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Question 1: “word meaning” , the difference between forms and expressions ❖ word meaning: Words are regarded as the smallest indivisible meaningful units of a language which can operate independently ❖ Forms and expressions - Words are also considered expressions - Words and word forms are distinguished from each other in terms of the distinction between lexical and grammatical meanings - Forms of one and the same word have the same lexical meaning whereas different words have different lexical meaning eg: There is no way of telling what it is There are forms but only word-expressions Question 2: homonymy? classification ❖ Definication: A homonym is a word that is written and/or pronounced the same way as another, but has different meaning eg: tail- tale, flower- flour, lead(v)- lead(n) ❖ Classification - Absolute homonyms: satisfy conditions + they will be unrelated in meanings + all their forms will be identical + the identical forms will be grammatically equivalent eg: bank(n) a financial institution- the river side - Partial homonyms + Full homonyms: same spelling, same pronunciation, but different word forms and different meanings 1 eg: right (a): correct - right(n): direction rose(n): a flower- rose(v): to have gotten up + Homophones: same pronunciation flower - flour, waste- waist, air- heir, + Homographs: same spelling wind(n)- wind(v) Question 3: Polysemy? the criteria for distinction between homonymy and polysemy ❖ Definition: Polysemy refers to a word that has two or more meanings eg: foot, hand ❖ Polysemy and homonymy Homonymy refers to a situation where different words happen accidentally to have the same forms while polysemy designates a situation in which a single word has a set of related meanings Homonymy and polysemy are closely related and often treated together because on face value, what we see is various meanings are associated with the same forms They are distinguished from each other in terms of semantic relatedness if different meanings associated with one form are perceived as related, they constitute a polysemantic word, if these meanings are not related in any way, they are treated as homonymy Question 4: Synonymy? Classify synonymy, examples ❖ Definition: Synonyms are actually words of the same parts of speech which have similar meaning but not identical meanings They may share a similar denotational or connotational meaning They can differ from each other in terms of denotation or connotation Example: father- dad, beautiful- pretty, mad- psycho ❖ Classify: 2 - Absolute synonyms: satisfy the following three conditions: All their meanings are identical They are synonymous in all contexts They are semantically equivalent eg: begin-start - Semantic synonyms: words differing in denotational meaning ● ● ● ● ● heroic-brave-courageous beautiful- good looking- pretty- nice- lovely- fair love-like end- finish- complete fright- fear- terror- dread - Stylistic synonyms: words differing in connotational meaning ● ● ● ● ● begin- commence enemy- foe policeman- cop- bobby- officer father- dad mother- mom before- ere - Semantic-stylistic synonyms: words differing both in denotational and connotational meaning ● ● ● ● to reduce- to axe- to cut back teacher- lecture- professor merry- gay- jolly crazy- queer- mad - Phraseological synonyms: words which are different in their collocations ● ● ● do- make language- tongue lift- rise - Territorial synonyms: words employed in different regions ● ● ● sidewalk- pavement autumn- fall football- soccer - Euphemisms: literally means “speak well” to achieve a less unpleasant or offensive effect 3 ● ● underprivileged- poor die- be no more- be gone Question 5: Antonymy? Types of antonymy, examples ❖ Definition Words of the same part of speech that are opposite in meanings Many words, especially those denoting concrete object have no antonyms Usually adjectives denoting quality, verbs denoting actions or states and abstract nouns have antonyms ● ● ● ● ❖ ugly- pretty long- short give- take old- young Classification - Gradable antonyms: are easily gradable, based on the operation of gradation ● ● ● hot- warm- cool- cold love- hate ugly- pretty - Complementary antonyms: the assertion of one is the negation of the other ● ● ● ● alive- dead awake- asleep same- different married- single - Conversives: denote the same situation but from different points of view, with a reversal of the order of participants and their roles ● ● ● borrow- lend sell- buy wife- husband - Directional antonyms: present opposite directions of motion ● ● ● come- go up- down back- forward Question 6: “meaning change” (semantic change)? main causes of semantic change, examples Definition of meaning change: - New meanings of the words appear eg: bead: prayer → prayer beads → beads *trang hat cho nguoi cau nguyen - Old meanings drop out of the language or co-exist with the new ones eg: - queer: strange, odd -> homosexual or gay Main causes of semantic change ● - Extra linguistic causes: Objects are changed or our concepts are changed eg: car: a four-wheeled wagon → automobile railway carriage - The words used by a particular group of people pass into general usage or vice versa ● - Linguistic causes Ellipsis or contraction of a phrase eg: eg: to propose marriage = to propose - Discrimination of synonyms eg: deer = animal, beast → a kind of animal - Attraction of synonyms catch = grasp, get catch = understand → grasp/catch = understand ● - Psychological reasons Psychological reasons concern the avoidance of expressing explicitly problematic concepts such as death, excretion, or sex eg: toilet = restroom, die = pass away 5 Câu 7: metaphor? The differences between metaphor and simile? Some basic of metaphor transference? Definition: metaphor is the transference of meaning from one object to another based on similarity between these two In other words, we call one object by the name of another because we compare these objects and find some common features between them e.g: The Internet is an information superhighway ( based on speed) ● Metaphor vs Simile Criteria metaphor simile Feature Implicit comparison Explicit comparison Form Direct: having no Indirect: having elements of elements of comparison comparison ( like, as) Example A wire is a road for electrons ● good meal Basis of metaphor transference - Shape: e.g: teeth of the saw - Position: foot of the mountain - Movement: she wormed her way through the crowed - Function: the key to the mystery - Colour: rose, orange - Size: midget, elephantine Cau 8: metonymy? The cases of metonymy, examples? A good book is like a Definition: Metonymy is the substitution of one word for another with which it is associated In other words, instead of the name of one object or notion, we use the name of another because these objects are associated and closely related E.g: The White House announced a press conference for four o’clock Sunday -> the president of America ● Cases of metonymy - The name of container instead of the thing contained E.g: he drank the whole cup Cup: original use: container shaped like a bowl, usually with a handle, used for drinking tea, coffee, etc Metonymy use: water/ beer/etc in the cup - Names of parts of human body as symbols: e.g: she is famous for her kind heart.( a symbol of a kind person) - The concrete instead of abstract E.g: from the cradle to the grave - The materials instead of the things made of the materials e.g: can you give me a rubber, please? - The name of the author instead of his works E.g: Shakespeare has deeply been moved to many readers - Part for the whole and vice versa: E.g: we live in the same roof - Items of clothing instead of the one who wears them e.g: he’s always running after the skirt - Symbol to refer to representative e.g: Hanoi highly appreciates all what have done by Washington in order to build the good relationship between the two countries - Spatial relation e.g: He was elected chair of the city council - Causal relation: e.g: Fear of failure was bred into him at an early age.( nguy hiểm- nỗi sợ hãi ) 7 - Functional relation e.g: He penned a letter to the local paper - Geographical relation: E.g: She has bought a new pair of morocco shoes Morocco: original use: name of a country Metonymy sense: leather Câu 9: hyperbole( ngoa dụ), litotes( nói giảm nói tránh), irony( châm biếm) euphemism(uyển ngữ) Example for illustration ● Hyperbole: is an exaggerated statement not meant to be understood literally but with powerful effect e.g: it was a nightmare to meet him again - I am so hungry I could eat a horse - there are millions of other things to ● Litotes: is an understatement expressing something in the affirmative by the negative of its contrary e.g: he was rather unwise(= very silly) to tell her the truth That suit is no bargain= it’s expensive ● Irony: irony expresses meaning by words of the opposite sense Intonation plays an essential role in getting the message across e.g: watching it rain, he said, ‘ lovely day for a picnic’ ● Euphemisms: euphemisms involve the use of a milder expression for something unpleasant e.g: restroom or lavatory instead of toilet - pass away instead of die Cau 10: sense relation The types of sense relation Definition: sense relation is a relation between two or more words that concerns their meaning e.g: look- glance- stare- gaze : synonymic relation 8 Types of sense relations: - Coordination: include ⮚ substitutional( paradigmatic) relations are those existing between members of the same grammatical category E.g: the girl is pretty/ ugly/ polite/ rude ‘pretty’ & ‘ugly’ and ‘polite’ &’rude’ are interchangeable and belong to the same category of adjective ⮚ Combinatorial( syntagmatic) relations are those existing between items of different grammatical categories e.g: she is a pretty girl ( a pretty girl is a combination between a noun and an adjective) - Superordination: include: ⮚ Hyponymy: defined in terms of inclusion e.g: washing power: tide, omo,… ⮚ Meronymy: defined as part- whole relation e.g: face= eyes+ nose+ lips Cau 11: hyponymy( bao hamf) Features of hyponymy - Definition: hyponymy is the relationship between two words in which the meaning of one of the words includes the meaning of the other This relationship is asymmetrical( hierarchical) relationship e.g: dog- animal rose- flower car- vehicle - Some features of hyponymy: + the relation of hyponymy is decided based on the viewpoint of intension and extension e.g: flower( superordinate) and rose( hyponym) + hyponymy makes substitution possible e.g: have you bought some flowers? - yes, I bought some roses 9 + hyponymy is a transitive relation x is H of y y is H of z ⇨ x is H of z e.g: cow- mammal- animal Hyponymy is related to synonym Synonymy is special case of hyponymy: - SYMMETRICAL hyponymy x is H of y y is H of z x and y are synonyms ⇨ E.g: ‘ mercury’ & ‘ quicksilver’ ( thuỷ ngân ) Câu 12: semantic field or lexical field, paraphrase or contradiction Examples - Semantic field is the organization of related words and expressions into a system which shows their relationships to one another e.g: + color: primary color terms: blue, green, yellow, red + environment: overfish, overexploit, polluted, contaminate, rain forests + beach: towel, umbrella, lotion, bikini, sand There are ways of grouping words: thematically and ideographically - Paraphrase: a sentence which expresses the same proposition as another sentence is a paraphrase of that sentence (assuming the same referents for any referring expressions involved) Paraphrase is a relationship where two propositions have the same truth conditions e.g: John sold his car to Peter - Peter bought John’s car I don’t like Math- I am not fond of Math - Contradiction: is a relationship where a proposition must be false because of the meanings of the words involved e.g: he is both married and single 10 10 that cat is a dog Nhom cau hoi 2: Cau 1: entailment and the truth of sentences Types of the truth of sentences, examples - Entailment is a relationship that applies between two sentences/ propositions, where the truth of one implies the truth of the other because of the meanings of the words involved In other words, a sentence expressing proposition X entails a sentence expressing proposition Y if the truth of Y follows necessarily from the truth of X E.g: Mr Smith has married Mary -> Mary is now a married woman - it is a relationship between two or more sentences ( strictly speaking propositions) If knowing that one sentence is true gives us certain knowledge of the truth of the second sentence, then the first sentence entails the second The truth of sentences : A sentence can be either necessarily true or contingently e.g: John ate the cake entails someone ate something - the truth of sentences has types: + a necessarily ( analytically) true sentence (an analytic sentence) is one that is necessarily true as a result of the sentences of the words in it e.g: dogs are animals John is as tall as himself + a contingently (synthetically) true sentence (a synthetic sentence) is one which may be either true of false, depending on the way the world is e.g It often rains a lot in Autumn John is from Ireland Câu 2: meaning of the sentences? The difference between sentence and utterance Meaning of the sentence: 11 11 - A sentence is the largest unit of grammatical organization within which parts of speech(e.g: nouns, verbs, adverbs, adjective, ) and grammatical classes( e.g: words, phrases, clause ) are said to function In English a sentence normally contains one independent clause - The meaning of a sentence is not the sum of the meanings of the words used in the sentence - It is more correct to regard it as a function of the meanings of the words in the sentence, modality and structural meaning signaled by the way words are organized into sentences - E.G: there are 20 of us in the class She is likely to be late Difference between sentence and utterance: - An utterance is often regarded as any stretch of speech before which and after which there is a pause - An utterance may be any piece of language such as a sequence of sentences, or a sentence or just a phrase or even a single word, used on a particular occasion - An utterance may be seen as a product of the process of uttering - A sentence, on the other hand, may be defined as the ideal underlying structure behind an utterance, expressing a complete thought Cau 3: how you understand the terms: grammaticality, meaningfulness, acceptability when talking about sentence meaning Give example A grammatical sentence is one which is formed according to the rules of grammar e.g: there are 20 of us in the class.( grammatical sentence) Do you angry? ( ungrammatical sentence) The meaningfulness of a sentence is conditioned by how well-informed that sentence is semantically e.g: she is a lazy, stupid, disagreeable, stubborn guy.( meaningful sentence) Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.( meaningless sentence) 12 12 Acceptability: some sentences are unacceptable because it is not grammatically possible E.g: I love speak but I think it is so difficult to get fluency Cau 4: explain some kind of variables in the functions of sentence meaning? Give example The structural meaning: the structural meaning of the sentence is the kind of meaning that results from a particular arrangement of the parts of the sentence e.g: the fueak liauded me to doen The interpersonal meaning: Halliday’s term ‘ interpersonal’ embraces largely what is collectively expressed by a common term ‘ modality’ in fact, the interpersonal meaning has to with the function of speech or ‘illocutionary force’ ( lực ngôn chung) ❖ The interpersonal function: + to establish and maintain social relation E.g: good morning + to influence people’s behavior and get things done E.g: why was she late? + to express the speaker’s feelings, attitudes and opinions towards, or assessment of, the representational content of the sentence via the use of modal verbs and adverbs E.g: you must be feeling hungry by now The textual function: the textual function or meaning is to create texts It is this function that helps to give texts coherence and cohesion e.g: the healing power of maggots is not new Human beings have discovered it several times The Maya are said to have used maggots for therapeutic purposes 1000 years ago As early as the 16th century, European doctors noticed that soldiers with maggotsinfested wounds healed well the representational meaning: the presentational meaning can be defined in terms of experiential and logical functions E.g: experiential function: John invited Susan to go to the cinema with him last night Logical function: We all believed that working hard is the key to success Cau What are types of processes? Example ● 13 Material processes: express our outer experiences 13 eg: The child/ opened/ the door Actor/ material process/ goal ● Mental processes: express our inner experiences eg: I/ think/ he is handsome Senser/ mental process/ phenomenon ● Relational processes: connect our experiences eg: The flower/ is/ beautiful carrier/ relational process/ attribute ● Behavioral processes: represent outer manifestations of our inner workings eg: She/smiled Behaver/ behavioral process ● Verbal processes: represent symbolic relationship constructed in human consciousness and enacted in the form of language eg: she/ told/ her father/ that… Sayer/ verbal process/ recipient/ verbiage ● Existential processes: concerning with existence eg: There is/ a cat/ in the class Existential process/ existent/ circumstance of place Cau Give an explanation of the types of circumstances and examples for illustration The circumstances: This component is related to the process They can occur in all types of process Most are realized by prepositional phrase; however, they can be clauses as well ❖ Main types of circumstance: Time: I arrived home at 10pm tonight Place: I met him at the school Condition: I will go out if the weather is good Concession: In spite of my parent’s objection, my wedding still went well Result: I was caught in a sudden shower, so i was soaked Manner: She beat her son with a ruler Attending circumstances: As everyone is here, let’s start Cause: Because of the rain, i was late for school Purpose: She is out for lunch now Cau The difference between context and cotext? Give examples ● COTEXT: refers to the text surrounding a message This includes the textual elements that occur before and/or after a word, a phrase or even a longer 14 14 utterance or a text The cotext often helps in understanding the particular meaning of the word, phrase, etc eg: the word ‘loud’ in ‘loud music’ → noisy, ‘a tie with a loud pattern’ → unpleasantly colourful ● Situational CONTEXT concerns the physical context in which a message is conveyed It is the broader social situation in which a linguistic item is used eg: ● CONTEXT not only the cotext but also the relevant features of the situation in which a sentence is uttered Context can determine utterance meanings in way: ➔ What sentence is uttered ➔ What proposition has been actually expressed ➔ What kind of illocutionary force has been assigned to the proposition Cau Give the definition of speech acts Classify speech acts according to J.L.Austin 15 15 ... leather Câu 9: hyperbole( ngoa dụ), litotes( nói giảm nói tránh), irony( châm biếm) euphemism(uyển ngữ) Example for illustration ● Hyperbole: is an exaggerated statement not meant to be understood