The research reported in this book has been financed largely through PRIN grants from the MURSTMIUR, namely Per una cartografia strutturale delle configurazioni sintattiche:€microvariazione nei dialetti italiani (1997–1999), La cartografia strutturale delle configurazioni sintattiche e le sue interfacce con la fonologia e la semantica. Parametri morfosintattici e fonosintattici (1999–2001), Categorie linguistiche:€Categorie di flessione nominale e verbale (Accordo, Aspetto); Nome e Verbo (2001–2003), I sistemi linguistici ‘speciali’ (apprendimento, disturbi) e la variazione tra i sistemi linguistici ‘normali’. Categorie funzionali del nome e del verbo (2003–2005), Strutture ricorsive in sintassi, morfologia e fonologia. Studi sulle varietà romanze. slave e albanesi (2005–2007), Morfosintassi e lessico:€ Categorie della flessione nominale e€verbale (2007–2009).
This page intentionally left blank G r a m m at ical Cat e gorie s Grammatical categories (e.g complementizer, negation, auxiliary, case) are some of the most important building blocks of syntax and morphology Categorization therefore poses fundamental questions about grammatical structures and about the lexicon from which they are built Adopting a ‘lexicalist’ stance, the authors argue that lexical items are not epiphenomena, but really represent the mapping of sound to meaning (and vice versa) that classical conceptions imply Their rule-governed combination creates words, phrases and sentences – structured by the ‘categories’ that are the object of the present inquiry They argue that the distinction between functional and non-Â�functional categories, between content words and inflections, is not as deeply rooted in grammar as is often thought In their argumentation they lay the emphasis on empirical evidence, drawn mainly from dialectal variation in the Romance languages, as well as from Albanian m r i ta m a n z in i a n d l e o na r d o m s avoia are both Full Professors of General Linguistics at the University of Florence In this series 94 95 96 97 98 99 100.â•… 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 j oan b yb e e : Phonology and language use l aur i e b aue r : Morphological productivity t homas e r ns t : The syntax of adjuncts e l i zab e t h c l os s t r augot t and r i c h a r d b d a sh e r : Regularity in semantic change maya hi c kmann: Children’s discourse: person, space and time across languages di ane b l ake mor e : Relevance and linguistic meaning: the semantics and pragmatics of discourse markers i an r ob e r t s and anna r ous s ou: Syntactic change: a minimalist approach to grammaticalization donka mi nkova: Alliteration and sound change in early English mar k c b ake r : Lexical categories: verbs, nouns and adjectives c ar l ota s s mi t h: Modes of discourse: the local structure of texts r oc he l l e l i e b e r : Morphology and lexical semantics hol ge r di e s s e l : The acquisition of complex sentences s har on i nke l as and c he r yl zo l l : Reduplication: doubling in morphology s us an e dwar ds : Fluent aphasia b ar b ar a dancygi e r and e ve s w e e t se r : Mental spaces in grammar: conditional constructions he w b ae r man, duns tan b r ow n a n d g r e v i l l e g c o r b e t t : The syntax–morphology interface: a study of syncretism mar c us t omal i n: Linguistics and the formal sciences: the origins of generative grammar s amue l d e p s t e i n and t dani e l se e ly: Derivations in minimalism paul de l acy: Markedness: reduction and preservation in phonology ye huda n fal k: Subjects and their properties p h mat t he w s : Syntactic relations: a critical survey mar k c b ake r : The syntax of agreement and concord gi l l i an c at r i ona r amc hand: Verb meaning and the lexicon: a first phase syntax p i e t e r muys ke n: Functional categories j uan ur i age r e ka: Syntactic anchors: on semantic structuring d r ob e r t l add: Intonational phonology second edition l e onar d h b ab b y: The syntax of argument structure b e l an dr e s he r : The contrastive hierarchy in phonology davi d adge r , dani e l har b our a n d l au r e l j wat k i n s: Mirrors and microparameters: phrase structure beyond free word order ni i na ni ng zhang: Coordination in syntax ne i l s mi t h: Acquiring phonology ni na t op i nt zi : Onsets: suprasegmental and prosodic behaviour c e dr i c b oe c kx, nor b e r t hor ns t e i n a n d ja i r o n u ň e s: Control as movement mi c hae l i s r ae l : The grammar of polarity: pragmatics, sensitivity, and the logic of scales m r i ta manzi ni and l e onar m savo i a : Grammatical Â�categories: variation in Romance languages Earlier issues not listed are also available CAMBRIDGE STUDIES IN LINGUISTICS General Editors: p austin, j bresnan, b comrie, s crain, w.dressler, c j ewen, r lass, d lightfoot, k rice, i roberts, s romaine, n v smith Grammatical Categories: Variation in Romance Languages Grammatical Categories Va r i at i on i n Ro m ance L anguag e s M Rita M a n zin i University of Florence Leo na r d o M S avo ia University of Florence cambrid ge uni ve r s i t y p r e s s Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo, Delhi, Tokyo, Mexico City Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521765190 © M Rita Manzini and Leonardo M Savoia 2011 This publication is in copyright Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press First published 2011 Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication data Manzini, Maria Rita Grammatical categories : variation in romance languages / M Rita Manzini, Leonardo Maria Savoia â•… p.â•… cm – (Cambridge studies in linguistics ; 128) ISBN 978-0-521-76519-0 (hardback) 1.╇ Grammar, Comparative and general–Grammatical categories.â•… 2.╇Language and languages–Variation.â•…I.╇Savoia, Leonardo Maria, 1948–â•…II.╇Title P240.5.M36 2011 415–dc22 2010052183 ISBN 978-0-521-76519-0 Hardback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs or external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate Contents List of tables Acknowledgements page x xi Introduction:€grammatical categories and the biolinguistic perspective 1 he structure and interpretation of (Romance) T complementizers 13 1.1 Romance complementizers are nominal and head their own noun phrase Structure of the complementizer phrase 1.2.1â•… Combining a left periphery in the complementizer phrase and in the embedded sentence; combining two complementizers 1.2.2â•… Some potential problems The left periphery beyond complementizers 1.3.1â•… Is order dictated by interpretation€– or interpretation by order? 1.3.2â•… Embedded contexts Conclusions 1.2 1.3 1.4 14 19 23 30 37 38 43 47 49 2.2 2.3 Variation in Romance k-complementizer systems Systems with two k-complementizers 2.1.1â•… Definite and indefinite complementizers€– and alternative analyses 2.1.2â•… Generalized wh–complementizers ‘If’ The interaction with (non-)finiteness Sentential negation:€adverbs 80 3.1 Sentential negation adverbs are nominal and argumental 83 2.1 49 54 61 65 73 vii viiiâ•… Contents 3.1.1â•… Further evidence 3.1.2â•… Sentential negation adverbs as nominal arguments 3.2 Ordering sentential negation with respect to other adverbs 3.2.1â•… The order of negation with respect to aspectual adverbs 3.2.2â•…The order of negation with respect to quantificational and manner adverbs 3.2.3â•… General discussion 3.3 The interaction of adverbial and verbal positions:€the participle 88 92 94 106 128 Sentential negation:€clitics 111 118 120 4.1 Interactions of negation clitics and subject clitics 4.2 Interactions of negation clitics with object clitics 4.2.1â•… Non-negative n 4.3 Negative concord and negative doubling 131 138 145 152 The middle-passive voice:€evidence from Albanian Data 5.1.1â•… Middle-passive morphologies 5.1.2â•… The interpretation of the middle-passive morphologies 5.1.3â•… The Arbëresh varieties The u clitic Specialized inflections 5.3.1â•… Be–participle 159 The auxiliary:€have/be alternations in the perfect Evidence 6.1.1â•… Theoretical background Auxiliary selection independent of transitivity/voice 6.2.1â•… Auxiliary selection according to person Splits according to transitivity/voice 6.3.1â•… Auxiliary selection according to voice 6.3.2â•… Auxiliary selection according to transitivity 6.3.3â•… Irreversibility Finer parametrization 6.4.1â•… Interactions between auxiliary selection according to transitivity/voice and according to person 6.4.2â•… The third auxiliary Some conclusions 196 5.1 5.2 5.3 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 160 160 164 169 172 184 188 196 203 208 209 216 216 218 222 223 224 228 233 Referencesâ•… 337 Jones, Michael 1993 Sardinian Syntax London:€Routledge Kallulli, Dalina 2006 ‘A unified analysis of passives, anticausatives and reflexives’, in O Bonami and P Cabredo Hofherr (eds.), Empirical Issues in Formal Syntax and Semantics 6, pp 201–25 Kayne, Richard 1975 French Syntax:€ the Transformational Cycle Cambridge, Mass.:€MIT Press â•… 1976 ‘French relative “que”’, in F Hensey and M Luján (eds.), Current Studies in Romance Linguistics, Washington, DC:€ Georgetown University Press, pp 255–99 â•… 1984 Connectedness and Binary Branching Dordrecht:€Foris â•… 1991 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Proceedings of NELS 32, GLSA; University of Massachusetts at Amherst, pp 519–37 Torres Morais, M Aparecida and Salles, Heloisa to appear ‘Parametric change in the grammatical encoding of indirect objects in Brazilian Portuguese’, Probus Tortora, Christina 2002 ‘Romance enclisis, prepositions, and aspect’, Natural Language and Linguistic Theory 20:€725–57 Trommer, Jochen 2005 ‘Closest c-command in Albanian non-active constructions’, Â�paper presented at Morphosyntax Workshop, University of Vienna Turano, Giuseppina 2002 ‘On modifiers preceded by the article in Albanian DPs’, Â�University of Venice Working Papers in Linguistics 12:€169–215 â•… 2003 ‘Similarities and differences between standard Albanian and Arbëresh numerals:€A case of micro-parametric variation’, University of Venice Working Papers in Linguistics, 13:€155–77 344â•… References Vincent, Nigel 1997 ‘The emergence of the D-system in Romance’, in A van Kemenade and N Vincent (eds.), Parameters of Morphosyntactic Change Cambridge University Press, pp 149–69 Wasow, Thomas 1977 ‘Transformations and the lexicon’, in P Culicover, T Wasow and A Akmajian (eds.), Formal Syntax New York:€Academic Press, pp 327–60 Weiss, Helmut 2002 ‘Three types of negation:€a case study in Bavarian’, in S Barbiers, L Cornips and S van dee Kleij (eds.), Syntactic Variation Meertens Institut Electronic Publications in Linguistics Whitman, John 2000 ‘Relabelling’, in S Pintzuk, G.Tsoulas and A Warner (eds.), Diachronic Syntax:€Models and Mechanisms Oxford University Press, pp 220–38 Zamboni, Alberto 1990 ‘Premesse morfologiche e tipologiche del composto italiano “capinera”, “pettirosso”’ In Parallela 4:€Morfologia/ Morphologie Tübingen:€Â�Niemeyer, pp 97–109 â•… 1998 ‘Cambiamento di lingua o cambiamento di sistema? Per un Â�bilancio cronologico della transizione’, in J Herman (ed.), La transizione dal latino alle lingue romanze Tübingen:€Niemeyer, pp 99–127 Zanuttini, Raffaella 1997 Negation and Clausal Structure New York:€Oxford Â�University Press Index ablative, 240, 283 syncretism with dative, 283 accusative, 191, 240, 277 as internal argument, 253 syncretism with nominative, 251, 284 adjective not sensitive to case, 268 preceded by article, 266 adverb aspectual, 80, 94, 108, 109, 110, 111, 118, 119, 125 aspectual/manner, 107 aspectual/quantificational, 102, 121 deictic/quantificational, 125 follows participle, 124 hierarchy, 82 manner, 113, 114, 117, 118, 119, 125 order, 108, 116, 120 position, 116, 120, 126 precedes participle, 124, 125 quantificational, 111, 112, 117, 119, 125 Agliano (Tuscany), 137 agreement, 11 as cheking, 238 as sharing of referential properties, 238 in copular construction, 268 in NP, 269 Aliano (Lucania), 225 Àllai (Sardinia), 36 ambiguity is not necessarily resolved syntactically, 107 anticausative interpretation, 216 vs reflexive, 216 Applicative, 294, 328 arbitrarization, 182 Arconate (Lombardy), 116 Ardaùli (Sardinia), 65 Arena (Calabria), 20, 51, 64 article and inflection, 287 as K, 276 from case to, 277 postposed, 247, 287 with adjectives, 266, 270 with kinship terms, 242, 270, 271 auxiliary, 10 be independent of transitivity and voice, 201 have independent of transitivity and voice, 201 syncretism of have and be, 228, 232 triple, 227 auxiliary selection (non-)reversible, 203, 222, 223 according to person, 201 according to person and transitivity, 225 according to transitivity, 218 according to voice, 216 in middle-passive, 198 Auxiliary Selection Hierarchy (ASH), 223 Bagolino (Lombardy), 320 base bare, 285 verbal, 190 be as defective predicate, 222 auxiliary and copula, 222 Bedizzano (Tuscany), 138, 141 biolinguistic perspective, biolinguistic program, Briga Novarese (Piedmont), 228, 229, 230 Buonabitacolo (Campania), 227 Buru, 34 345 346â•… Index C, 24 as a verbal position, 17 as position of interrogative modality, 26 domain, 141 Finiteness, 41, 61, 313 Focus, 41 Force, 41, 61, 312 recursion, 28–30 Cantoira (Piedmont), 24, 27, 95, 96, 105, 108, 110, 112, 114, 115 Càrcare (Liguria), 143, 144, 151 cartography, 10, 37–8 Casaccia (Grisons, Val Bregaglia), 314 case, 10, 11 (in)sensitivity of adjectives to, 272 abstract, 299 as a feature, 244 as argument, 269 as denotational properties, 277 as descriptive label, 255 as N, Q and D specifications, 286 as nominal class, 255 as primitive category, 277 as quantificational closure, 290 as referential closure, 294 as Tense, 245 constraints, 298, 300 in the absence of inflections, 256 legible at LF interface, 236 loss of, 276, 290 of clitics, 309, 310 of pronouns, 308 Case Resistance Principle, 30 Casei Gerola (Lombardy), 86 Càsola (Tuscany), 134, 135 Casorezzo (Lombardy), 86, 99, 106, 116 Castellazzo Bormida (Piedmont), 22, 23, 24, 26, 27, 95, 105, 109 Castellinaldo (Piedmont), 124 Castiglione d’Adda (Lombardy), 28, 101, 105 categorization, 4–5 Celle di Bulgheria (Campania), 122 Cerano (Piedmont), 23, 85 chain, 11, 153, 206 in doubling, 154 change, 298, 301 Civate (Lombardy), 77 Civita (Calabria, Arbëresh), 172 clause-typing, 29 clitic doubling, 153 Colledimacine (Abruzzi), 225 Colonnata (Tuscany), 139, 140 comparatives, 62 complementation as relativization, 65 complementizer, 9, 10, 12 and subjunctive, 52–4, 59 as head of noun phrase, 17 as relative pronoun, 18–19 coinciding with demonstrative, 15, 34 coinciding with verb, 35 coinciding with wh–, 15, 55, 58, 59, 61, 62 definite, 55, 57, 61, 63, 65, 71 deletion, 56–9, 316 factive, 32 functional projection of the verb, 14 generalized wh–, 63 indefinite, 55, 61, 63, 65, 69, 71 interrogative, 69 interrogative/hypothetical, 65, 66, 67, 68 matrix, 36 modal, 72 polarity, 71 vs wh–phrase, 73, complementizer agreement, 314 complex NP islands, 31–2 concept, concepts, 4, geometrical, Corte (Veneto), 40 Cravagliana (Piedmont), 86 cycle, 11 dative, 240 as Q, 252 as superset-of, 283, 293 inherent possession, 251 singular syncretic with non-oblique plural, 311 syncretism with ablative, 283 syncretism with genitive, 250, 265, 280, 283, 288, 293 default, 61 an inadequate notion, 281 definite declension, 239, 290 Dego (Liguria), 145, 146, 156 Determiner, 11, 238, 271 as referential closure, 294 Indexâ•… 347 combines with definite inflection, 246 development of, 290 in AP, 271 in genitive, 288, 291 preadjectival, 271 discourse-anchoring, 90, 136, 138, 141, 210, 309 Distributed Morphology, 3, 7, 12, 137, 142, 229, 236, 245, 246, 260, 281, 296, 297, 299, 300, 301 ECP, 86 enclisis, 85 proclisis alternations, 172 English, 322 EPP argument, 93, 206, 207, 253, 282 as a variable, 75 as D, 238 impersonal, 181 in participial sentences, 216 morphological-level, 75 realized by verb inflection, 74 syntactic-level, 75 verb inflection as, 178 ergativity split according to aspect, 188 according to person, 209 event domain, 82 elementary, 93, 112, 119 structure, 90 event-anchoring, 90, 136, 138, 141, 210 Exceptional Case Marking, 253 factive islands, 32 sentences, 31 faculty of language broad (FLB), 1, narrow (FLN), 1, feature checking, 11 uninterpretable, 11 unvalued, 11 Filattiera (Tuscany), 27 Finale Emilia (Emilia), 84 Firenze (Tuscany), 36 focus, 19, 22, 41, 59, 315 as interpretation, 42 Fontane (Piedmont), 124, 155 Fontanigorda (Liguria), 43, 73 Forno Valle Strona (Piedmont), 204 French, 46, 85 functional category, 4, 5, 7, 11, 12, 235 hierarchy, 12 lexicon, gender as nominal class, 238 genitive, 240, 277 as superset-of, 265, 283, 293 introduced as predication, 264 introduced by an article, 262 scope of, 282 syncretism with dative, 250, 265, 280, 288, 293 syncretism with nominative, 281 under negation, 87 Gizzeria (Calabria), 113 Gjirokastër (Albanian), 160, 161, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 173, 190, 197, 198, 200, 208, 216, 217, 218, 221 grammatical categories, 8, functions, grammaticalization, 12, 35–6, 84 Greek, 186, 193 Guglionesi (Molise), 50, 60, 63 hanging topic, 47 have as non-defective predicate, 223 denotes set inclusion, 231 deontic, 222 derived from be, 231 hierarchy as scope, 237 homophony vs single lexical entry, 87 I domain, 141 –i inflection, 289 as Q closure, 285 distribution, 280 I-language, 1, Impoverishment rule, 282 Inclusiveness, 61 348â•… Index indefinite declension, 239 infinitive followed by negation, 126 languages without, 51 preceded by negation, 121 innateness, instrumental, 283 Interface Uniformity, 6, 176, 178, 188, 218 inversion complex, 45 Italian, 16, 19, 31–2, 36, 39, 42, 43, 47, 52, 56, 57, 65, 68, 71, 72, 74, 76, 88, 125, 158, 182, 196, 197, 219, 221, 222, 223, 308, 315, 316, 321, 323, 328 kinship terms, 242, 246 l morphology as definiteness, 290 as inflection, 307 mutual exclusion, 292 La Pli de Mareo (Alto Adige/ South Tyrol), 20, 84, 316 Làconi (Sardinia), 60, 66, 76, 221 Late Insertion, 229, 230, 236 Latin, 278, 281 left periphery, 41, 45, 59, 314 above complementizer, 21–3 below and above complementizer, 23–5 in noun phrases, 23 under complementizer, 20 lexical base, 238 categories, items, parametrization, 2, terminal, 235, 275, 289, 299 lexicon, 6, functional, functional vs substantive, 275 LF interface closures at, 259 locative, 283 Luras (Sardinia), 33 Margarita (Piedmont), 97, 98, 110, 112, 114, 115, 123, 127 Marzano Appio (Campania), 113 meaning, 6, Mezzenile (Piedmont), 24, 97, 155 middle-passive, 10 anticausative reading, 179 as defective predicate, 220 as predicate with an open variable, 208 be-participle, 164, 169, 188, 192 clitic, 161 imperfective, 186 impersonal reading, 167, 181 movement analysis, 233 passive reading, 166, 177, 192 perfective, 186 reflexive reading, 165, 177, 180 specialized inflection, 159, 169, 184, 186 split according to aspect, tense, 163, 187 vs active, 164, 171 with unaccusatives, 167 with unergative verbs, 166 Miglionico (Lucania), 67 Minimalist program, 6, 236, 246, 275, 289, 294, 301 Minimality, 33 minimizer, 84 Modena (Emilia), 39, 44 Molina di Ledro (Trentino), 226 Mombercelli (Piedmont), 102, 103, 105, 108, 109, 110 Montaldo (Piedmont), 83, 97, 104, 106, 108, 109, 111, 123 Montebello Ionico/ Saline Ioniche (Calabria), 209 Montenerodomo (Abruzzi), 50, 64 Morano (Calabria), 314 Morcone (Campania), 202 morphological structure, 12 morphology unification with syntax, 236, 273 Müstair (Grisons), 323 Mustér (Grisons), 1098n, 104, 106 mutual exclusion negation/negative polarity argument, 156 subject/object clitics, 137 Nanosyntax, 299, 301, 302 Neg Criterion, 81 Neg position, 80, 81, 82, 84, 91, 94, 108, 117, 122, 128, 129, 132, 137, 151, 319, 322, 339 negation, 9, 11 negation adverb, 81, 82, 135 and argument structure, 88, 91 and aspectual adverb, 94, 102 Indexâ•… 349 and negative argument, 83, 84, 87 and person split, 91 as a nominal element, 91 as argument, 91 as internal argument, 154 bare noun, 84, 85 complementary distribution with negative arguments and adverbs, 155 interaction with internal argument, 153 introduces a variable, 154 minimizer, 88 nominal, 117 nothing-type, 84 no-type, 98, 115 position, 118, 121 presuppositional vs non-presuppositional, 94 quantifying over internal argument, 92, 93 negation clitic, 80, 81, 128, 129 and discourse-anchoring, 136 and event-anchoring, 136 and partitive, 151 and person split, 129, 130, 136, 148 and subject clitic, 135, 136, 137 as a negative polarity element, 152 as nominal element, 138, 152 as object clitic, 138 base generated, 130 complementary distribution with accusative, 147 complementary distribution with partitive, 149 distribution, 129, 144 doubling, 130, 139, 145, 153 in C-domain, 143, 148 in I-domain, 143, 148 introduces a variable, 154 two positions of, 133, 141 negative concord, 81, 130, 143, 152, 153 operator, 70, 87, 91, 92, 118, 152 polarity item, 81, 92, 152 polarity item as variable, 87 quantifier, 81 nominal class as denotational element, 277 as internal argument, 252 as sole inflection, 284 in the scope of D/Q, 255, 256, 258, 284 nominative, 191, 240, 277 syncretism with accusative, 251, 284 non-finite verbs, 82 null subject language, 75 Oblique, 260 of its lexical content, 232 Old French, 85, 295, 296, 310 opacity, 298 Optimality Theory, 137 Orsomarso (Calabria), 114 Oviglio (Piedmont), 38, 83, 147, 148, 149, 153 Pamparato (Piedmont), 103, 105, 108, 109, 112, 113 parameter micro- vs macro-, 234 participle (non-)agreeing, 200, 209 as independent sentence, 123, 203, 204 lacks temporal reference, 123 position, 121 preceded by negation, 121 partitive, 85, 87, 91, 92, 149, 151 selected by negation, 82, 85 passive as chain formation, 177, 178, 179 interpretation, 216 movement analysis, 159 vs anticausative, impersonal, reflexive, 159 past imperfective, 162, 165, 166, 184, 187 perfective, 162, 166, 169 Paulilàtino (Sardinia), 53, 60, 64, 70, 74 person (ir)reversibility of split, 227 1st plural, 213 2nd plural, 213 discourse-anchored vs event-anchored, 212 lack of split in the plural, 213 singular vs plural, 211 split, 82, 90, 209, 210 split under negation, 90 Pescolanciano (Abruzzi), 201 phase, 313 Piverone (Piedmont), 115 pluperfect, 230 plural bare, 86 polarity item, 71 operator, 71 350â•… Index Pomaretto (Piedmont), 95, 105 Portocannone (Molise, Arbëresh), 169, 170, 171, 173, 185, 190, 205 possession as inclusion, 251 possessive construction, 283 pronoun, 271 poverty of stimulus argument, Pozzaglio (Lombardy), 95, 105 Pramollo (Piedmont), 84 predicate projecting referential contents, 237 Premana (Lombardy), 84 prepositions as sentential introducers, 18, 62 as two place predicates, 260 aspectual type categories, 260 license all cases, 259 present, 162, 166, 184, 187 present perfect, 164, 165, 166 Q-floated position, 87 Quarna Sopra (Piedmont), 88 Quarna Sotto (Piedmont), 83, 89, 92, 121 question operator, 57, 69, 70 raising interpretation, 192 readjustment rules, 278, 298 reflexive interpretation, 216 vs anticausative, 216 relative analysis for conditionals, 69 appositive, 64 clause, 45, 63, 65 complement sentences, 70 restrictive, 64 representational, grammar, 11 rhetorical question, 41 Romanian, 287, 288, 289, 309 Russian, 85 Ruvo di Puglia (Apulia), 72 –s inflection, 284, 295 absent from expletive, 305 as definiteness, 306 as Q, 282, 297, 305 denotational content, 282 S.Angelo Lodigiano (Lombardy), 100, 106 S.Bartolomeo Pesio (Piedmont), 150, 156 S.Benedetto del Tronto (Marche), 202 S.Benedetto Ullano (Calabria, Arbëresh), 172 S.Maria Maggiore (Piedmont), 40 Scuol (Grisons), 20 Secinaro (Abruzzi), 72 selection, 30 s-selection, 313 serial verbs, 34 Shkodёr (Albanian), 1099n, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 173, 177, 179, 180, 182, 184, 185, 189, 191, 192 silent categories, 4, 7, 45 Sillano (Tuscany), 132, 152 si-type clitic and person split, 141 as dative, 221 as internal argument, 177, 183 as middle-passive, 207 as pronominal object clitic, 172, 173, 178 as reflexive, 176 as variable, 69, 176 correlates with be, 197 variation, 174, 182 vs impersonal pronoun, 183 with transitive, 182 Soazza (Grisons), 199, 219 Stroppo/ Macra (Piedmont), 83, 86, 87 subject clitic, 38–40, 43–4 lexical, 38–40, 44, 313 subject clitic inversion, 24–7 subjunctive, 52–4, 57, 70 particle, 52 Subset Principle, 281, 299 Superset Principle, 299 syncretism (non-)accidental, 301 contextual vs absolute, 296 –t inflection as plural, 258 as superset of, 258 terminal abstract, 275 thematic vowel, 186, 187, 190, 243, 278, 279, 283, 284, 285 theta-theory, 12 Indexâ•… 351 topic, 19, 22, 24, 28, 41, 43, 59 as interpretation, 42 transitive as complex predicate, 93, 208 transitivity, 207, 223 Trecate (Piedmont), 85, 233 Trun (Grisons), 46, 84, 220 unaccusative active, 181 as defective predicate, 220 as elementary event, 93 as predicate with a single argument, 208 unergative as concealed transitive, 167, 208 as incorporating internal argument, 93 uniformity thesis, 2, Urbino (Marche), 307 V2, 313 embedded, 20–1, 24 embedded in questions, 28 vs complementizer, 58 Vagli di Sopra (Tuscany), 132, 133, 152, 309 variable individual, 64 propositional, 69, 71 variation, 9, 294 language, 2–3 Vastogirardi (Molise), 226 Vella (Grisons), 302, 303, 304, 305, 306 Vena (Calabria, Arbëresh), 241, 242, 243, 259, 263, 264, 266, 267, 268, 270, 272, 273 Verbicaro (Calabria), 201 Viano (Tuscany), 131, 134, 135, 153 Viguzzolo (Piedmont), 26, 28, 100, 101, 105 voice, 207, 223 wh–, 62, 72 argument, 15 determiner, 16 D-linked, 40 introducing exclamative, 16 introducing relative, 16 not intrinsecally interrogative, 68 variable, 63 Wh–Criterion, 39 wh–phrase, 19, 22, 24, 38, 41, 43 word order change, 276 Zernez (Grisons), 315 Zoldo Alto (Veneto), 77