(Cambridge studies in linguistics 82) john m anderson a notional theory of syntactic categories cambridge university press (1997)

Tiếng Anh và mức độ quan trọng đối với cuộc sống của học sinh, sinh viên Việt Nam.Khi nhắc tới tiếng Anh, người ta nghĩ ngay đó là ngôn ngữ toàn cầu: là ngôn ngữ chính thức của hơn 53 quốc gia và vùng lãnh thổ, là ngôn ngữ chính thức của EU và là ngôn ngữ thứ 3 được nhiều người sử dụng nhất chỉ sau tiếng Trung Quốc và Tây Ban Nha (các bạn cần chú ý là Trung quốc có số dân hơn 1 tỷ người). Các sự kiện quốc tế , các tổ chức toàn cầu,… cũng mặc định coi tiếng Anh là ngôn ngữ giao tiếp.

This book presents an innovative theory of syntactic categories and the lexical classes they define It revives the traditional idea that these are to be distinguished notionally (semantically) It allows for there to be peripheral members of a lexical class which may not obviously conform to the general definition The author proposes a notation based on semantic features which accounts for the syntactic behaviour of classes The book also presents a case for considering this classification - again in rather traditional vein - to be basic to determining the syntactic structure of sentences Syntactic structure is thus erected in a very restricted fashion, without recourse to movement or empty elements CAMBRIDGE STUDIES IN LINGUISTICS General Editors: s R ANDERSON, J BRESNAN, B COMRIE, W DRESSLER, C EWEN, R HUDDLESTON, R LASS, D LIGHTFOOT, J LYONS, P H MATTHEWS, R POSNER, S ROMAINE, N V SMITH, N VINCENT A notional theory of syntactic categories In this series 52 MICHAEL s ROCHEMONT and PETER w CULLICOVER: English focus constructions and the theory of grammar 53 PHILIP CARR: Linguistic realities: an autonomist metatheory for the generative enterprise 54 EVE SWEETSER: From etymology to pragmatics: Metaphorical and cultural aspects of semantic structure 55 REGINA BLASS: Relevance relations in discourse: a study with special reference to Sissala 56 ANDREW CHESTERMAN: On definiteness: a study with special reference to English and Finnish 57 ALESSANDRA GIORGI and GIUSEPPE LONGOBARDI: The syntax ofnoun phrases: configuration, parameters and empty categories 58 MONIK CHARETTE: Conditions on phonological government 59 M H KLAIMAN: Grammatical voice 60 SARAH M B FAGAN: The syntax and semantics of middle constructions: a study with special reference to German 61 ANJUM P SALEEMI: Universal Grammar and language learnability 62 STEPHEN R ANDERSON: A-Morphous Morphology 63 LESLEY STIRLING: Switch reference and discourse representation 64 HENK J VERKUYL: A theory of aspectuality: the interaction between temporal and atemporal structure 65 EVE v CLARK: The lexicon in acquisition 66 ANTHONY R WARNER: English auxiliaries: structure and history 67 P H MATTHEWS: Grammatical theory in the United States from Bloomfield to Chomsky 68 LJILJANA PROGOVAC: Negative and positive polarity: a binding approach 69 R M w DIXON: Ergativity 70 YAN HUANG: The syntax and pragmatics of anaphora 71 KNUD LAMBRECHT: Information structure and sentence form: Topic, focus, and the mental representations of discourse referents 72 LUIGI BURZIO: Principles of English stress 73 JOHN A HAWKINS: A performance theory of order and constituency 74 ALICE c HARRIS and LYLE CAMPBELL: Historical syntax in cross-linguistic perspective 75 LILIANE HAEGEMAN: The syntax of negation 76 PAUL GORRELL: Syntax and parsing 77 GUGLIELMO CINQUE: Italian syntax and Universal Grammar 78 HENRY SMITH: Restrictiveness in case theory 79 D ROBERT LADD: Intonational phonology 80 ANDREA MORO: The raising of predicates: predicative noun phrases and the theory of clause structure 81 ROGER LASS: Historical linguistics and language change 82 JOHN M ANDERSON: A notional theory of syntactic categories Supplementary volumes LILIANE HAEGEMAN: Theory and description in generative syntax: a case study in West Flemish A E BACKHOUSE: The lexical field of taste: a semantic study of Japanese taste terms NIKOLAUS RITT: Quantity adjustment: vowel lengthening and shortening in early Middle English Earlier issues not listed are also available A NOTIONAL THEORY OF SYNTACTIC CATEGORIES JOHN M ANDERSON Professor of English Language, Department of English Language, University of Edinburgh CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS Published by the Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge CB2 IRP 40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011-4211, USA 10 Stamford Road, Oakleigh, Melbourne 3166, Australia © Cambridge University Press 1997 First published 1997 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress cataloguing in publication data Anderson, John M (John Mathieson), 1941A notional theory of syntactic categories / John M Anderson p cm - (Cambridge studies in linguistics: 82) Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN o 521 58023 (hardback) Grammar Comparative and general - syntax Grammar, Comparative and general - Grammatical categories Semantics I Title II Series P291.A53 1997 4i5-dc2O 96-21789 CIP ISBN 521 58023 hardback Transferred to digital printing 2004 CP Much, then, that is considered by the generality of grammarians as syntax, can either be omitted altogether, or else be better studied under another name (Latham 1862: 577) 'A9f]vas Contents Preface List of abbreviations page x xii i i 1.2 1.3 Prelude Notionalism Analogism Minimalism 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 Fundamentals of a notional theory Syntactic categories and notional features Relations between elements Further categories: the role of feature dependencies Markedness and category continuity Cross-classification Gradience and second-order categories Secondary categories Non-complements 13 13 29 43 61 64 73 104 132 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 The syntax of categories Verbal valencies The content of the functor category The basic syntax of predications The formation of ditransitives Variation in argument structure Verbals as arguments The structure of primary arguments 146 149 168 174 236 244 252 292 References Index i 320 345 338 References Ostler, N 1980 'A theory of case linking and agreement' Indiana University Linguistics Club Ouhalla, Jamal 1991 Functional categories and parametric variation London: Routledge Palmer, Frank R (ed.) 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Zwicky, Arnold M 1985 'Heads' Journal of Linguistics 21 1-29 Index Abkhaz, 116, 117-18 Ablative, 294 abl(ative) (semantic relation), 170, 222-3, 252, 295 Absolutive, 122, 183, 185-7, 188-9, T 9° abs(olutive) (semantic relation), 159-61, 162-8, 169-74, 174-9, l8o > 186-7, 188-92, 194-7, 197-8, 201-3, 206, 207-16, 217, 236-8, 241, 249, 251, 252, 254-7, 263-5, 269, 270, 275-7, 295, 296 as a principal relation, 188-91, 193-4 as 'unmarked', 172-3 in derivational morphology, 162-3, 245-7 multiple presence of, 161, 166-7 universality of, 11, 166-7, 175-6, 225, 226, 256 unsubcategorised-for, 166-7, I75~9» 225, 226, 227, 228, 230, 231-2, 233-4, 237-8, 242, 254-5, 256-7, 259, 264, 271, 272, 275,290,310 absrule(s), 159, 180 abs selection hierarchy, 186-7 ACC, 206, 208 acceptability gradience, 87, 91-5 Ace Ing (vs Poss Ing), 95 Accusative, 197, 198, 199, 200, 204-5, 216, 223 active languages, 191-3 'split-S' vs 'fluid-S, 193 adjectivalisation defunctorial, 76-7 deverbal, 95-100, 102-3 adjectival noun see adjective-noun adjective, 2, 15, 43-9, 61-2, 65, 68, 100-2 attributive, 44,45-9, 77, 165, 302-8; nonpredicative, 46,48,49, 304-5, 307 deverbal, 165-6, 204 intersective vs non-intersective, 47-9, 306-7 lack or paucity of, 44,49, 62 predicative, non-attributive, 47 restrictive vs non-restrictive, 47, 315, 316-17 strong vs, weak, 125, 317 transitive, 74-82 verbal, 99-100, 102-3 adjective noun, 100-2 adjunct, 3-4, 75 adposition, 20, 21,40, 59, 62, 75-82, 106, 217 see also functor adverb, 35, 137-8 'manner', 140 Agaw, 116 ag(en)t(ive), 16, 29-30, 133, 139, 156, 157, 159, 160, 162, 164, 166, 169, 185, 236, 251 agent rule, 155, 156 agglutination, n o 'AGR', 191 agreement see corcord Algonquian, 107 Amharic, 248 analogism, 5, 6-8, 66-7, 69-70, 82, 91, 130, 132,170-2, 251 anticausative, 248 antipassive, 186-7, 248 Apachean languages, 122 Apalai, 249-50 applicative, 208 apposition, 131, 141, 148, 201, 236, 249, 250 Arabic, 237 Arawakan languages, 248 argument, 15, 18, 26,44 direct, 253-4, 256, 258-61, 265-6, 275-80 extension/reduction in see valency, increase/decrease in mediated, 23, 254-8, 261, 263-6, 275-80 primary, 18, 106, 292-319 secondary, 18-19, 253-91 sentential, 218, 253-91 see also subcategorisation, valency, value argument structure, 52, 146-9, 292 article, 17-18, 21, 24, 114, 301, 308, 313-18 Aspect, 108, 116, 117, 163, 164, 179, 186, 193,279 association, 32 345 346 Index Athapascan languages, 116,122 attribute, resultative, 164 attributive, 148-9, 165, 302-9, 314-15 attributive redundancy, 302 attributivisation, 87, 88, 204 Australian languages, 25, 37, 114 Austronesian languages, 196 AUX, 60-1 auxiliary, 28, 50-6, 116-18, 177-8, 179, 183, 211, 227-8, 260, 280-3, 291 criterion for, 281 modal, 260, 261, 280-1, 282 Bantu, 106, 205 'bare finite', 265-7 Basque, 51-5, 56, 58, 60, 106, 109, 182-3, 191, 214, 220, 280, 281, 282 Batsbi, 193 benefactive (semantic relation), 241-3 Bengali, 23 bi-planar structure, 6-8 Boni, 247 Breton, 235 Burmese, 113-14 'Burzio's generalisation', 199, 200 Case, 36-8, 105-6, 109, 110-13, JI5> I , 173-4 'inherent', 223-4 loss of, 223-4 case component, 169-74 case filter, 38 case grammar, 1, 149, 152-68, 174-9 case relation see semantic relation 'case theory', 177 casus adverbialis, 36 category adjustment convention, 283 category continuity condition, 63-4, 71 causative, 123, 237, 242, 250-2 causativisation, 251-2, 257 c-command, 230 Chamorro, 117 Cherokee, 62 Chichewa, 208 Chickasaw, 116,192 Chinese, Classical, 18 circumstantial, 133-4, 137-43, 148-9, 155, 173-4, 201, 229, 238, 260-1, 289, 292, 302,303,306,315 stacking of, 140-1 class (word), 11-12 central vs peripheral member of, closed see functional category conjugational and declensional, 125 leaking of properties of, 73, 74, 76, 80, 99-10, 102, 105 minimal system of, 23-8, 35, 59, 283, 291 minimal incrementation of systems of, 49, 63-4 negatively specified, 71 non-universality of systems of, 17 ontogeny of, 60, 62, 64 sub-minimal system of, 12, 24-8,43, 59 see also cross-classification class convention, 70 classifier, 109, 113—15, 116-17, I46~7> 299 code switching, 305 cognitive grammar, 172 comparator, 76, 127-8, 134-5 Comparison, 125-8 complementary distribution, 171-2 complement(ee), 21-2, 29-32, 39-40, 225 see also participant zero, 29, 319 complementiser, 20, 69, 72, 270, 278, 287, 289 complex abs rule, 159 complexity measure, 62-4, 87-8, 94-5, 104 componentiality, 65-6,68-73 compound, 246 concord, 8, 40,45, 107, 114, 117, 118-20, 122, 123, 125, 128-32, 182, 183, 191, 209, 217-18, 219-222, 243-4, 249-50, 285-7 with possessor, 107 configurationality, 151-2, 298-300 constituency, 34,40 contrastivity, 34, 169 control, 131, 180, 185-6, 189-90, 191-2, 224 copula, 18, 21, 22-3, 27-8, 60, 100-1, 161 countable, 296-9, 308, 314 Cree, 61 cross-classification, 64-73 cumulation, n o cyclicity, strict, 154, 157, 165, 175-9, 206, 215 Czech, 58, 299 Dakota, 191-2, 196 DAT/BEN, 206-9, 216 Dative, 172, 184-5, 186, 190, 197, 205, 213, 214, 216, 222-4, 239-41, 245, 251 'dative movement/shifting', 153-4, 206, 208, 214,215 d-command, 230, 234, 243-4 'decomposition' (lexical), 244 Definiteness, 58, 106, 109, 114, 118, 194-5, 196, 298-300, 311 definites, 313-19 see also Definiteness 'degree words', 136-7 deictic, 318 demonstrative, 109, 125, 318 dependency, 7-8, 16, 31-42, 54-5, 108 graphic representation of, 31-4 Index internal, 35, 40; intercategorial, 35-6,41, 79-82, 85, 113,115, 137; intracategorial, 41-2,43-56, 70-3, 81-2, 113 'long-distance', 154, 272 mutual, 41,49-50 preservation condition, 41, 82 derivation see morphology determiner, 17-18, 31, 296, 298-300 definite, 19-20, 58, 296-7, 317-18 indefinite, 20, 297, 308-13 see also article, numeral, quantifier determinerisation, 84-5, 86-7, 88, 95, 107, 148-9 discontinuity, 141 see also non-projectivity discourse structure see information structure 'dislocation', 279 dissimilation, 251 distributional salience, 55-6 ditransitive, 205-16, 236-44, 252 double-motherhood, 34, 225 double-object construction see ditransitive 'D-structure', Duala, 127 Dutch, 164, 234, 249 Dyirbal, 109, 185-7, 189-91, 195, 200 Early Modern English, 97 ectopicity condition, 313 ectopic placement, 3, 149-50, 193, 281, 309-13 ^-adjectives, 98-100 'empathy', 16, 319 empty abs see abs, unsubcategorised-for empty category, 10, 38, 131, 153 'empty category principle', 247 enough-shift, 78-9 equative, 17-18, 24, 25, 161, 200, 311 Ergative, 183, 185-7, 192 erg(ative) (semantic relation), 169-74, 180, 186-92, 195-7, J 97-8, 202, 207-9, 210, 213-16, 217, 219-22, 233, 236-44, 248-50, 252, 257-8, 263, 295, 319 ergativity, 182-4, 185-91, 197, 198, 199-200 'split', 190-1 erg rule, 176, 180, 188 'exceptional case marking', 175, 178 existential, 195, 309-11, 312-13 see also expletive there existential state, change of, 212-13 exp(eriencer) (semantic relation), 16, 98-9, 170-2, 184-5, J 98-9, 202, 206, 207, 222-4, 233, 236-7 experiencer raising condition, 241 experiencer subjecthood condition, 184-5 expletive, 57, 166-7, 175-6, 182, 200, 218, 254, 257, 259, 270, 276 347 expletive there, 119, 121, 181, 197, 216-17, 224,227,256,312 'external argument', 166, 247 extraction from subject/indirect-object, 237 factivity, 86, 88-9, 275-80 'fake reflexive', 187 Farsi, 305 feature, 13-17 binary, 66-8, 100-1 preponderance of see dependency, internal, intracategorial prosodic, 8, 9, 128-31, 219-20, 243-4 simplex, 7-8, 16 see also partition of features finiteness vs non-finiteness, 50-61, 69, 102-4, 225, 227, 231, 253-8, 262, 267-8, 277-9, 280-91 positionally marked 287-91 Finnish, 36, 37,45, 51, 56, 58, 59, 62,110, 111, 115, 116, 280, 282, 283, 285, 294, 297 focus, 311 see also prime for( ) to, 263-5 French, 17, 235-6, 293, 296-8, 299, 317-18, 319 functional category, 4, 28, 58-9, 109-32, 127-8 development of, 60 functor, 20, 21, 24-5, 29-31, 36-8, 57-8, 68, 71, 106, 109, 110-13, 137-8, 143, 149, 156, 168-74, 219, 264, 269, 270 Gaelic, Scottish, 97 Gender, 55, 59, 106-7, 109, 110, 113-15, 116-17, I J , 122, 146-7 generative semantics, generic, 309, 311, 318 Genitive, 37, 148-9, 184, 205, 222, 279-80, 297 Georgian, 184 German, 22,42, 60, 164, 173, 179, 237, 261, 287-91, 310 serialisation, 288, 291 Germanic languages, 125, 240, 317 gerund, 53, 85-91, 94-5, 96-7, 102-4, 104-5, 279-80, 285-6 see also Ace Ing gesture see partition of features goal (semantic relation) 112-13, 260 governor see head gradability, 46-7, 133 Grade see Comparison gradience, 65, 73-104, 105 grammaticalisation, 1, 2-3, 193, 196, 206, 219, 285, 291, 294 grammatical relation, 151-3, 174-9, 246, 260 348 Index 'deep', 152-68 see also object, (non-) principal grammatical relations, subject Greek, 15, 17, 24, 286-7, 319 Classical 36, 205, 260 head, 10 as characteristic of its construction, 39 head convention, 33, 39 'head-to-head movement', 284 Hebrew, 206, 208, 209, 211, 214-15, 216, 239-40 Hibena, 204 Hidatsa, Hindi-Urdu, 185 holistic vs partitive, 157-60, 187, 200-1, 207, 208, 248 Huichol, 205-6, 208, 209, 211, 215, 216, 217 human, 16, 170-1,319 Hungarian, 109-10, 114, 248 Icelandic, 121, 185, 199 idioms, 167-8 Igbo, 44, 62 Ilocano, 25-6, 195, 196-7 immediate precedence, 34 see also linearisation, word order impersonal, 184-5, 222~5> 4°, 258, 259, 260, 287 inalterability, 9-10, 33, 145, 153, 157, 165, 176, 182, 219, 227, 261, 284-5, 88 inalterability condition, 10 incorporation, 113-32, 137, 201, 245-50, 256-7, 263, 295, 296, 297, 319 rule of, 247-8 indefinites, 296-313, 319 see also Definiteness, Specificity Indo-European languages, 37, 113, 172, 275 Indonesian, 114 inessive (Case), n o inferiority condition, 313 infinitive, 94-5, 108, 227, 231, 259, 261-5, 285,286, 287, 288 'bare', 262 INFL, 101, 284 inflexion see morphology information structure, 3, 9, 15-16, 17, 34, 174, 188 -mg-adjectives, 97-100 instrumental (semantic relation), 139 intensifies 17-18 int(ernal) (semantic relation), 36 interpolation, 204 'interpolation ban', 78, 209-11, 215 interrogatives, 267-75 'inversion', 120, 121, 131, 181-2, 191, 255, 267-8, 270, 274 see also 'locative inversion', 'negative inversion' Irish, 235, 269-70 Italian, 85, 118-21, 130-1, 164, 177-8, 179, 181-2, 191,217-18,222 Jacaltec, 109, n o , 114 Japanese, 100-2, 198-9, 298, 299 Kalkatungu, 54-5 Kanuri, 105-6 Kayardild, 130 K'ekchi, 216 Kikuyu, 206 KinyaRwanda, 205-6, 208, 209, 217 Konkow, 293 Kusaal, 48-9 Kwakiutl, 26 Kwakw'ala, 105 Latin, 57, 95, 105, 109, 111-13, 121, 125, 151, 173, 198, 261, 285, 299 Latvian, 248 lexical functional grammar, 151, 152 lexical incorporation hierarchy('), 247 lexicalisation, lexicalism, 8-9, 93, 147-9 lexical projection condition, 10 linearisation, 33, 118-19, 2 I ~ , 22 4~5, 226-7, 2&4 see also German, modifier serialisation, raisee serialisation, specifier serialisation Lithuanian, 300 localism, 139-40, 169-74, 276, 293-5 loc(ative) (semantic relation), 36, 112-13, 157-61, 162, 170-2, 202, 203, 207-10, 213-16, 217, 222-3, 233> 236-40, 242-4, 251,252,257,295 'locative inversion', 273 'long w/z-movement', 120 Maasai, 285 'main clause first strategy', 266 Makah, 24 Maltese, 205, 209 Mandarin, 44, 46, 62 Margi, 127 markedness, 61-4, 68, 184 Mashi, 204 mass, 292, 296-9, 308, 314, 317-18 Mayali, 247 measure expressions, 77-8 metagovernor, 225, 227-8, 231, 232, 237, 310 'metaspecifier', 267 Middle English, 91 Index minimalism, 8-12, 119 minimal system of word classes see class, minimal system of Modality, 108 modal verb, 2, 102-3 modifier, 10 non-complement, 127-8, 132-45, 147-8, 150-1 modifier serialisation, 226, 288, 291 in English, 226-7, 230 Mongolian, 132 morphologisation, 115, 132 partial (vs full) 113 morphology, 4, 82, 131-2 as interplanar, derivational, 79, 83-91, 123, 125-6, 153, 158, 162-3, 206, 208, 247, 248 see also adjectivalisation; nominalisation; verbalisation inflexional, 36, 76, 79, 104-32, 160, 198, 205,217-24,249-50,252 morphosyntactic locus, 40 morphosyntactic-principal-formation, 220 morphosyntactic-subject-formation', 219, 242, 255, 272 morphosyntactic-subject-formation, 221 move-a, 9, 178 'movement' see ectopic placement Mundari, 293 name, 17-20, 21-8, 59-60, 64, 293, 318-19 natural class 65-73, 87-8 negation, 131 see also Polarity 'negative inversion', 273 n(eu)tr(al) (semantic relation), 29-30, 156, 157-9 neutralisation, 68, 100-1, 218-19 Ngabere, 28, 50-1 Ngamambo, 49, 304-5 NICE properties, 57, 225-6, 281, 282 Niuean, 190-1 nominal, 61, 64, 292-319 nominal adjective see adjective noun nominalisation, 14, 27, 83-91, 94-5, 102-4, 132-3, 147, 202, 248, 250 Nominative, 197, 222, 223 non-asymmetrical combination, 41 non-principal grammatical relations, 197-216 non-projectivity 10, 34, 228, 229, 230, 235, 265,269,271,303-4 primary vs secondary, 230, 239 non-projectivity condition, 228, 238-9 Nootka, 25-7 North Kimberley languages, 116 Norwegian, 114 349 notionalism, 1-6, 80, 88, 94, 98, 100-2, 106, 107-8, 116,122, 128, 139, 147, 148-9, 149-60, 242, 249, 252, 276, 277-9, 292, 294,313-14,319 noun, 13-20, 21-8, 100-2, 105-7, 115 deauxiliary, 103 mass 292, 296-9, 308, 314, 317-18 predicative, 17-19, 295 proper see name relational, 18, 21, 147, 292-5; inalienable, 292-3, 294-5; kinship, 293, 294-5; partitive, 292, 294-5; collective, 292, 301; 'numeral', 301 transitive, 304-5, 307 verbal, 86-91, 94-5, 102-3, IO4~5 nouniness, 91-5, 101, 256, 279 ntr see n(eu)tr(al) 'null' element see empty category 'null'-subject languages, 118-21, 123, 131, 181-2, 191,217-18,221-2 Number 58, 106, 109, n o , 114, 116,117,118, 129-31, 132,298-301 numeral, 109, 299-301, 308 as adjective/determiner, 301-2, 307-8 object, 164, 167-8, 197-216, 260 direct, 153, 197, 205-6; 'deep', 157-61, 163-5 indirect, 153, 197, 205-6, 207-8, 213-16 see also ditransitive object-formation, 85, 98 object rule, 156-7, 159, 176, 197, 198, 205, 211, 213, 238 object rule', 200-1, 208-9, 213, 238 obligatory subject condition, 191 Old English, 45, 60, 125, 184-5, 198, 204-5, 216, 217, 222-4, 239-41, 245, 246, 258-61,274-5,317 Olutsootso, 204 one-category = one-node principle, 35, 39,41, 81 opacity, 311 paradigmatic (vs syntagmatic), 106—8 see also secondary categories parsing principles, 266, 267 participant, 138, 140 see also argument, subcategorisation, valency, value participle, 50, 53, 94, 95-100, 102-3, I04> 105, 108 particle, 23, 25, 35, 54, 203, 238-9 'placement of, 209-11,215 partition of features, 42, 108-9 Partitive, 165, 294, 297 p(a)rt(itive) (semantic relation), 295, 296-8, 300-1, 302-4, 308-10, 313-17 350 Index part of speech see class passive, 95-6, 121, 154, 155, 202-6, 209-10, 215, 240, 248-50, 252, 256, 257-8, 279 impersonal, 96, 164, 205, 240, 249 prepositional, 202-4 'patient centrality', 166 see also universality of abs perfect, 96 periphrasis, 108-32 Person, 118, 129-31, 132 Philippine languages, 24 phonology, 6-8,42, 66-7, 69, 70, 91, 130, 132,314 Piro, 293 PLACE (case component), 169-74, 184, 252, 295 plural, 296-8, 317-8 Polarity, 51, 108, 116 Polish, 297 Polynesian languages, 24, 109, 116 Porno, Cental, 192 Porno, Eastern, 122, 160, 192 Portuguese, 121 possession, 125, 140 inalienable (vs alienable), 107, 292-3, 294-5 postposition see adposition pragmatic structure see information structure predicability, 14-16, 17-18, 20, 41-2, 44, 49, 54 predicator, 9, 15, 17-18, 56, 60 complex, 237, 250-1, 252 'emotive', 277 'existential', 309-13 preposition see adposition prime (principal grammatical relation), 193-7, 200, 290-1 principal (grammatical relation), 188-91, 233 see also absolutive, morphosyntacticprincipal-formation, prime, subject principal formation, 270, 272-3 'pro-drop' see 'null'-subject languages progressive, 96-7, 99, 132 projection principle, 153, 157, 174, 177, 178, 180-93 pronoun indefinite, 319 personal, 19, 22, 23-8, 40, 118, 192, 198, 3i4,3i8 prosody see feature, prosodic {P}-specification principle, 267, 290-1 (a) vs (b), 289 quantifier, 109, 301, 308 as adjective/determiner, 301-2, 307-8 stranding of, 235-6, 301 universal, 301, 309 quantifier-raising, 310 quantifier scope, 311 'quasipredication', 228 Quechua, 45, 62 raisee serialisation in English, 232-3 in German, 291 raising, 175-9, 180, 181, 183-4, 202, 209, 224, 228, 230-6, 238, 242-4, 260, 262-3, 271, 287, 290 rule of, 233 'to-object', restrictions on, 234-5, 312 'reanalysis' 203-4, 211 rection, 40, 50, 106-7, I Q 8, 123, 130, 193, 314 redundancy, 10-11,42 lexical (derivational), 11, 30, 36,47, 242, 247, 250-2, 276 morphosyntactic, 11, 36, 115, 221, 225, 226, 248-9, 263, 282, 290 syntactic, 11, 26-7, 37, 271, 298, 299, 309 referent vs reference modification see adjective, intersective vs non-intersective referentiability, 13-16, 17-20 reflexivisation, 123, 126, 220, 243-4 'fake', 187 relational grammar, 151, 153-4, 157, 177-9, 214-15 relational succession law/principle, 177, 178 relativisation, 108, 188-9 'restructuring' see 'reanalysis' retro-complementation/-valency, 135-45, 201, 229-30, 302, 308, 315, 316 role, 251-2 role criterion, 252 Runyonese, 137 Russian, 22-3, 48, 126 Saker, 293 Salish, 24, 26, 27-8, 60, 64 Salishan languages, 35 Sama, 188-9, r 95 Samoan, 110, 234-5 satisfaction see subcategorisation secondary (vs primary) category 4, 11-12, 13, 29-30, 50, 54, 55, 59, 104-32, 124 inherent, 106, 108, 113-15, 116-18, 122, 126: paradigmatic, 106, 116 relational, 106-7, 123: concordial, 107, 123; cross-referential, 123; rectional, 106-7, 108, 123, 124, 125 second-order categorisation, 79-82 see also dependency, internal selectional restrictions, Index semantic relation, 9, 168-74 one-instance-per-predicator constraint on, 237,251-2 non-unary assignment of, to an argument, 160 see also abl, abs, agt, erg, exp, loc, ntr, pit sequence see linearisation, word order serialisation see linearisation, word order serial relationship, 93 Sesotho, 109 Sherpa, 214 singular, 296, 297, 299-300, 313, 318 Sinhalese, 45 Son(gh)ray, 248 SOURCE (case component), 169-74, 295 source (semantic relation), 222-3 Specificity, 18, 106 specifier, 134-43, 228-30, 265, 267, 269, 289, 312-13 complemented, 229-30 deadjectival, 135-6 derived, 229-34, 312-13 specifier serialisation, 229-30, 234, 238 'spray paint cases', the, 157-60, 165-6, 187, 200-1 Squamish, 28 squish, 41, 74, 91-5, 100, 115 'S-structure', 152-3 stative, 117 structural analogy, 7-8,42 see also analogism structural syntax, structure-building (rather than -mutating) see inalterability subcategorisation, 15, 29-32, 34, 65, 68-9, 71-2, 113-14, 117-8, 151-3, 155-68, 171-2,252 satisfaction of, 32, 112, 115, 132-3, 146-7, 227, 268-9, 296, 299, 302-5 strong vs weak, 21-2, 29, 30-1, 147 subject, 16, 38, 178, 188-91, 197, 199-200, 206, 237, 243,256 compositional assignment of semantic relation to, 167-8 configurational definition of, 151-2 morphological, 222 morphosyntactic, 119-20, 122, 131, 181-5, 216-24, 227, 240, 255, 259, 268, 270, 272, 274, 288-9 syntactic, 119-21, 131,181-5,216-8, 224-36, 240, 254, 267-8, 271-2, 273, 274,276-7,289,313 VP-internal, 152, 235-6 subject concord, 220 see also concord subject concord', 221 see also concord subject formation, 85, 88 absence thereof, 121, 174-5, 193-7, 258-61 351 as raising, 232 'cyclic' vs 'post-cyclic', 119 see also morphosyntactic-subject-formation, syntactic-subject-formation subjecthood criterion, 193 subject-selection hierarchy, 121,154-68,180, 186-7,188, 217, 218, 219, 226, 233, 238, 248-9, 251, 270, 289, 290 subjunction (vs adjunction), 38-9 see also dependency, internal subjunctive, 108, 124, 277-8, 286-7 subordination, 32, 261 91 subordinator, 20, 261-75 Sundanese, 23 superiority, 227, 311-13 superiority', 312 suppletion, 122, 160 Swahili, 109, 122, 305 Swedish, 114 syntactic ergativity condition 191 syntacticisation, 90,98 syntactic projection, 32, 34, 82, 129-31, 132-45, ch see also one-category = one-node principle syntactic projection principle, 32, 144 syntactic-subject-formation, 224-5, 255, 256, 257 Tabassarian, 172 Tagalog, 26, 194-7, 200, 290, 293, 312-13 Tai, 115 Tamazight, 216, 217 Tamil, 251 tangling see non-projectivity telicity, 179 Telugu, 23 Tense, 54, 105-6, 116, 117, 130, 131, 132, 285 ^[that-i]filter',120, 182 thematic relation see semantic relation theta criterion 160-1, 171-2, 236 6-grid, 59, 152 theta role, 165 see also semantic relation Tibetan, Lhasa, 192 Tiwa, Southern, 246, 247 Tongan, n o , 183-4 tonic (phonological), 314, 316 topicalisability, 16, 193, 194-6, 219 tree, 33-4 proper, 34 Turkish, 104, 107, 285-6, 300 Tzeltal, 299 Ubykh, 117 Udak, 122 unaccusativity, 163-8, 177-9, J , 206, 246-7 Ungarinyin, 116-7,147 352 Index uniformity of theta assignment hypothesis (UTAH), 157, 163 universal alignment hypothesis, 157, 163 unsaturated see abs, unsubcategorised-for verb-second, 275, 288-91 Vietnamese, 115 visibility of categorisation, 274 'V2' = verb-second valency, 3, 8-9, 32, 38, 112,115, 119, 135, 138, 139, 144, 146, 149-68, 170, 271, 296 decrease in 126, 245-50 increase in 126 retro- see retro-complementation see also subcategorisation valency grammar, 152 value, 8-9, 38, 135, 144, 146 see also subcategorisation verb 13-18, 21-8, 50-61 deadjectival, 102-3, 162-3 denominal, 102-4 'ergative', 162-8, 176 'surface', 281 see also secondary argument, auxiliary, finiteness, vs non-finiteness, gerund, infinitive, participle verbal, 61 verbalisation, 14, 25 verb phrase, 38-9, 227 Warrungu, 186, 189 'weather' predicators, 166, 175-6, 178, 182 Welsh, 127,235 wh (semantic relation), 269-75, 291, 311, 313 wild trees, 33 word class see class word order, 33, 34, 142-3, 150, 201, 205, 305, 311-13 as marking subordination, 274, 287 see also linearisation Wunambal, 28, 50, 51, 54, 56, 116 X' theory, 147 Yagua, n o Yalarnnga, 123 Yidiny, 109, 114 Yuma, 109 'zero-conversion' 246