two vertical dots Diphthongs and Trip-thongs So far, the discussion has characterised pure vowels with a single perceived auditory quality, which are known as monophthongs Such vowels remain constant in their articulation process and not glide There are 12 monophthongs in English: /eɪ, aɪ, ɔɪ, əʊ, aʊ, ɪə, eə, ʊə/ Diphthongs are vowels in which two vowel qualities can be perceived, and the articulators move from the production of one vowel to the other The first part of the diphthong is longer and stronger than the second and is often referred as to the nucleus of the diphthong The second part is just a glide whose full formation is generally not accomplished The quality of the phoneme reduces to quite short and decreases in loudness There are also trip-thongs - the most complex type of vowels These are sounds in which three vowel qualities can be perceived as they glide from one vowel to another and then to a third Roach (2009) describes trip-thongs as ―composed of the five closing diphthongs with a schwa added on the end‖ Received Pronunciation (RP) is a form of pronunciation of the English language which has traditionally been the prestige British accent RP is a form of English SAMPLE TEST No I Briefly state the syntactic functions that a non-finite verb phrase might take in English sentences Illustrate with examples II Discuss in brief the semantic structure of English words Illustrate with examples III Briefly state the cases in which grammatical words in English take full/strong form Illustrate with examples IV Choose the best option (A, B, C or D) to complete the sentence Circle your choice 166 1.The difference between a finite and a non-finite clause is that there is no ……… of any kind in a non-finite clause A, S-V concord B, subject C, object D, complement In a noun phrase, the determiner normally …………… the head noun A, forms B, follows C, precedes D, shares A non-finite clause………………… goes with the subject of its own A, never B, sometimes C, often D, always Intonation in English has something to with .aspect A, grammatical B, tense C, mood D, voicing Any language unit that functions as a noun is called……………… A, adverbial B, adjective C, nominal D, relative English noun has no grammatical category of …………………… A, case B, number C, gender D, tense Synonymous words are those which differ in .meaning A, connotational B, denotational C, lexical D, grammatical Very often, prepositional phrases can be found functioning as in English sentences A, subject B, adverbial C, object D, appositive Compound words consist of at least two…………… A, syllables B, root morphemes C, words D, morphemes 10 In the sentence of SVOCo structure, the object is, semantically, …………….to the complement A, modifier B, appositive C, adverbial D, subject V Indicate by S, Od, Oi, Cs, A, App, Mod or Co whether the parts underlined in the sentences below are the direct object (Od), the indirect object (Oi), the modifier(Mod), the appositive(App), the subject complement (Cs) or the object complement (Co) (10 pts) The accused turned out to be innocent The first man to come to the party was my manager She appears to have become slimmer I think I leaned the ladder against this tree She told whoever she met whatever she had heard All what I could at that time was run away His plan, to go to the UK to better his English, failed After all, he did not turn up at the meeting as he planned At the height of the discussion, they suddenly decided to drop it 10 That there is no life on the moon has long been proved 167 VI Make sentences in which: find as mono-transitive verb find as di-transitive verb find as complex-transitive verb make as an intransitive verb make as an intensive verb ………………………………………………………………………………… … ………… VII Give the phonetic description of the final sound in the following words For example: bomb /m/ nasal, bilabial, voiced Thorough………………………………………………………… Danced………………………………………………………… Interesting…………………………………………………… University……………………………………………………… Watch……………………………………………………… VIII Which negative adjective fits each of the following definition? ………………… not having a husband or wife ………………… means impossible to eat ………………… means unable to read and write ………………… means not having a job ………………… means unable to be replaced IX Fill in the blanks with words formed from the given stems active (a) The firm maintained that the strike was organized by a group of political ………… (b) The fire-prevention system is ………… by any small increase in temperature (c) It is quite safe to go near the volcano It has been …………… for years form 168 (a) It is especially important for children to have love and affection in their ……… years (b) The slight ……… in his left hand was corrected by surgery (c) The police are considering the …………… of a new anti-drugs unit necessary (a) We regret that the present economic difficulties will ………….a reduction in our work force (b) I sympathize with his point of view, but I don't always…… agree with him, (c) He lives very simply, with just the basic of life, manage (a) Talks between workers and ……………… have broken down and a strike now seems unavoidable (b) The boy was very violent and his parents found him ………………… (c) To improve his qualifications he's taking a course in ………………… skills believe (a) It was an incredible story, quite ………………… (b) She is a person of very strong religious ……………………… (c) His explanation was obviously false and the judge made no attempt to hide his 169 SAMPLE TEST No I Briefly state the syntactic functions that a nominal That-clause might take in English sentences Illustrate with examples II Discuss in brief the criteria to distinguish a compound word and a free word group Illustrate with examples III Briefly state the criteria to classify consonants in English Illustrate with examples 170 IV Choose the best option (A, B, C or D) to complete the sentence Circle your choice Any language unit that functions as a noun is called……………… A, adverbial B, adjective C, nominal D, relative English noun has no grammatical category of …………………… A, case B, number C, gender D, tense Synonymous words are those which differ in .meaning A, connotational B, denotational C, lexical D, gramatical Very often, prepositional phrases can be found functioning as in English sentences A, subject B, adverbial C, object D, appositive Compound words consist of at least two…………… A, syllables B, root morphemes C, words D, morphemes In the sentence of SVOCo structure, the object is , semantically, …………… to the complement A, modifier B, appositive C, adverbial D, subject 7.The difference between a finite and a non-finite clause is that there is no ……… of any kind in a non-finite clause A, S-V concord B, subject C, object D, complement In a noun phrase, the determiner normally …………… the head noun A, forms B,follows C, precedes D, shares A non-finite clause………………… goes with the subject of its own A, never B, sometimes C, often D, always 10 Intonation in English has something to with .aspect A, grammatical B, tense C, mood D, voicing V Indicate by S, Od, Oi, Cs, A, App, Mod or Co whether the parts underlined in the sentences below are the direct object (Od), the indirect object (Oi), the modifier(Mod), the appositive(App), the subject complement (Cs) or the object complement (Co) (10 pts) Naturally, this matter will be controversial His plan, to go to the UK to better his English, failed He appears to have become mature She told whoever she met whatever she had heard He was the first one to come but the last to leave What I needed at that time was his help Cactus can grow naturally on poor soil That there is no life on the moon has long been proved 171 On my birthday, she gave me a special gift, a skeleton key 10 To my surprise, he did not turn up at the meeting as he planned VI Make sentences in which: make as an intensive verb find as a di-transitive verb make as a complex-transitive verb make as an intransitive verb make as a mono-transitive verb ………………………………………………………………………………… … … VII Give the phonetic description of the final sound in the following words For example: bomb /m/ nasal, bilabial, voiced City………………………………………………………… Glimpsed………………………………………………………… Disc…………………………………………………… 10 Scheme……………………………………………………… 11 Naive……………………………………………………… VIII Fill in the blanks with words formed from the given stems compare (a) This is………………better than that In fact, there is really no ……………… (b) Scientists have made ……………… tests on the new drugs stable (a) To ……………… the boat in rough sea, we redistributed the weight (b) Between 1860 and 1900 the country had a number of revolutions and uprisings It was a time of great …………………… (c) The exchange rate is going up and down dramatically It's very …… at the moment 172 reside (a) Buckingham Palace is the Queen's official …………………… in London (b) There's no industry or entertainment here It's a …………………… district (c) All ……………… of the neighbouring houses were warned of the gas leak dead (a) The increasing number of … in traffic accidents is alarming (b) Be careful! That's a ………… poison! (c) The doctor gave him an injection to ………… the pain imitate (a) The bag is made of ………………… leather (b) Small children are very …………… in their behaviour They just copy what they see (c) His acting style is ………………… No one can copy him IX Explain the use of the strong and weak forms of the words in the following utterances What / d / you think? ………………………………………………………………………………… Take him / im / out ………………………………………………………………………………… I found that / ðət / I was wrong ………………………………………………………………………………… Where does he come from? / frƆm / He's from / frəm / Spain ………………………………………………………………………………… The letter is not / tu: / him but from / frƆm / him I wrote to / tə / him the other day, and now I have got it from / frəm / him ……………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………… SAMPLE TEST No I Briefly state the realization of the subject complement in English sentences Illustrate with examples 173 II What is metaphor in English? What are the types of similarities? Illustrate with examples III Briefly state the definition of elision and the cases of elision in English Illustrate with examples IV Indicate by Od, Oi, Cs, A, App, Mod or Co whether the parts underlined in the sentences below are the direct object (Od), the indirect object (Oi), the modifier(Mod), the appositive(App), the subject complement (Cs) or the object complement (Co) Having been invited to speak (1), and then being told to keep silent (2), I swore I should never come here again (3) as long as I live (4) 174 We were at a serious disadvantage (5) in that we have nobody properly qualified (6) for this work (7) I understood that you had some troubles (8) with the telephone (9) your friend had given you as a birthday gift (10) 1………………………………………………………………………………… 2………………………………………………………………………………… 3………………………………………………………………………………… 4………………………………………………………………………………… 5………………………………………………………………………………… 6………………………………………………………………………………… 7………………………………………………………………………………… 8………………………………………………………………………………… 9………………………………………………………………………………… 10……………………………………………………………………………… V Give the phonetic description of the final sound in the following words For example: bomb /m/ nasal, bilabial, voiced Thought…………………………………………………………… Advantage…………………………………………………………… 12 Employee…………………………………………………………… 13 Needed……………………………………………………………… 14 Car………………………………………………………………… VI Put each of the above prefixes in its correct space in the sentences below arch- (chief, main, highest-ranking) out- (more, better etc than) mal- (badly, wrongly) pseudo- (false, pretended) In my opinion, this book is just …… -intellectual rubbish Although he was older than his wife, he …………… lived her by ten years 175 Priests are not often ambitious men, but he had set his heart on becoming ……………… bishop The launch of the space-rocket was delayed by a ……… function in the fuel system At the beginning of the nineteenth century, Britain‘s …… -enemy was France He completely ……… boxed his opponent and knocked him out in the seventh round Children who grow up in time of war are more likely to be …… adjusted than other children He uses …… -scientific language to persuade his readers VII Choose the word or phrase that best completes the sentence Circle your choice (A, B, C, or D) 1, A non-finite clause………………… goes with the subject of its own A, never B, sometimes C, often D, always 2, In the sentence of SVOCo structure, the object is, semantically, …………… to the complement A, modifier B, appositive C, adverbial D, subject In a noun phrase, the determiner normally …………… the head noun A, forms B, follows C, precedes D, shares 4, Any language unit that functions as a noun is called……………… A, adverbial B, adjective C, nominal D, relative 5, Compound words consist of at least two…………… A, syllables B, root-morphemes C, words D, morphemes VII Make one complex sentence from each of the following sentence groups You will make any necessary changes in structure but not in meaning One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest is a novel written by Ken Kasey Its protagonist is Randall Patrick Mc Murphy He pretends to be insane to escape a 176 work farm He discovers he is now trapped in an asylum He shows other characters the truth of their situation John F Kennedy was inaugurated into office in January of 1961 He was assassinated in November of 1963 He spent only 1000 days in office SAMPLE TEST No I State briefly different syntactic functions that nominal-That clause might take in English sentences Illustrate with examples II What is conversion? What are types of conversion in English? Illustrate with examples 177 III Briefly state the criteria to classify English vowels Illustrate with examples IV Indicate by Od, Oi, Cs, A, App, Mod or Co whether the parts underlined in the sentences below are the direct object (Od), the indirect object (Oi), the modifier(Mod), the appositive(App), the subject complement (Cs) or the object complement (Co) As a biologist, I feel pretty sure (1) that not all the knowledge an animal possesses has been founded upon experience (2) it has enjoyed (3) in its own lifetime (4) The speaker was seriously (5) comparing dreams (6) with what happened in a computer (7) Having considered his case very carefully (8), we recommend that he serve another month on probation (9) and be asked to appear before the committee when that has been done (10) 1………………………………………………………………………………… 2………………………………………………………………………………… 3………………………………………………………………………………… 4………………………………………………………………………………… 5………………………………………………………………………………… 6………………………………………………………………………………… 7………………………………………………………………………………… 8………………………………………………………………………………… 178 9………………………………………………………………………………… 10……………………………………………………………………………… V Give the phonetic description of the final sound in the following words For example: bomb /m/ nasal, bilabial, voiced Think……………………………………………………………… Expensive………………………………………………………… 15 Happily…………………………………………………………… 16 Laughed…………………………………………………………… 17 Thorough…………………………………………………………… VI Put each of the above suffixes in its correct place in the sentences below phobia (fear or hatred of) -cide (killer, killing) -gamy (marriage) Those rose-bushes need protection Spray them with insecti…… He gets very tense and nervous in enclosed spaces like lifts and the underground He suffers from claustro…… The custom of having more than one wife or husband is known as ‗poly……‘ Some people, and some animals, are terrified of water This aversion is known as aqua…… His problems overwhelmed him and he finally committed sui…… When he was arrested and charged with bi…… , both his wives stood by him His Anglo…… comes from some bad experiences he had in England Following the man's death, his wife was charged with homi…… 179 VII Fill in the blank with one suitable word In English, the noun phrase typically functions as subject, object, complement of the sentences, and as (1) ……………….in prepositional phrases The noun phrases can be conveniently subdivided into two types, (2) ……………….and complex ones The two types differ in the way they are (3) …………… , that is, the basic one needs the pre-modifiers of (4) …………… system while the complex one might have pre-modifiers of both closed system and open-class Besides, the complex noun phrases are also post-modified by adjectival phrases, prepositional phrases, (5) ……………and non-finite clauses VIII Make one complex sentence from each of the following sentence groups You will make any necessary changes in structure but not in meaning Lowell Wicker was once Governor of Connecticut He was leader of that state's American Party Wicker has long been known as a maverick among politicians He now teaches at the University of Virginia Ronald E Pepin is a well-known translator of medieval texts He has two honorary degrees from Fordham University He recently published his fourth book on ancient medical practices He was only forty-four years old at the time 180 ... 103 UNIT 3: CLAUSES 104 I Classification 104 Based on usage 104 Based on structure .103 UNIT 4: SENTENCES 108 I Sentence/clause elements... Prepositional complement Cs: Subject complement Det: Determiner FCL: Finite clause N: Noun NFCL: Non-finite clause NP: Noun phrase O: Object Post-mod: Post-modifier Pre-mod: Pre-modifier Prep:... arranged logically from the general concepts to the specific features This textbook is just for internal use only The textbook can be considered as a guidebook which summarizes, highlights and emphasizes