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In every language there are descriptive lexical elements, such as evening and whisper, as well as grammatical elements, such as the and ing. The distinction between these two elements has proven useful in a number of domains, but what is covered by the terms ‘lexical’ and ‘grammatical’, and the basis on which the distinction is made, appear to vary according to the domain involved. This book analyses the grammatical elements (‘functional categories’) in language, a topic that has drawn considerable attention in linguistics, but has never been approached from an integrated, crossdisciplinary perspective. Muysken considers functional categories from the perspective of grammar, language history, language contact, and psychology (including child language and aphasia). Empirically based, the book examines the available converging evidence from these various disciplines, and draws on comparative data from a wide range of different languages.
This page intentionally left blank F U N C T I O N A L C AT E G O R I E S In every language there are descriptive lexical elements, such as evening and whisper, as well as grammatical elements, such as the and -ing The distinction between these two elements has proven useful in a number of domains, but what is covered by the terms ‘lexical’ and ‘grammatical’, and the basis on which the distinction is made, appear to vary according to the domain involved This book analyses the grammatical elements (‘functional categories’) in language, a topic that has drawn considerable attention in linguistics, but has never been approached from an integrated, cross-disciplinary perspective Muysken considers functional categories from the perspective of grammar, language history, language contact, and psychology (including child language and aphasia) Empirically based, the book examines the available converging evidence from these various disciplines, and draws on comparative data from a wide range of different languages p i e t e r m u y s k e n is Professor of Linguistics at the Radboud University Nijmegen, The Netherlands His previous publications include One Speaker, Two Languages (with Lesley Milroy, 1995), Bilingual Speech A Typology of Code-Mixing (2000), and The Languages of the Andes (with Willem Adelaar, 2004) In this series 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 l u i g i b u r z i o: Principles of English stress j o h n a h aw k i n s: A performance theory of order and constituency a l i c e c h a r r i s a n d ly l e c a m p b e l l: Historical syntax in cross-linguistic perspective l i l i a n e h a e g e m a n: The syntax of negation p a u l g o r r e l: Syntax and parsing g u g l i e l m o c i n q u e: Italian syntax and universal grammar h e n r y s m i t h: Restrictiveness in case theory d r o b e r t l a d d: Intonational morphology a n d r e a m o r o: The raising of predicates: predicative noun phrases and the theory of clause structure r o g e r l a s s: Historical linguistics and language change j o h n m a n d e r s o n: A notional theory of syntactic categories b e r n d h e i n e: Possession: cognitive sources, forces and grammaticalization n o m t e r t e s c h i k - s h i r: The dynamics of focus structure j o h n c o l e m a n: Phonological representations: their names, forms and powers c h r i s t i n a y b e t h i n: Slavic prosody: language change and phonological theory b a r b a r a d a n c y g i e r: Conditionals and prediction c l a i r e l e f e b v r e: Creole genesis and the acquisition of grammar: the case of Haitian creole h e i n z g i e g e r i c h: Lexical strata in English k e r e n r i c e: Morpheme order and semantic scope a p r i l m c m a h o n: Lexical phonology and the history of English m at t h e w y c h e n: Tone Sandhi: patterns across Chinese dialects g r e g o r y t s t u m p: Inflectional morphology: a theory of paradigm structure j o a n b y b e e: Phonology and language use l a u r i e b a u e r: Morphological productivity t h o m a s e r n s t: The syntax of adjuncts e l i z a b e t h c l o s s t r a u g o t t and r i c h a r d b d a s h e r: Regularity in semantic change m aya h i c k m a n n: Children’s discourse: person, space and time across languages d i a n e b l a k e m o r e: Relevance and linguistic meaning: the semantics and pragmatics of discourse markers i a n r o b e r t s and a n n a r o u s s o u: Syntactic change: a minimalist approach to grammaticalization d o n k a m i n k o va: Alliteration and sound change in early English m a r k c b a k e r: Lexical categories: verbs, nouns and adjectives c a r l o ta s s m i t h: Modes of discourse: the local structure of texts r o c h e l l e l i e b e r: Morphology and lexical semantics h o l g e r d i e s s e l: The acquisition of complex sentences s h a r o n i n k e l a s and c h e r y l z o l l: Reduplication: doubling in morphology s u s a n e d wa r d s: Fluent aphasia b a r b a r a d a n c y g i e r and e v e s w e e t s e r: Mental spaces in grammar: conditional constructions h e w b a e r m a n, d u n s ta n b r ow n and g r e v i l l e g c o r b e t t: The syntax-morphology interface: a study of syncretism m a r c u s t o m a l i n: Linguistics and the formal sciences: the origins of generative grammar s a u m u e l d e p s t e i n and t d a n i e l s e e ly: Derivations in minimalism p a u l d e l a c y: Markedness: reduction and preservation in phonology y e h u d a n f a l k: Subjects and their properties p h m at t h e w s: Syntactic relations: a critical survey m a r k c b a k e r: The syntax of agreement and concord g i l l i a n c at r i o n a r a m c h a n d: Verb meaning and the lexicon: a first phase syntax p i e t e r m u y s k e n: Functional categories Earlier issues not listed are also available CAMBRIDGE STUDIES IN LINGUISTICS General editors: p a u s t i n, j b r e s n a n, b c o m r i e , s c r a i n, w d r e s s l e r , c j e w e n, r l a s s , d l i g h t f o o t, k r i c e , i r o b e r t s , s r o m a i n e , n v s m i t h Functional Categories F U N C T I O NA L C AT E G O R I E S PIETER MUYSKEN Radboud Universiteit Nijmegen CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521853859 © Pieter Muysken 2008 This publication is in copyright Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press First published in print format 2008 ISBN-13 978-0-511-39704-2 eBook (NetLibrary) ISBN-13 978-0-521-85385-9 hardback ISBN-13 978-0-521-61998-1 paperback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of urls for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate Contents List of tables List of figures Preface List of abbreviations page xi xiv xv xvii Introduction Theoretical perspectives on categorisation The perspective taken in this book Disclaimers The organisation of this book grammar Functional categories and language typology 13 Structuralism: Sapir and Jakobson The notional classification of functional categories Expanding the range of functional categories in language description Towards a new classification Conclusions 14 15 16 20 25 Lexical, morphological, and phonological dimensions of functional categories 26 Lexical realisation A case study: Quechua Other criteria Primitives at the interface Clitics Conclusions 26 29 32 39 40 41 Semantics and pragmatics 42 Semantic features of functional categories The syntax/semantics interface and the interpretability of features 42 46 vii viii Contents Deletability and expression as a null form The special status of discourse markers Interjections Conclusions 47 48 51 52 Theoretical syntax: the generative tradition 53 Historical overview Theoretical considerations Diagnostic criteria The category P Conclusions 54 58 61 65 70 historical linguistics Grammaticalisation 73 Different dimensions of the grammaticalisation process Frequently emerging functional categories Grammaticalisation theory and generative models of functional categories Conclusions 76 77 Linguistic reconstruction 88 Functional categories in Indo-European The evidence from Proto-Uralic The evidence from Afro-Asiatic The evidence from Amerind Conclusions 90 91 93 95 96 83 86 p s yc h o l i n g u i s t i c s Speech production 99 Production models: evidence from speech error studies Garrett’s distinction between functional and positional structure Frequency effects Evidence from neurolinguistic studies Conclusions 100 105 106 108 110 Language development 111 First language development Child bilingual development Second language development Conclusions 111 116 119 125 Author index Wexler, K 125, 140, 142 Wheeler, S 168 White, L 124 Whitney, W D 177 Wierzbicka, A 15 Wiese, R 100, 103–105 Winford, D 166, 177 Wulfeck B 131 Yakpo, K 73–75 Zec, D 39 Zei, B 136 Zeller, J 17 Zimmer, J 159 Zipf, G K 100 Zobl, H 120 Zurif, E B 107 Zwarts, J 67–69 Zwicky, A M 41 Zwitserlood, I 161, 162 283 Subject index 4-M model 10 accidence 14, 15 action 246 action structure 50 adjective (A) 3, 13, 29, 32, 36–39, 44, 55, 76, 101–104, 108, 111, 122, 129, 136, 166, 170, 171, 177, 184, 223, 251 AP 55 colour 58 comparative 91, 100, 101 degree 91 inflection 91, 129, 140, 175, 221 nationality 58 quality 58 shape 58, 246 size 58, 246 superlative 91, 102 adjustment rule adposition (P) 4, 32, 41, 54, 56, 59, 62, 63, 65–70, 76, 82, 83, 87, 101, 104, 133–137, 168, 191, 241–244 abstract 245 intransitive preposition, see adposition, particle locative 245 particle 86, 101–105, 111, 136, 206 postposition 29, 66, 68, 134, 136, 179, 193, 199, 208–210, 220, 223, 243 PP 62, 63, 66–70, 198 preposition 1, 4–6, 13, 16, 32, 37–40, 44, 47, 85, 86, 90, 91, 105, 107–111, 122, 124, 129, 133–137, 140, 143, 146, 148, 163, 164, 168–172, 175, 177–183, 185, 187, 193–196, 198, 199, 202, 203, 208–210, 219, 220, 224, 241, 243 preposition stranding 70 simple 245 284 adverb (ADV) 4, 13, 29, 32, 37, 41, 50, 79, 82, 83, 91, 101–104, 111, 122, 129, 131, 172, 181–183, 187, 220, 243–245 ADVP 55, 56 agreement 22, 23 approximative 246 DegP 55 degree (Deg)/quantity 55, 83, 182, 186, 187, 246 discourse 49–51 intensifier 83, 246 locative (place) 37 , 131 manner 186 measure degree (M) 55, 56 modifier 40, 57, 103 MP 55, 56 time 37, 105, 181, 186, 191, 249 affix leaking 169, 170 agreement (Agr) 34, 56, 59, 61, 83, 91, 93, 123, 130, 138–142, 149, 156–162, 168, 171, 183, 187, 227, 240, 243–245 AgrP 138 person 16, 22, 23, 27, 79, 81, 221 topic number 223 alignment see voice alternation consonant 27, 36, 146 lenition 146 nasalization 146 vowel 27, 34, 38, 94 amorphous language 29 anaphor 91, 122, 175, 191, 246 animacy 23, 122, 146, 179, 180, 221, 246 human 33, 34, 179 aphasia agrammatic 9, 127–139, 239, 242, 253 Broca’s aphasia, see aphasia, agrammatic Subject index dextral crossed 136 Wernicke aphasia 128, 130, 137 applicative 173 approach formal functional generative 6, article, see determiner aspect (ASP) 13, 21, 57, 75, 91, 156, 221, 223, 246, 248 Aktionsart (lexical verbal aspect) 22, 246 andative 84 aorist 91 celerative 57 change-of-state 84 completive 57, 75, 84, 157, 203, 204 continuative/continuous 57, 75, 84, 196 durative 196, 200, 203, 204 egressive 75 frequentative 57 generic 57, 159 habitual 57, 148, 196, 203, 204 imperfective 27, 74 ingressive 75 negative perfect 74 perfect 57, 74 perfective 27, 74, 195 progressive 2, 57, 203, 204 prospective 57 proximative 75 repetitive/iterative 57, 74, 203, 204 resultative 203, 204 resumptive 196 retrospective 57 terminative 57 verbal 15 asymmetry 4, 10, 220, 222 attrition see phonology, reduction Autonomous Development Hypothesis 116–118 auxiliary 1, 2, 4, 13, 40, 41, 58, 59, 62–64, 73–76, 82, 83, 87, 88, 108, 111, 115, 120, 124, 129, 131, 134, 136, 139–141, 144, 156, 158, 164, 192, 193, 195, 199, 200, 203, 204, 208, 209, 221, 233, 234, 241–244 aspectual 4, 245 causative 84 285 copula 4, 30, 80, 82, 83, 102, 103, 114, 120, 136, 139, 141, 143, 144, 179, 193, 195, 199, 200, 203, 204, 224, 228, 233 do-support 64, 85, 139 existential 179, 195, 215, 216 posture 80 Baby Talk 229 base language see Matrix Language Frame model Basic Variety 119, 122, 123 benefactive 24 bilingual 2, 89 simultaneous bilingual development 111, 116–119, 242 speech 49, 211 Bilingual Syntax Measure 119, 120 body term 88 borrowing 10, 89, 90, 95, 177–187, 211, 217, 219, 239, 243, 253 borrowability hierarchies 177–179 brain imaging studies 99, 108–110 calque 184 Caretaker Speech 229, 230 Cartography of Linguistic Structure 57 case 4, 13–15, 19, 34, 41, 46, 66, 82, 83, 85, 91, 92, 96, 100, 101, 104, 123, 130, 133–137, 143, 146–151, 159, 168, 173, 174, 187, 194, 217, 243–246 ablative/separative 30, 83, 92, 137, 149 absolute 223 accusative 30, 80, 81, 92, 118, 119, 136, 137, 141, 146, 149–151 agent 84 allative 84, 92, 96, 149 associative 179 aversive 84, 147 benefactive 30, 84, 173, 202 comitative 80, 84, 223 comparative 84 dative 30, 33, 91, 119, 146, 147, 149–151, 200 delative 149 elative 149 ergative 147, 148 essive 92, 149 genitive/possessive 30, 37, 80, 91, 92, 102, 103, 115, 129, 133, 137–139, 146, 147, 175, 202, 223, 233, 234 286 Subject index case (cont.) illative 149 inessive 149 instrumental 30, 82, 131, 137, 147, 149 lative 92 locative (±R) 19, 30, 33, 34, 47, 67–69, 92, 147, 149, 197–199, 202 nominative 92, 124, 136, 137, 139, 146, 150, 228 oblique 137 relative 223 sublative 149 superessive 149 vocative 146 Case Deficit Hypothesis 128 categorisation models chain 4, hierarchy mono-dimensional 4, multi-dimensional 4–6, 10 multi-level 4, prototype scale category 248, 249 cross-category development 120 expression 3, 7, 251, 252 identity 56 innovation 8, 32 notional 15, 82, 83, 84 position 2, specific development 120 sub-word transitory 75, 76 underlying word 2, centrality 145 class term see classifier classifier 20, 21, 82, 83, 160–162, 240, 244, 245 deictic 147 nominal 13, 16–18, 21 numeral 17 shape 160, 161 size 160, 161 verbal 17, 21, 162 clause (S) 7, 54, 61, 205, 221 complement 102, 186 finite declarative 117 juxtaposition 233, 234, 236, 247–249, 252, 253 length 232, 233 linking 246 marker 16–18, 20, 94, 182, 183, 186, 197, 221 non-purposive 148 perception complement 81 relative 48, 78, 85, 91, 148 subordinate 124, 132, 133, 186, 232 clitic 8, 34, 40, 41, 62, 74, 106, 129, 135, 140, 141, 170, 171 bound (affixal) 40, 41 clausal enclitic 19, 27, 216, 217 free 40 internal 40 pro-clitic 37 prosodic clitic 40 simple 41 special 41 code-mixing 10, 48, 163–176, 185, 211, 239, 243 alternation 253 code-switching 3, 10, 48, 49, 163–176, 239, 243 cognition 5, 7, 18, 42 development collocation 32, 36, 37, 173 communication interactive complementiser (C, COMP) 5, 16, 40–43, 47, 48, 54, 56, 60–63, 77, 78, 81, 83–85, 105, 122–124, 132, 138, 139, 157, 219, 245 CP 54, 55, 62, 63, 84, 85, 138, 140 infinitival 203 complexity 120, 144, 145, 190 compound 8, 32, 38, 101, 103, 104, 123 concept radical 3, 43 relational 3, 43 concord see agreement conjunction 6, 9, 13, 16, 40, 41, 48–51, 83, 87–89, 108, 111, 131, 143, 148, 168, 177, 180, 181, 185, 193, 196, 200, 201, 204, 209, 219, 224, 241, 244, 245 adverbial 180, 183, 187, 243, 249 complex 181 conditional 223 coordinating 32, 91, 132, 134, 177, 187, 220, 243 purposive 223 Subject index subordinating 81, 83, 91, 129, 132, 177, 208, 217, 243 connective see linker consonant emphatic 94 glottalised 94 implosive 94 pharyngealised 94 construction 42, 76 tightening 9, 73 continuity strong 115, 123, 124 weak 115, 116 convergence 190, 192, 238, 242 creole 6, 73–75, 188–210, 239, 243, 248, 250 genesis 10, 229, 253 Deficit of Agreement 140 definiteness (Def) 33, 45, 47, 60, 129, 133, 148, 155, 159, 160, 173, 221, 245, 246, 249 deictic 16, 17, 21, 30, 34, 35, 37, 42, 77–79, 81–83, 85, 90, 91, 93, 96, 122, 139, 159, 179, 183, 197, 201, 217, 220, 221, 223, 225, 240, 246 absential 35 approaching 35 distal/distant 33–35, 96 elevated 35 locative 217 non-standing 35 proximate to addressee 35 proximate to speaker 35 retreating 35 standing 35 deletability 47, 48 demonstrative see deictic denotational class see ontology determiner (D, Det) 13, 16, 20, 40, 41, 43, 55, 56, 60, 62, 63, 81, 84, 85, 91, 100, 105, 108–111, 114–116, 118, 120–123, 128, 129, 133–135, 139–142, 159, 170, 171, 177, 185, 224, 232, 233, 244, 245, 249 DP 55, 62, 63, 142, 162, 221, 227 diminutive 37, 38, 83, 175, 179, 183 directional 31, 68–70, 196, 202, 227 particle 56 discourse 42 287 marker 8, 9, 16, 40, 42, 48–51, 90, 131, 244, 245, 249 organisation 8, 64, 84, 227 particle see discourse, marker quotative 136 status 249 dominant language 163, 164 doubling 168, 169 economy 84 E-language entity 15, 246 equivalence categorial 10, 167, 174 linear 10, 172 event 15, 246 structure 246 Event Related Potential (ERP) 99, 109 evidential 13, 19, 21, 41, 49, 57, 64, 182, 244, 246 reportative 216 evolution 4, 10, 245–253 exchange structure 50 exclamative see evidential expletive 49, 122 feature binary 15 checking theory 10 phi-features 2, 155 realisations 20, 22 strength 61 finiteness 57, 245 first language development 9, 111–119, 239, 242, 253 focus 6, 19, 23, 57, 83, 204, 246 emphatic 197, 198 focus first 123 force 57, 63 Foreigner Talk 10, 227–237, 239, 243, 244 adaptation model 236 cultural filter model 237 earlier grammar model 236 Foreigner Register 229, 230, 235 interaction studies 231–234 introspection studies 231–234 literary sources 231–234 non-routine 232–234 reduced processor model 237 routine 232–234 288 Subject index formant 28 frequency 9, 36, 100, 106–110, 113, 114, 120, 145, 197, 232 Functional Convergence Hypothesis 118 Functional Interference Hypothesis 118 functional load 145 functional skeleton 61, 64, 115, 116, 119, 125, 126, 132, 183, 221, 240, 242, 244, 253 full 138 truncated 138 functor gender 13–15, 17, 21, 23, 46, 83, 91, 94, 107, 119, 133, 135, 146, 159, 173, 194, 202, 223, 224, 241, 246 feminine 91, 94, 119, 135, 184, 221 masculine 91, 94, 95, 119, 135, 146, 221 neuter 20, 34, 91 generative syntax see theoretical syntax gesturing 232 gradience 3–5, gram grammatical relation 14, 248, 249 null object 117–119 object 17, 81, 111, 117–119, 157, 159, 160, 198, 202 oblique object 223 subject 17, 111, 117, 132, 159, 160, 198, 202 grammatical role see grammatical relation grammaticalisation 4, 6, 7, 9, 10, 60, 73–87, 89, 90, 156–159, 161, 192, 225, 239–242 historical linguistics see language, change iconicity 159 ideational structure 50, 51 ideophone 44, 51, 52 I-language incorporation 21, 65 independent coining 32, 33 indexical see shifter Inflection Phrase (IP) 53, 54, 56, 84 INFL, I 54, 55, 60, 138 information source see evidential information state 50, 51 insertion 65, 163–164, 243, 253 noun phrase 170, 171 interface syntax/lexicon 41, 119, 240 syntax/phonology 4, 9, 39, 124, 240 syntax/semantics 4, 9, 52, 119, 240 interjection 13, 48–51, 90, 182, 183, 187, 244 descriptive 51 directive 51 expressive 51, 52 phatic 51 Interlanguage Talk 229 Tarzanese 231 interpretability 64, 240 of features 9, 46, 47, 61 interrogative see question intertwining see relexification inventory features 21 functional categories 56–57 phoneme 247 jargon 211, 212, 218 kinship 23, 34, 36, 88, 121 landing site 58, 63, 64 language attrition 2, 9, 143–151, 239, 242 change 2, 6, 9, 20, 73–87, 239, 242 contact 2, 10, 183, 189, 239, 242, 243 death 144, 180, 212, 239, 242 description 8, 16–20, 73, 239, 240 family shift 143, 144, 178, 212 lateralisation 108, 109 lexicon 8, 26, 73, 211–226, 239, 240, 247–249 class 3, 62, 70, 109 linguistic fossil 252, 253 linker 16, 41, 49, 128, 129, 140, 204, 227 location 15, 246 logical connector 128 Matrix Language Frame model 4-M model 173–175 bridge late system morpheme 173–175 content morpheme 172–175 early system morpheme 173–175 embedded language island 166, 171 matrix language 163–167 outsider late system morpheme 173–175 system morpheme 172–175 System Morpheme Principle 165, 172 maturation 115, 124 Subject index maxim 234, 235, 244 meaning abstract 4, 9, 42, 43, 73, 74, 108, 110, 240, 248–250 bulk neutral 44 coercion 42, 45 concrete 9, 43, 108, 240 descriptive content 62 flexibility 42, 45 non-compositional 45 polysemy 24, 25, 240 procedural 49 propositional 49 schematic 43 substance neutral 44 measure term 17 Minimal Default Grammar 140 Minimalism 9, 61 Head Preference/Spec to Head 85 Late Merge 85 Merge 138 mixed language 10, 164, 183, 211–226, 239, 243, 253 classical 211–219 mixed marriage 213 new community 213, 214 reverse 212, 224 reverse split 212, 222, 223 secret/ritual 213 semi-shift 212 split 212, 219–222 modal 4, 14, 16, 46, 57, 64, 78, 85, 90, 139, 156, 221, 244–246, 248, 249 ability/permission 57, 75, 84, 195, 196 conditional 74 declarative 14 deontic 45, 196 epistemic 45, 57, 196 illocutionary force 249 necessity 57, 75 obligation 57, 74, 75, 195, 203, 204 particle 41, 43 possibility 57, 203, 204 subjunctive 74 volitional/desire 57, 75 modality see modal modality-specific aspects 157, 159 eye gaze 160 head tilt 160 non-manual gesticulation 158 289 modelling 99 modification 42–44, 68, 70, 111 modular perspective 5, 10, 238–254 mood 13, 41, 57, 91, 148, 149, 221, 246 conjunctive 223 dubitative 180 evaluative 57 hortative 96 imperative 91, 92, 233, 234 indicative 91 irrealis 57 optative 91 speech act 57 subjunctive 91, 92 morpheme order 114, 115, 119–121 morphology 3, 6, 8, 20, 26–39, 76–83, 86, 105, 116, 124, 129, 239, 240 affix 26, 27, 34, 39, 62, 64, 100, 158, 164, 178, 214, 218, 244 allomorphy 144, 147 bound morpheme 89, 100, 120, 131 derivation 32, 37, 38, 65, 68, 74, 100–102, 105, 122, 223 free morpheme 89, 120 inflection 3, 5, 28, 29, 38, 74, 81, 85, 100, 102, 120, 122, 125, 150, 178, 193, 248, 249 prefix 38, 94, 159 root 35 regularity 145, 178 suffix 38, 94, 159 template/root-and-pattern 94, 184 motherese see Caretaker Speech mouthing 155, 156, 162 mouth gesture 157 multi-dimensional perspective see modular perspective mutation see alternation negation 33, 34, 41, 46, 58, 64, 74, 79, 83, 91, 105, 122, 124, 125, 131, 158, 179, 217, 220, 227, 246, 248 marked on agreement 93 negative existential 157, 215, 216, 223 negative indicative 91 nominal 223 pronoun 198 prohibitive/negative imperative 91, 148, 196 simplified 233, 234 verbal tensed 22, 23, 223 290 Subject index neurolinguistic see brain imaging studies noun (N) 3, 4, 13, 29, 32, 36, 37, 39, 44, 48, 55, 56, 61, 62, 66, 76, 82–85, 89, 91, 100, 101, 108, 111, 114, 122, 129, 131, 134–136, 147, 158, 177, 178, 187, 191, 206, 219, 220, 222, 224, 245, 251 class 17, 96 classification see classifier locative 66, 67 nominal system 120, 129, 212, 219–223 nominaliser 95, 184 noun phrase (NP) 7, 54, 55, 63 null element 116, 160, 232–235 lexeme 28, 47, 48, 62, 64, 66, 192, 193 suffix 27 number 13, 15, 23, 47, 83, 91, 92, 96, 107, 146, 148, 173, 187, 223, 224, 243, 246 dual 24, 91, 92, 147, 194, 195 paucal 24 plural 21, 24, 91, 92, 102–104, 115, 129, 138, 139, 146, 147, 166, 168, 169, 174, 175, 178, 183–185, 194, 195, 233, 234 quadral 24 singular 2, 21, 24, 91, 194, 195 trialis 24, 194, 195 verbal 21, 221 numeral 8, 30, 37, 82, 83, 88, 89, 91, 136, 179, 220, 221 bound 21 obligatory status 60, 61 obviation 221 onomatopoetic 52 ontology 42, 44 open/closed class 32, 65, 89, 99, 105, 107–109, 156, 250 optimality 240 bi-directional ranking Optional Infinitive Theory 140 paradigmatic organisation/paradigmaticity 8, 32–34, 36, 42, 89, 178, 225, 244 levelling 144 parameter 53, 115 configurational 84 feature strength 61, 123 non-configurational 84 null subject/pro-drop 117, 160, 193 split IP 59 parataxis see clause, juxtaposition participation framework 50, 51 parts of speech 13, 15 peak latency 108 person 13, 15, 21, 46, 135, 160, 223, 224, 246 first 2, 21, 91, 93–95, 122, 135, 159, 195, 218 fourth 95 inclusive/exclusive 194, 195 second 21, 32, 91, 94, 95, 122, 159, 195, 218 third 21, 37, 91, 95, 100–104, 115, 122, 131, 135, 138–140, 159, 174, 194–197, 202, 218 personal relation see grammatical relation phonology 8, 39–41, 76–83, 86, 114, 144, 239, 240 contraction see phonology, reduction dependence 62 erosion see phonology, reduction morpho-phonology 73 phonotactics 179, 217 phrase reduction 4, 6, 9, 31, 39, 73, 89, 90, 114, 131, 192, 197, 232, 244 weakening see phonology, reduction weight pidgin 73–75, 147, 188–212, 229, 234, 239, 243, 248, 250, 253 genesis 10 loss of morphology 10 pitch 113 place see spatial orientation polarity 63, 246 possession 121, 122, 146, 148, 195, 246 alienable 22, 246 inalienable 22, 246 pronoun 91, 129, 139, 167, 221 pragmatics 8, 48–51, 73, 75, 123, 161, 232, 239, 240, 247 load 145 predicate 15, 246 active 45 cleft 47 predicative conjunctive 136 stative 45 probabilistic approach 13, 178, 179 Subject index processing 2, 7, 143 formulator 173–175, 237 functional level 106, 174 perception/comprehension 9, 114, 128, 130 positional level 105, 106 production 9, 99–110, 128, 130, 239, 241 sound level 106 syntactic 70 projection 16, 173–175, 248, 249 category (syntactic) 45 extended 53 functional 45, 57, 63, 116, 138 maximal 174, 175 semantic 42, 45 uniform 59, 60 verbal 116 pronoun (Pro) 9, 13, 16, 21, 29–33, 39, 41, 62, 81–83, 88–92, 94, 95, 101–105, 108, 109, 112, 114, 117, 121–125, 129, 132–137, 141, 159, 167, 175, 179, 185, 191, 193, 208–210, 217–224, 227, 233, 234, 241–245, 248 bound 35 clitic/weak 4, 15, 22, 23, 64, 77, 107, 131, 134, 167, 177, 222, 245 free/independent 35, 94, 177 indefinite see quantifier oblique 94 polite 233, 234 relative 91, 136, 193, 196, 200, 201, 204 strong 4, 131, 134, 135, 171, 233, 234, 245 property 15, 246 prosodic word Major Phrase Rule 40 Prosodic Word Rule 40 size 39 proto-form 88 protolanguage 247–253 psycholinguistics 2, 9, 239, 241 quantifier 16, 29, 30, 37, 38, 62, 122, 129, 167, 172, 177, 179, 221, 246, 248, 249 distributive 58 referential 58 share 58 universal 33 quantitative pronoun see quantifier quantity, see quantifier question 23, 84, 147, 158, 233 291 indirect 139 particle 83, 158 pronoun 6, 16, 30, 33, 88, 90, 91, 93, 96, 139, 188, 193, 196, 201, 201, 204, 220, 221, 223 Wh 33, 34, 46, 58, 155, 248 reaction time study 99 recency 145 reciprocal 41, 83, 147 reconstitution 10 reconstruction 9, 88–96, 239, 241 recursion 251, 252 redundancy 113 reduplication stative predicate 27, 28 reference 14 tracking 159–162, 243 reflexive 26, 41, 80, 83, 91, 135, 141, 167 regression 145, 146, 150 relativiser see pronoun, relative relexicalisation 211, 212, 215 relexification 190, 192, 212, 213–221, 225, 226 repetition 232 restructuring 10, 208, 209, 225, 226 saliency 113, 120, 145 second language development 3, 9, 119–126, 190, 239, 242, 253 incomplete 190, 191 selectional restriction 42, 46, 70, 115 semantics 8, 42–49, 73–83, 87, 239, 240 auto-semantic 42 basic 113 bleaching syn-semantic 42, 112, 113 semiotics sense relation 42, 44, 45 hyponymy 44 synonymy 44 shifter 16, 88, 172 sign language 10, 155–162, 239, 242, 243 simple code 229, 230, 235 simplification strategies 235, 244 social status 23 spatial orientation 14, 15, 246, 249 absolute 24 deictic 24 intrinsic 24 292 Subject index Specific Language Impairment (SLI) 9, 127, 139–142, 239, 242 speech error 5, 6, 9, 99–106 anticipation 105 misplaced word ending 102 perseveration 105 sound deletion 106 sound exchange 105 tongue twister 106 word and morpheme shift 106 word exchange 99–106 word fusion 106 word substitution 106 speech rate 130 stability/instability 88–96, 205–209, 211, 225, 226 street/youth language 211, 212 stress 8, 62, 111, 113, 114, 130, 232 metrical 39 word 39 structuralism 13–15 stylistic adequacy 191, 192, 250 subjectification 75 substantive 14, 15 suppletion 8, 27, 32, 34, 36, 68, 91, 217 switch reference 27, 147 syllable 29–31, 113, 247 bi-syllabic 29–31, 217 mono-syllabic 29–31 strong 39 syncretism 32, 34, 36 syntactic computation 5, 38, 39, 236, 252 syntactic skeleton see functional skeleton system morpheme Teacher Talk 229 telegraphic speech 111, 112, 128 Telegraphic Style 230 tense (T) 5, 13–16, 23, 34, 46–48, 56–59, 61, 64, 73–75, 84, 85, 91, 92, 123, 124, 128, 129, 132, 138, 146, 155, 156, 159, 173, 187, 191, 192, 221, 223, 224, 227, 243–246, 250 absolute reference 21, 23 anterior 57 consecutive 74 deictic 23 future 57, 74, 144, 147, 157, 195, 203, 204 metric see tense, absolute reference nominal 16, 19–21, 35, 240 past 57, 74, 80, 100, 101, 109, 115, 121, 124, 129, 138, 139, 195, 204, 233, 234 preterite 192 present 74, 91 realis 138 relative 23 sequence of 175 T-chain 5, 56 TP 138, 156 tense modality aspect (TMA) system 73–75, 144, 183, 191, 193, 195, 199, 200, 204, 205, 209 theoretical syntax 53–70, 73, 239, 240 UG 130, 138 theta-assignment see theta-role marking theta-role marking 42, 44, 172–174 agent 111 agent last 123 beneficiary 111 time see tense time depth, 77, 83, 88 tone 39, 40, 114 Default Tone Insertion 40 Obligatory Tone Deletion 40 topic 23, 57, 84, 246 marker 136, 137, 158 Trace Deletion Hypothesis 128 trade language 212, 237 transfer 119–122 full transfer/L1 conservation 121, 122 transitivity 47, 62, 69, 160, 178, 246 intransitive 157 Tree Pruning Hypothesis 138 typology 8, 9, 13–25, 53, 73, 183, 239, 240 universality 14, 15, 53, 58, 59, 180 bioprogram 191 strong 59 weak 59 valency 246 validation see evidential variability in form 113 verb (V) 3–5, 13, 29, 32, 39, 44, 48, 54, 56, 57, 62, 66, 73–76, 78, 82–86, 89, 101–104, 108, 111, 114, 120, 122, 129, 131, 136, 159, 177, 178, 191, 219, 220, 222, 224, 251 agentive marker 101, 158, 184 Subject index chaining 81 finite 117, 124, 125, 132, 141, 223, 234 gerund/present participle 37, 100, 102, 103, 115, 120, 129, 169, 174 handling 205–209 infinitive 79, 104, 125, 128, 132, 139, 164, 165, 215, 224, 227 light 164, 184 main 1, 129, 134 morphology 136, 141, 148, 178, 191 movement 188, 189, 205–209 possessor 82, 83 past participle 100, 101, 104, 131, 166, 169, 174, 184, 206 prefix conjugation 94, 95 pre-verb 148 restructuring 245 serial 66, 67, 157, 193, 195, 198–200, 204 vector 80 verb/non-verb asymmetry 2, 20, 131 verbal system 212, 219–223 verbaliser 31 VP 54, 62, 63, 84, 116, 232 village sign system 158, 159 visibility see evidential 293 voice 41, 82, 83, 91, 146, 246 active 27 anti-causative 83 causative 157 direct/inverse 221 ergative 91, 96 medial 83, 91 passive 27, 83, 91 vowel harmony 114 word length 100, 106, 109, 110, 114, 115 word order 58, 61, 131, 132, 141, 172, 248, 249 possessor possessum 121, 122 second position 64, 117, 131, 132, 141, 142 SOV 118, 133 SVO 94, 123, 131, 132 VSO 94 word retrieval 128 X-bar theory 54, 115 complement 59, 60, 62, 63 head-complement marking 251, 252 specifier 59, 60, 63 specifier head agreement 156 Language index Adamarobe Sign Language (AdaSL) 155, 157, 159 Afghan 120 African languages 188, 198, 208, 209 West 47 Afrikaans 189, 213 Afro-Asiatic 9, 93–95 Proto-Afro-Asiatic 93–95 Akkadian 82, 94 Old 81 Albanian 90 Aleut 222, 223 Algonquian 220 American Sign Language (ASL) 155–160 Amerind 9, 95, 96 Anatolian 90 Arabic 38, 120, 183–187 Classical 27 Gulf States second language 189 Maltese 178, 183–187, 243 Moroccan 48, 49, 121, 124, 164, 170–172 Tunisian 183 Armenian 90 Arvanitika 143 Australian Aboriginal 19, 22 Avestan 88 Awyi 21 Baka 82 Balto-Slavic 90 Bambara 82 Bantu 17, 173 Beja 94 Berber 94 Bislama 193 294 Burmese 21 Buryat Mongolian 81 Callahuaya 211–213 Cameroon Pidgin English 188 Capanahua 64 Catalan 167 Caucasian North-East 22 Celtic 90 Chadic 94 Chinese 14, 81, 114, 119, 120, 124 Cantonese 171 Chinese Pidgin English 188 Mandarin 17, 131, 136 Old 29 Seventeenth century 81 Shanghai 40 Surinam 164 Copper Island Aleut 10, 212, 222, 223 Cree 219–222 Creoles Caribbean 47, 200, 204 Surinam 229 Crow 36 Cushitic 94 Czech 138 Danish 114 Dravidian 22 Dutch 26, 32–34, 36–38, 47, 48, 52, 64, 65, 67–70, 76, 111, 112, 117, 121–123, 128, 130, 133, 134, 138, 163–165, 167, 168, 171, 172, 188, 189, 198–205, 231 Dialects 22 Language index Ottersum dialect 167 Zealandic 201 Dutch Sign Language (NGT) 155, 157, 161 Dyirbal 143, 147, 148, 151 Eastern Maroon Creole 27, 28 Egyptian 94 English 1, 6, 24, 28, 32, 33, 36–39, 43, 49–51 55, 62–64, 77, 78, 84, 100–103, 105–107, 109, 115, 116, 119, 120, 123, 124, 129, 131, 133, 134, 137–139, 142, 148, 155, 165, 166, 170–174, 177, 184, 187, 188, 189, 193–201, 205–209, 218, 219, 230, 231 Aboriginal 223, 224 Middle 78, 85 Old 78, 84, 85 Estonian 92 Ewe 81 Farsi, see Persian Finnish 92, 134, 136, 168, 173 Foreigner Talk 227, 228 Modern 81 Old 81 Fongbe 188, 192, 198, 201 French 4, 27, 28, 34, 46–49, 79, 85, 86, 116, 123–125, 134, 135, 141, 169, 170, 174, 219–222, 231 Old 79, 86 Ottawa 177 Qu´ebec 48 G˜a 81 Gaelic, East Sutherland 143, 146, 151, 242 German 14, 17, 46, 47, 64, 100, 103–105, 112, 114, 116, 117, 123–125, 131–135, 137, 138, 140, 141, 174, 231 Alsatian 169 in Australia 170 in London 143, 150, 151, 242 Plautdiitsch (Low German) in Siberia 143, 150, 151, 242 Foeigner Talk 227 German Sign Language (DGS) 155, 157, 158, 161 Germanic 80, 90, 133 295 Gothic 88 Greek 90, 138, 139 Homeric 88 Modern 80, 120, 143 Older 80 Greek Sign Language (GSL) 155, 157 Griekwas (Basters) language 213 Guaran´ı 19, 20 Guaycuruan 21 Gurundji Kriol 10, 212 Haitian 82, 192 Hausa 39 Hawaiian Creole English 191 Hawaiian Pidgin English 191, 250 Hebrew 120, 131, 134, 136, 141 Hindi 134, 136 Hiri trade language 237 Hittite 88, 90, 96 Hungarian 28, 92 Australia 148 United States 148, 149, 151, 242 Icelandic 80, 114, 131, 134, 135 Old 80 Indo-Aryan 22, 80 Indo-European 9, 77, 80, 88, 90, 91, 96, 227 Indo-Iranian 90 Irish, Old 88 Island Carib 213 Israeli Sign Language (ISL) 155, 157 Istro-Romanian 79 Italian 117, 120, 129, 131, 134, 135, 140–142, 183–187, 243 Sicilian 183, 184 Italian Sign Language (LIS) 155, 157 Italic 90 Jamaican Creole 188 Japanese 21, 28, 120, 134, 136, 137, 168, 218 Jordanian Sign Language (LIU) 155, 157 Kafa 94 Kagaba 82 Kambera 52 Kanaka English 193 296 Language index Kayardild 19, 20 Kikongo 198 Korean Sign Language (KSL) 155, 157, 162 Krio 188 Kwakiutl 14 Quechua 65, 82, 118, 119, 177 Bolivia (Cochabamba) 49, 178–183, 217, 243 Cuzco 18, 19, 24, 29–31, 47, 51, 52, 74, 251 Ecuador 66, 214–218, 225 Ulcumayo 118 Latin 34, 36, 46, 77–80, 88, 90 Lhasa 81 Lingua Franca 229 Romance 26, 77, 79, 178, 183–187 Romani 224 Para-Romani 212 Spanish (Cal´o) 224 Russian 15, 150, 222, 223 American 150 Ma’a (Inner Mbugu) 211–213 Malay Modern 81 Moluccan 164, 165 Old 81 Standard or Indonesian 61, 124 Media Lengua 10, 211, 212–219, 221, 222, 226, 243 Michif 10, 212, 219–222 Mira˜na 17, 18 Morwap 21 Movima 20, 34, 35 Nama Hottentot (Khoekhoen) 213 Ndjuka see Eastern Maroon Creole Negerhollands 10, 189, 190, 193, 243 Old Norse 80 Omaha 36 Omotic 94 Otom´ı 168, 169 Panoan 64 Papiamentu 47, 168 Papuan 32, 89 Pernakan Chindo 213 Persian Modern 80, 120 Old 80 Pichi 73–75 Pilag´a 21 Pirah˜a 251 Polish 134, 135 American 150 Modern 80 Old 80 Portuguese 60, 117, 124, 198–205 Samoan Plantation Pidgin 194 Sanskrit 88 Saramaccan (Saamaka) 10, 47, 66, 67, 74, 188, 189, 193, 198–201, 205, 243 Scandinavian 80 Semitic 94 Senkyoshigo 218 Serbo-Croatian 134, 136 Slavic 15 Old Church Slavonic 88 Solomon Islands Pidgin English 193 Somali 94 Sotho 165, 166 Spanish 26, 46, 119, 120, 124, 138, 141, 167–172, 174, 177–183, 224–226, 243 Bolivia 49, 178–183 Brule (Louisiana) 143, 14 Cuzco 118 Ecuador 214–219 Latin American 37, 38 Lima 118 New York 171 Sranan 6, 67, 163, 188 Sursurunga 24 Susu 82 Swahili 170 Nairobi 171 Shaba 49 Swedish 82, 114, 131, 132, 134, 135, 141, 142 Taiwanese Sign Language (TSL) 155, 157 Thai 120 Thracian 90 Language index Tocharian 90 Tok Pisin 10, 189, 193–198, 205, 243 Turkish 28, 114, 120–122, 164 Warlpiri 223 Light 223 Uralic 91–93 Proto-Uralic 9, 91–03 Yana 14 Yoruba 32 Yurakar´e 26, 28, 38 Vietnamese 120 Zulu 17 297 [...]... multi-dimensional perspective 238 Main findings from grammar Main findings from historical linguistics Main findings from psycholinguistics Main findings from language contact studies A differentiated perspective on functional categories Functional categories from an evolutionary perspective Prospects 240 241 241 242 244 245 253 References Author index Subject index Language index 255 278 284 294 Tables 2.1... of functional categories in Minimalism, before discussing two interface issues: functional categories and the phonology/syntax interface, and the syntax/semantics interface and interpretability of features In the second section of the book, Historical linguistics, two topics are central First, in chapter 6 I discuss the link between functional categories and grammaticalisation theory After presenting... these hierarchies, including probabilistic approaches Chapter 15 is dedicated to functional categories in pidgin and creole genesis I will begin by describing the loss of functional categories in pidgins, and then the processes of reconstitution, restructuring, and grammaticalisation in creoles Three case studies will be presented: the long cycle of pidgin and creole genesis in Tok Pisin, and the processes... perspective on functional categories I summarise the main findings from grammar, historical linguistics, psycholinguistics, and language contact studies, and try to integrate the different dimensions in a model Finally, I turn to evolutionary considerations In an evolutionary perspective, we might postulate an earlier stage in the development of human language without functional categories, following Bickerton... developments and debates in this theory, I turn to a number of components of the process: semantic bleaching, phonological reduction, and constructional tightening Finally I evaluate the claims made in this theory in the light of the discussion in the first section Chapter 7 focuses on the status of functional categories in linguistic reconstruction After a survey of functional categories in Indo-European, specific... speech error studies and brain imaging studies will be considered First and second language acquisition are the subject of chapter 9 In subsequent sections I discuss the growth in the range of functional categories, first in first language development and then in second language development, before turning to a comparison of the two Chapter 10 analyses the role of functional categories in agrammatic... dimensions involved: morpho-lexical, phonological, semantic, and syntactic The number of grammaticalisation paths for different categories listed in Heine and Kuteva (2002) Notions involved in case markers/adpositions and auxiliaries in Heine and Kuteva (2002), letters A–C Rating of a few classes of functional categories in terms of their instability on three dimensions The possibility of reconstructing different... communication: counting and calculus Functional categories are special because they interact with syntax, with the grammatical system Thus functional categories are cousins of numerals rather than siblings Only in the lower range, and then particularly with the element ‘one’, do numerals and functional categories intersect Third, discourse markers, those lexical elements that also play a role in, and interact... on the role of functional categories in each domain tended to be vast, and much larger than I had originally realised This book manuscript 8 Introduction grew out of a single article manuscript, but easily could give birth to seventeen monographs Thus the coverage is incomplete; I hope it inspires specialists on individual subjects to pursue the exploration of functional categories in their area of... of functional categories when relexified Schematic overview of findings for different grammatical variables in a number of studies of Foreigner Talk Features of functional categories focused upon in the different chapters xiii 198 202 208 209 212 218 219 220 221 222 223 225 233 239 Figures 2.1 18.1 18.2 18.3 xiv Primary and secondary links between the two main lexical and a number of functional categories