2.1.1. The loai van hpc (genres litteraires)
Trong Von bdn van hpc trong lap day tieng nuac ngoai, cac tac gia Marie-
Claude Albert, Marc Souehon cho rang khai niem the loai dugc ton vinh hay bi phe phan tuy tirng thai ky Ijch sir. Tuy nhien, do la khai niem ma bp mon van hpc sir da xac dinh tinh lau ben va vinh ciru: '*D6i voi mot nguoi doc binh thuong, co bon loai the loai van hpc: truyen ke mang tinh hu cau (lieu thuyel, truyen ngan, truyen co tich), tieu luan, tho, kich". [6.Tr.l29] Cach xep loai nay khong mang tinh vo doan nhung no the hien thirc trang ciia viec phan chia the loai van hpc. Cac lieu chi luon thay doi nhung nhu cau Ihi bat di bat djch. Tir thoi co dai Hy lap den nay da trai qua be day truyen thong ly luan ve the loai. Truyen thong ay van dugc ke thira qua nhieu the ky trong khi viec nghien ciru ve ngon ngir, loi noi va ve ban than van hpc luon thay doi. Nhirng nha van lang man nhu Vicior Hugo va gan day nhal la nhirng nha van sieu thue muon xoa bo ranh gioi cae the loai mpl each triet de. Hp yeu cau dugc tu do sang lac vugt ra khoi nhung chuan muc ap dal va khong muon lac pham ciia hp thupe the loai nao. Trong van hpc duong dai, nhieu tac pham kho co the xip vao mot the loai ro rang. Vao nhung nam 1960 ciia the ky truoc, R. Barlhes da cho van ban quyen toi cao tren ca the loai. Nhirng 20 nam sau, T. Todorov khoi phiic lai khai niem the loai voi viee dat vai tro eiia loi noi len tren ngon ngir, ciia xa hoi len tren ca nhan va cho rang cac cau, dii noi dung nhu the nao cung dugc phat ngon trong linh huong va ngu canh van hoa xa hoi: "The loai van hpc chSng qua chi la mpl sir lira chpn dugc quy iroc boi mot xa hoi." [49]
Cac tac gia Marie-Claude Albert, Mare Souehon trong Van bdn van hpc
trong lap day tieng nuoc ngoai cho rang viec phan biet cac the loai la dilu thucrng
xuyen dugc thirc hien trong lich sir cua nhieu xa hoi. Ngay ca truoc khi co chir viel, cae sang tac truyen mieng nhu truyen thuyet, than thoai, truyen ke...ciing co the dugc xIp loai. Cac the loai van ban.la jthanh tiru mang tinh Ijch sir co tam co xa hoi. Mot dira tre moi di hpc cung biet phan biet mot truyen co tich voi cac the loai kJiae. NIU nguoi ke chuyen khong theo diing trat tu cua truyen c6 tich, dira tre do se nhac nho va yeu cau anh ta tuan theo quy tac. Vi vay, "viec biet phan biet cac the loai la yeu to vo ciing quan trpng de hieu va cho phep hpc sinh viet nhung van ban moi". Doi voi nguoi ban ngir, khai niem the loai khong gay kho khan gi. Chang ban mpl van ban bang tho co hinh thirc dac biet so voi cac van ban khac. Ngoai ra, each trinh bay bia hoac sap xep vj tri trong hieu sach cung cho phep nhan biet the loai ciia mot tac pham.
Tir dien Tir ddnh cho van nghi luan ciia E. Amon va Y. Bomati neu djnh
nghia ve the loai van hpc: "The loai van hpc la viee phan loai cho phep tap hgp cac tac pham van hpc thanh ba pham trii (categories) chinh: tieu thuyet, tho, kich...Moi the loai chinh bao gom nhieu the loai nho (sous-genres)". Chang ban trong lieu Ihuyet CO truyen ngan, truyen trinh tham, truyen lich sir vv. [7.Tr. 137]
Theo Mireille Nalurel trong cuon Ddnh cho van hpc Tir trich doan den tdc
phdm, sir phan chia "thong thuong nhat va long quat nhat do la viec phan biet giCra
lieu thuyel, kjch va tho". Do cung la sir phan chia ma tac gia theo duoi khi nghien ciru ve trich doan van hpc. "Ben trong su phan chia nay la mpl so lugng Ion cac Ihl loai nho nhu ngu ngon, truyen kl, truyen ngan, kjch dram, hai kich, bi kjch, tho van xuoi, tho son ne, vv." Vi vay, theo tac gia, "o giai doan d^u, dilu quan trpng la phai nhin nhan mot van ban hay mot tac pham qua lang kinh ciia Ihl loai. Do la mpl pham trii phii hgp voi truyen thong van hpc va an chira ben trong no nhirng quy lac ma nhin chung dugc cac lac gia ton irpng va doi khi lam biin doi it nhilu." [36.Tr.46]
Chimg toi nhat tri voi viee phan chia ba thi loai van hpc chinh la tilu ihuylt, tho, kjch.
Theo Tir dien Tic diing trong van nghi ludn cua E. Amon va Y. Bomati, lieu
thuylt la truyen kl bang van xuoi, dai hon truyen ngan hoac truyen ke (conte).
[7.Tr.259]
Trong Huang dan cdc y tuong van hpc, 1993, Henri Benac giai thich: "Thoi ky trung co tir roman co nghia la mot truyen ke bang van xuoi hoac van van Irong
mpl thir ngon ngu tam thuong (vulgaire). Bat dau tir the ky 16 no chi mot truyen ke ve nhirng cupc phieu luu tuong tugng bang van xuoi." [10.Tr.427]
Bernard Valette trong My hpc tieu thuyet hien doi, khang djnh: "Neu kho co
the dua ra dinh nghia tieu thuyet mot each trim tugng thi van eo the thay rang co mot thir ngon ngir dac trung ve mat hinh thirc, cho dii la nghia den hay nghia bong, cham biem hay khieu khicb. Dieu ma nguoi dpc cho dpi truoc het o mot cuon tieu thuyet la sir the hien bien thue mot each dong nhal dua vao kel hgp ciia mieu ta, doi thoai, doe thoai quanh mot hoac nhieu nhan vat. Nhiing nhan vat d6 tham gia vao "cupc phieu luu" (ke chuyen, tran thuat) trong mot kboang thai gian nhat djnh (thoi gian, dp dai, trinh tu thoi gian). Nhin be ngoai nhiing yeu to nay eo ve tan man va chi CO nghia khi dugc dal trong he thong qui uoe (convenlionnel) nhu kel cau, dan dung (montage) ciia ngon ngir tieu thuyet..." [52.Tr.7]
Qua nhirng djnh nghia neu tren, eo the Ihay, tieu thuyet la mot loai van kl kit hgp voi "mieu ta, doi thoai, dpc thoai quanh mot hoac nhieu nhan vat" bang van xuoi va mang tinh hu cau. Ve tieu chi dp dai co the thay lieu ihuylt dai han iruyen ngan hoac truyen ke (conte).
- Kjch
Theo M. Boni, E. Hoppenot, M. Sendre {BEP franeais), thi "kich la mot lir co
nhieu nghia. No chi mot noi chon, mpl van ban va mpl nghe thuat trinh dien." |18.Tr.l22]
G. Picon, trong Todn cdnh nen von hpc Phdp mai, 1960, Gallimard, cho rang
"truoc het, kich thuoc linh vuc loi noi (parole) - lai noi trong hanh dpng (la parole en action). No la mot van ban co dac trirng ciia van vilt nhung van ban nay dugc dien, co nghia dugc song truoc mat chiing la." [40]
Con Mireille Naturel {Ddnh cho van hpc. Tir trich doan den tdc phdm) cho
rang "Kjch la mot nghe thuat giao tiep. (...) Van ban kjch dua tren loi noi ciia mpl nhan vat danh cho mot nhan vat khac. (...) Viec trao doi ngon tir nay dien ra trong
mot kboang thoi gian, khong gian nhat dinh, mot tinh huong cu the va the hien mot hanh dpng. (...) Van ban kjch gom bai phan khac nhau, doi thoai va chi dan dien xuat". [36.Tr.49]
Co the thay rang, kjch vira thupe ve san khau, vira thupe ve van hpc. Co so ciia no la nhirng mau thuan mang tinh xa hoi, lich sir. Hanh dpng kjch bao gom ba giai doan: that nut, dinh diem, coi niit va dugc ket cau Iheo chuong, hoi. Loi noi kich danh cho hai doi tugng, co ngbia la mot nhan vat (Irir truong hgp dpc thoai) bao gio ciing noi voi mot nhan vat khac va khan gia. Hai thanh phan khac nhau ciia kjch la doi thoai va chi dan dien xuat.
- Tho
J. Gardes-Tamine {Phong cdch hpc) cho rang tho la "sir kel hgp giira cac cap
dp ngon ngir (niveaux linguistiques) nhu ngir am, cii phap, tir vung, tu lir. Nhirng yeu to nay ket hgp voi nhau theo van luat (organisation metrique)". [25.Tr.47]
M. Boni, E. Hoppenot, M. Sendre {BEP francai.s) djnh nghia: "Pha trong tieng Hylap co nghia la sang igo. Tho truoc het la nghe thuat noi sau do moi la nghe
thual noi mpl dieu gi do. Tho la each sir dung ngon ngu (langue) nham muc dich tao cam xiic va kham pha su phong phii ciia mpl thir tieng dua vao nhung kel hgp lir." [18.Tr.l90]
Mireille Naturel {Ddnh cho van hpc Tir Irich dogn den lac phdm) so sanh nha
tho voi nha gia kim thai Trung co mo uoc bien nhirng chal lieu lam thuong thanh kim loai qui. Cung nhu nha gia kim, nha Iho la nguoi co kha nang bien "hien ihuc lam thirang"thanh mpl "vu tru thu nho ma nguoi dpc phai phat hien ra y nghia dac biet hoac vo so y nghia." Sir bien chuyen do dugc lien hanh "trong cac lir va bang cac lir". Doi voi cac nha tho thi tir dugc sir dung nhu mpl phuong lien sang lao: "cac tir khong phai la phuang tien giao liep ma la phuong tien sang lao".[36.Tr.69]
Co thi noi ring tho la mot nghe thuat to chirc ngon tir (ngir am, cii phap, tir vung, tu tir) mot each hoan chinh ya co tinh ham sue cao. Kel cau tho mang tinh dpc lap noi tai (khep kin) va tao cho no kha nang tro nen da nghia.
2.1.2. Loai hinh van bdn (types de textes)
Mireille Naturel {Ddnh cho van hpc Tic trich dogn den tdc phdm) neu nhirng
loai hinh van ban chinh : van ban ke chuyen, mieu ta, lap luan. Nhirng loai hinh nay thuong xuyen ket hgp voi nhau trong ciing mot van ban. Moi loai hinh co nhirng dac diem rieng. [36.Tr.46]
J. M Adam, trong cuon Cdc logi hinh van bdn ke chuyen, mieu id. lap ludn,
gidi thich vd hoi thogi due ket nam loai hinh van ban: van ban ke chuyen, van ban
mieu ta, van ban lap luan, van ban giai thich va van ban hoi thoai. [5]
Ciing chung y kien voi J. M Adam, Jean-Fran9ois Jeandillou {Phdn tich van
bdn), cho rang co mot so mau cau triie eo the diing vao viec xac djnh boat dpng cua
mpl van ban nao do. So do cau lao eiia mot van ban co the mieu ta va ly thuyet hoa mot each on djnh cho dii no thupe the loai nao. Theo lac gia nay, cae loai hinh mang tinh chi dan (van ban phap luat, hanh chinh), bieu cam (tho Irir linh, kinh cau nguyen) va hoi thoai con eo nhieu van de can dugc xem xet. Ve eo ban, lac gia neu tren dong nhal y kien voi J. M Adam ve bon loai hinh: giai thich, lap luan, mieu la va ke chuyen. [33.Tr. 136]
Trong bon loai hinli do, ke chuyen va mieu la la hai loai hinh ca ban ciia tilu Ihuyet. Chimg toi xin neu dac diem ciia ba loai hinh thuong gap. Do la kl chuyen, mieu ta va lap luan.
- Van ban ke chuyen
Mireille Naturel {Ddnh cho van hpc Tir trich dogn den tdc phdm) cho rang
van ban ke chuyen thuat lai mot chuoi su kien ke liep nhau theo mot trinh lu thoi gian nhat dinh. Nhirng dau hieu de nhan biet van ban kl chuyen la thoi qua khir don gian, nhieu moc thoi gian, nhirng bieu hien eiia phai ngon nhu cac dai lir chi nguoi, cac linh tir so huu, tir chi ro (ce, celte, vv...), lir chi ihoi gian, khong gian (ici,
maintenant, vv...), thai dp cua nguoi phat ngon (sir dung the, mong muon, nghi ngo, vv...) [36.Tr.47]
Theo J. M Adam, can co sau thanh to de tao nen van ban ke chuyen: sir ke tiep ciia cac su kien dan den mot cai ket, su thong nhat ve chii de (it nhat phai eo mot chu the tham gia vao cau chuyen, co sir bien chuyen tir tinh huong dau den linh huong ket thue), sir phat trien theo ba giai doan (tinh huong mo dau (avant), lien trien (milieu), ket thiie (apres), giai thich nguyen nhan va danh gia. Neu tbieu mot trong nam Ihanh to tren, khong the co van ban ke chuyen.
- Van ban mieu ta
Mireille Naturel {Ddnh cho van hpc Ttir trich dogn den tdc phdm) neu: "Van
ban mieu la c6 muc dich mieu ta mot nhan vat, mot noi chon, mpl do vat. Trong van ban mieu la Ihirimg xuat hien thai qua khir khong hoan thanh, nhieu danh lir, linh lir va de cao chirc nang thi phap ciia ngon ngu". Con J. M Adam cho rang co bon bien phap mieu ta: neu ten va gpi ten cai dugc mieu ta theo each khac trong qua Irinh mieu la ("can hp", "to am linh yeu"...), chia cai dugc mieu la thanh nhirng bp phan nho (mau sac kich eo, hinh dang, so luong...), dat cai dugc mieu ta Irong moi quan he voi nhung sir vat khac (bang phuong phap so sanh, an du, hoan du...) va mo rong mieu la (mot bp phan co the tiep tue dugc mieu la).
- Van ban lap luan
Theo Mireille Naturel van ban lap luan co muc dich thuyel phuc hoac can ngan nguoi khac lam mot viec gi do. No sir dung lai noi (discours), cac ngu chi nguyen nhan, hau qua, nhugng bp, vv. [36.Tr.47]
Jean-Fran9ois Jeandillou {Phdn lich van bdn), cho rang van ban lap luan
nham "lam thay doi niem tin ciia dpc gia, lam dao Ion nhirng gi anh ta cho la bat di bat djch de cuoi cimg lam anh ta thay doi y kien". Mpi lap luan deu huong tai mot kCn luan ma nguoi dpc thay co the chap nhan dugc mac dit truoc do anh la phan bac. [33.rr.136]
l\iy nhien, J. M Adam cho rang rat hiem thay nhirng loai hinh van ban dong nhat va ranh giai giua cac loai hinh tuong doi mo nhat. Dai da so la nhung van ban
ma 6 do nhieu loai hinh dan xen nhau (van ban da loai hinh: pluritypes). Cac van ban khong dong nhat thuong dugc xep theo loai hinh noi trpi hon ca. Vi du nhu bai
tho ngu ngon Cho soi vd chien con cua La Fontaine dugc tac gia xep vao loai van
ban ke chuyen trong khi loan bp cau chuyen dugc viet bang tho theo dang hoi Ihoai. Qua do CO the thay rang viec xac dinh loai hinh ciia mot van ban khong don gian vi
ngay o vi du nay chung ta co nhieu khai niem khac nhau hoi tu trong ciing mot van
ban: tho, ke chuyen, mieu ta, bpi thoai. Ve van de nay, Jean-Fran9ois Jeandillou ciing cho rang trong truyen ngan khong chi co don thuan loai hinh ke chuyen ma eon CO ca hoi thoai, mieu la, giai thich hoac nhiing danh gia chii quan ciia nguoi ke chuyen. [33.Tr.137]
Mot vi du khac, do la bai tho "Toi chi con bp xuong..." (1586) trong tap
Nhung vdn tha cuoi ciing ciia Ronsard. Theo Jacqueline Biard va Frederique Denis {Phuang phdp gidng dgy vdn bdn vdn hpc), bai tho nay bpi lu ba loai hinh: mieu la
(chcin dung tu hoa ciia nguoi hap hoi trong hai kho dau), kjch (dung canh nhung giay phiit cuoi ciing ciia ong ta), ke chuyen (ca bai tho ke ve mpl cai chet dugc bao
truoc voi day dii ba giai doan: trirdc (su hap hoi), trong khi (noi iranh su that xay ra) va sau (thong diep dugc giri sau khi chet). [16.Tr. 183]
Qua nhirng vi du tren day co the thay rang nhung djnh nghia ve the loai va loai hinh la bet sire da dang tiiy theo goc dp rieng eiia tirng lac gia. Dieu do the hien sir da dang, da sac mau ciia van hpc va kho co the di den mot lieu chi thong nhat. Cac tieu chi co the dua vao dp dai, ve phuong thirc the hien, ve ngon ngu, ve muc dich, hieu qua, nang lire, each to chirc, gia trj, chat lieu v v. Tuy nhien, co mot lieu chi luon dugc nhac den, cho dii de cap den kjch, tho hay tieu thuyel, mieu la, ke chuyen hay lap luan, do la lieu chi ve ngon ngii. Day la mpl thuan Igi Ian cho viec giang day van hpc cho nguoi nuoc ngoai, dac biel la cho sinh vien chuyen lieng Phiip con gap nhieu kho khan de hieu mot van ban van hpc. Ngon ngu la ihir khong the bo qua khi tiep can mot van ban van hpc. Do la mpl chal lieu cu the, luon hien huu, gan gui voi doi tugng sinh vien da qua dao lao co so (hel nam thir hai) truoc khi di sau nghien ciru nhung dac Irung ciia van ban.
2.1.3. Phdn biet giica the logi vd logi hinh
Vdn bdn Huong ddn dgy tieng Phdp lap 11 BOEN so 22-9 thang sau 1988
neu: "Tho la mot the loai van hpc. No mang nhieu tinh the loai hon loai hinh. Float dpng ngon ngir ciia no co the thay 6 mpi loai binh van ban va khong the lao nen mot loai hinh rieng biet." [48]
van ban neu tren khang djnh: "Kjch khong chi don thuan la mot the loai van hpc, no eon la mot nghe thuat trinh dien va thirc hanh san khau. Dac Irung ciia no khac voi cac loai binh van ban khac nhu ke chuyen, mieu ta, lap luan. Dong thoi, viec nghien ciru van ban kjch cung cap nhirng lieu chi cho viec dpc cac van ban khac. Ranh gioi giira cac loai binh khong the tuyet doi (poreuses). Moi loai hinh co nhung dac trung rieng nhirng luon xuat hien nhung bat bien (invariants) co the xual hien o nhung loai hinh khac va nhirng the loai khac. Cho nen can phai to ra mem deo khi phan loai cac dang cau hoi." Ngoai ra, van ban neu tren con luu y rang "ke