Đang tải... (xem toàn văn)
English has an interesting variety of noun phrases, which differ greatly in structure. Examples are ‘binominal’ (twonoun) phrases (‘a beast of a party’); possessive constructions (‘the author’s opinion’); and discontinuous noun phrases (‘the review came out yesterday of his book’). How are these different noun phrases structured? How do we produce and understand them? These questions are central to this original study, which explores the interaction between the form of noun phrases, their meaning and their use. It shows how, despite the need in linguistic analysis for strict categories, many linguistic constructions in fact defy straightforward classification – and concludes that in order to fully explain the internal structure of utterances, we must first consider the communicative, pragmatic and cognitive factors that come into play. Drawing on a range of authentic examples, this book sheds new light not only on the noun phrase itself but also on the nature of linguistic classification.
The English Noun Phrase English has an interesting variety of noun phrases, which differ greatly in structure Examples are ‘binominal’ (two-noun) phrases (‘a beast of a party’); possessive constructions (‘the author’s opinion’); and discontinuous noun phrases (‘the review [came out yesterday] of his book’) How are these different noun phrases structured? How we produce and understand them? These questions are central to this original study, which explores the interaction between the form of noun phrases, their meaning and their use It shows how, despite the need in linguistic analysis for strict categories, many linguistic constructions in fact defy straightforward classification – and concludes that in order to fully explain the internal structure of utterances, we must first consider the communicative, pragmatic and cognitive factors that come into play Drawing on a range of authentic examples, this book sheds new light not only on the noun phrase itself but also on the nature of linguistic classification evelien keizer is Senior Researcher at the Amsterdam Center for Language and Communication at the University of Amsterdam She is co-editor of Fuzzy grammar: a reader (2004) Studies in English Language General editor Merja Kyto¨ (Uppsala University) Editorial Board Bas Aarts (University College London), John Algeo (University of Georgia), Susan Fitzmaurice (Northern Arizona University), Richard Hogg (University of Manchester), Charles F Meyer (University of Massachusetts) The English Noun Phrase The Nature of Linguistic Categorization Studies in English Language The aim of this series is to provide a framework for original studies of English, both present-day and past All books are based securely on empirical research, and represent theoretical and descriptive contributions to our knowledge of national varieties of English, both written and spoken The series covers a broad range of topics and approaches, including syntax, phonology, grammar, vocabulary, discourse, pragmatics and sociolinguistics, and is aimed at an international readership Already published in this series: Christian Mair Infinitival complement clauses in English: a study of syntax in discourse Charles F Meyer Apposition in contemporary English Jan Firbas Functional sentence perspective in written and spoken communication Izchak M Schlesinger Cognitive space and linguistic case Katie Wales Personal pronouns in present-day English Laura Wright The development of standard English, 1300–1800: theories, description, conflicts Charles F Meyer English Corpus Linguistics: theory and practice Stephen J Nagle and Sara L Sanders (eds.) English in the Southern United States Anne Curzan Gender shifts in the history of English Kingsley Bolton Chinese Englishes Irma Taavitsainen and Pa¨ivi Pahta (eds.) Medical and scientific writing in late medieval English Elizabeth Gordon, Lyle Campbell, Jennifer Hay, Margaret Maclagan, Andrea Sudbury and Peter Trudgill New Zealand English: its origins and evolution Raymond Hickey (ed.) Legacies of colonial English Merja Kyto¨, Mats Ryde´n and Erik Smitterberg (eds.) Nineteenth-century English: stability and change John Algeo British or American English? A handbook of word and grammar patterns Christian Mair Twentieth-century English: history, variation and standardization The English Noun Phrase The Nature of Linguistic Categorization evelien keizer University of Amsterdam cambridge university press Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge cb2 8ru, UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521849616 ª Evelien Keizer 2007 This publication is in copyright Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press First published 2007 Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library isbn 978-0-521-84961-6 hardback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate Contents Acknowledgements Introduction page xii PART I: The structural approach: possibilities and limitations Headedness within the NP 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Internal structure: headedness within the NP 2.2.1 Semantic criteria 2.2.2 (Morpho)syntactic criteria 2.2.3 Discourse factors 2.3 Conclusion 9 10 12 20 20 Close appositions 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Criteria from previous analyses 3.2.1 Introduction 3.2.2 Intonation and form of the elements 3.2.3 Headedness and syntactic omissibility 3.2.4 Reference and semantic omissibility 3.2.5 Order of the elements 3.2.6 Modified definition and preliminary analysis 3.3 Further evidence 3.3.1 Definiteness 3.3.2 Anaphoric relations 3.3.3 Headedness 3.3.4 Summary: underlying representations 3.4 Conclusion 22 22 23 23 25 30 34 37 38 39 39 49 53 58 59 Appositions with of 4.1 Introduction 4.2 of-constructions with referring embedded NPs 61 61 62 vii viii Contents 4.2.1 NPs with of-modifiers and of-complements 4.2.2 Partitive NPs 4.3 of-constructions with non-referring embedded NPs: qualifying of-constructions 4.4 of-appositions 4.4.1 The form of of-appositions 4.4.2 Headedness 4.4.3 Underlying representation 4.5 Conclusion 62 65 71 73 73 76 82 82 Binominals 5.1 Introduction 5.2 General characterization 5.2.1 Semantic features 5.2.2 Syntactic and formal features 5.3 Headedness 5.3.1 Introduction 5.3.2 Semantic criteria 5.3.3 Syntactic criteria 5.3.4 Pragmatic criteria 5.3.5 Additional evidence 5.4 Conclusion 85 85 85 86 88 93 93 95 96 99 101 106 Pseudo-partitive constructions 6.1 Introduction 6.2 General characterization 6.3 Types of pseudo-partitive constructions 6.3.1 Quantifier nouns 6.3.2 Measure nouns 6.3.3 Container nouns 6.3.4 Part nouns 6.3.5 Collection nouns 6.4 Headedness 6.4.1 Existing analyses 6.4.2 Semantic criteria 6.4.3 Syntactic criteria 6.4.4 Pragmatic criteria 6.4.5 Additional properties 6.5 Conclusion 109 109 109 112 112 113 113 115 115 116 116 117 120 132 135 149 Sort/kind/type-constructions 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Analysis: preliminary characterization 7.2.1 Type I: the referential SKT-construction 152 152 153 153 Contents ix 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.2.2 Type II: the qualifying construction 7.2.3 Type III: constructions of the third kind Type I: the referential SKT-construction 7.3.1 Semantic characterization 7.3.2 Discourse properties 7.3.3 Syntactic/formal properties 7.3.4 Underlying representation Type II: the qualifying construction 7.4.1 Semantic characterization 7.4.2 Discourse properties 7.4.3 Syntactic/formal properties 7.4.4 Underlying representation Type III: constructions of the third kind 7.5.1 The postdeterminer analysis 7.5.2 Problematic cases: the sort/kind/type of + N2Plur 7.5.3 Conventionalized referential constructions Conclusion Conclusion 153 154 155 155 155 156 161 162 162 163 165 169 169 169 176 181 183 185 PART II: The cognitive-pragmatic approach: some applications The flexibility of language 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Pragmatics 9.2.1 Information structure 9.2.2 Given and new 9.2.3 Topic: D-topic, S-topic and G-topic 9.2.4 Focus 9.2.5 Conclusion 9.3 Cognition 9.3.1 Introduction 9.3.2 Prototype theory 9.3.3 Activation 9.4 Conclusion 10 Complements and modifiers 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Some existing proposals 10.2.1 Introduction 10.2.2 Relational versus non-relational nouns 10.2.3 Complements versus modifiers 10.2.4 Conclusion 189 189 190 190 191 194 199 201 202 202 203 206 216 218 218 219 219 221 230 244 Bibliography 365 Hoeksema, J., ed 1996 Partitives: studies on the syntax and semantics of partitive and related constructions Berlin: Mouton the Gruyter Hopper, P and E C Traugott 1993 Grammaticalization Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Hopper, P and S Thompson 1980 Transitivity in grammar and discourse Language 56, 251–99 1984 The discourse basis for lexical categories in universal grammar Language 60, 703–52 Hornstein, N and D Lightfoot 1981 Introduction In: Hornstein and Lightfoot, eds., 9–31 Hornstein, N and D Lightfoot, eds 1981 Explanation in linguistics Longman: London Huck, G J and A E Ojeda, eds 1987 Syntax and Semantics, vol 20, Discontinuous constituency London: Academic Press Huddleston, R 1984 Introduction to the grammar of English Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Huddleston, R and G K Pullum 2002 The Cambridge grammar of the English language Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Hudson, R A 1987 Zwicky on heads Journal of Linguistics 23, 109–32 1993 Do we have heads in our minds? In: Corbett, Fraser and McGlashen, eds., 266–91 Jackendoff, R J 1971 Gapping and related rules Linguistic Inquiry 2, 21–35 1972 Semantic interpretation in generative grammar Cambridge, MA: MIT Press 1977 X’ syntax Cambridge, MA: MIT Press 1983 Semantics and cognition Cambridge, MA: MIT Press 1990 Semantic structures Cambridge, MA: MIT Press 1992 Languages of the mind Cambridge, MA: MIT Press 2002 Foundations of language: brain, meaning, grammar, evolution Oxford, Oxford University Press Jacobs, R A and P S Rosenbaum, eds 1970 Readings in English transformational grammar Waltham, MA: Ginn Jakobson, R and S Kawamoto, eds 1970 Studies in general and oriental linguistics Tokyo: TEC Corporation for Language and Educational Research Jarvella, R J and W Klein, eds 1982 Speech, place and action: studies in deixis and related topics Chichester: Wiley Jespersen, O 1924 Philosophy of grammar London: George Allen and Unwin 1933 Essentials of English grammar London: George Allen and Unwin Johnson-Laird, P N 1983 Mental models Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Jucker, A H 1992 Syntactic variation in British newspapers Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter Kachru, B B., R Lees, Y Malkiel, A Pietrangeli and S Saporta, eds 1973 Issues in linguistics: papers in honor of Henry and Rene´e Kahane Urbana: University of Illinois Press Kay, P 1990 Even Linguistics and Philosophy 13/1, 59–112 Kay, P and C McDaniel 1978 The linguistic significance of the meaning of basic color terms Language 54, 610–46 366 Bibliography Kayne, R 1994a The antisymmetry of syntax Cambridge MA: MIT Press 1994b Principles of particle constructions In: Gue´ron, Obenauer and Pollock, eds., 101–40 Keenan, E L and J Stavi 1986 A semantic characterization of natural language determiners Linguistics and Philosophy 9, 253–326 Keenan, E O and B Schieffelin 1976 Topic as a discourse notion In: Li, ed., 335–84 Keizer, M E 1988 Definiteness and indefiniteness: a scalar representation Working Papers in Functional Grammar 26 1992 Reference, predication and (in)definiteness in Functional Grammar A functional approach to English copular sentences PhD dissertation, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam 2005a The discourse function of close appositions Neophilologus 89, 447–67 2005b Close appositions In: De Groot and Hengeveld, eds., 381–417 In prep Some-sort-of and some-kind-of constructions Keizer, M E and M van Staden In prep Introduction In Van Staden and Keizer, eds Kintsch, W 1989 The representation of knowledge and the use of knowledge in discourse comprehension In: Dietrich and Graumann, eds., 185–209 Kirk, J M., ed 1999 Corpora galore In: Proceedings of the 19th International Conference on English Language Research on Computerized Corpora, ICAME98 Amsterdam: Rodopi Kruisinga, E 1925 A handbook of present-day English, part II/2 4th edn Utrecht: Kemink & Zn 1932 A handbook of present-day English, part II/2 5th edn Groningen: Noordhoff Kruisinga, E and P Erades 1947 An English grammar, vol I/1 7th edn Groningen: Noordhoff Kuno, S 1970 Some properties of non-referential noun phrases In: Jakobson and Kawamoto, eds., 348–73 1972 Functional sentence perspective: a case study from Japanese and English Linguistic Inquiry 3, 269–320 Laberge, D and S J Samuels, eds 1977 Basic processes in reading; perception and comprehension Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Labov, W 1973 The boundaries of words and their meanings In: Bailey and Shuy, eds., 340–73 Ladusaw, W 1982 Semantic constraints on the English partitive construction In: Flickinger et al., eds., 231–42 Lakoff, G 1971 On generative semantics In Steinberg and Jakobovits, eds., 232–96 1972 Hedges: a study in meaning criteria and the logic of fuzzy concepts In: Papers from the Eighth Regional Meeting, Chicago Linguistics Society, 183–228 1987 Women, fire and dangerous things: what categories reveal about the mind Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press Lamb, S 1994 Relational networks linguistics meets neural science LACUS Forum 20, 151–78 2004 Language and reality Edited by Jonathan Webster London: Continuum Lambrecht, K 1994 Information structure and sentence form: topic, focus and the mental representation of discourse referents Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Bibliography 367 Langacker, R W 1973 Predicate raising: Uto-Aztecan evidence In: Kachru et al., eds., 468–91 1987 Foundations of cognitive grammar, Vol 1: Theoretical prerequisites Stanford: Stanford University Press 1991 Foundations of cognitive grammar, Vol 2: Descriptive application Stanford: Stanford University Press 2002 Concept, image, and symbol: the cognitive basis of grammar 2nd edn Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter Lee, D W 1952 Close apposition: an unresolved problem American Speech 27, 268–75 Leech, G N 1983 Principles of pragmatics London: Longman Lehmann, W and Y Malkiel, eds 1968 Directions for historical linguistics Austin, TX: University of Texas Press Lesgold, A M., J W Pellegrin, S D Fokkema and R Glaser, eds 1977 Cognitive psychology and instruction New York: Plenum Levinson, S C 1983 Pragmatics Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1987a Minimization and conversational inference In: Verschueren and Bertucelli-Papi, eds., 61–129 1987b Pragmatics and the grammar of anaphora: a partial pragmatic reduction of binding and control phenomena Journal of Linguistics 23, 379–434 Li, C N and S Thompson 1976 Subject and topic: a new typology of language In: Li, ed., 457–89 Li, C N., ed 1976 Subject and topic New York: Academic Press Lindsay, P H and D A Norman 1972 Human information processing: an introduction to psychology New York: Academic Press Lindstromberg, S 1998 English prepositions explained Amsterdam: Benjamins Linsky, L., ed 1952 Semantics and the philosophy of language Urbana: University of Illinois Press Lo¨bel, E 1989 Q as a functional category In: Bhatt, Lo¨bel and Schmidt, eds., 133–58 1990 D und Q als funktionale Kategorien in der Nominalphrase Linguistische Berichte 127, 232–64 Lo¨bner, S 1985 Definites Journal of Semantics 4, 279–326 Lyons, C G 1980 The meaning of the English definite article In: Van der Auwera, ed., 81–95 Lyons, J 1977 Semantics, volumes Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Mackenzie, J L 1983 Nominal predicates in a Functional Grammar of English In: Dik, ed., 31–51 1985a Genominaliseer Interdiciplinair Tijdschrift voor Taal- en Tekstwetenschap 5/2, 177–98 1985b Nominalisation and valency reduction In: Bolkestein, De Groot and Mackenzie, eds 29–47 1996 English nominalisations in a layered model of the sentence In: Devriendt, Goosens and Van der Auwera, eds., 325–55 1997 Grammar, discourse and knowledge: the use of such in written language In: Aarts et al., eds., 85–105 368 Bibliography Mackenzie J L and M E Keizer 1991 On assigning pragmatic functions in FG, Pragmatics 1/2, 169–215 Reprinted in Anstey and Mackenzie, eds 2005, 249–75 Mackenzie, J L and M.A´ Go´mez-Gonza´lez, eds 2004 A New architecture for Functional Grammar Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter Mallinson, G and B J Blake 1981 Language typology: cross-linguistic studies in syntax Amsterdam: North-Holland Matheson, C A 1990 Syntax and semantics of English partitive noun phrases: a phrase structure account PhD dissertation, University of Edinburgh Matthews, P H 1981 Syntax Cambridge: Cambridge University Press McCawley, J D 1988 The syntactic phenomena of English, volumes, Chicago: Chicago University Press McClelland, J L and M S Seidenberg 2000 Why kids say goed and brang? Review of Pinker 1999 Science 287/5450, 47–8 McClelland, J L., D E Rumelhart and G E Hinton 1986 The appeal of parallel distributed processing In: McClelland and Rumelhart, eds 1986b, 3–44 McClelland, J L and D E Rumelhart 1986 A distributed model of human learning and memory In: McClelland and Rumelhart, eds 1986b, 170–215 McClelland, J L and D E Rumelhart, eds 1986a Parallel distributed processing, Explorations in the microstructure of cognition, vol Cambridge, MA: MIT Press eds 1986b Parallel distributed processing, Explorations in the microstructure of cognition, vol Cambridge, MA: MIT Press McGloskey, M and S Glucksburg 1978 Natural categories: well-defined or fuzzy sets? Memory and Cognition 6, 462–72 Meyer, Ch F 1992 Apposition in contemporary English Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Mill, J S 1856 A system of logic, vol 4th edn London: John W Parker and Son Minsky, M 1975 A framework for representing knowledge In: Winston, ed., 211–77 Mithun, M 1986 The convergence of noun classification systems Noun classes and categorization In: Craig, ed., 379–97 1991 The role of motivation in the emergence of grammatical categories: the grammaticization of subjects In: Traugott and Heine, eds., 159–84 Moravcsik, E A 1978 Agreement In: Greenberg, ed., 331–74 Morgan, J L 1972 Verb agreement as a rule of English Papers from the Regional Meeting of the Chicago Linguistic Society 8, 278–86 Napoli, D J 1989 Predication theory: a case study for indexing theory Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Napoli, D J and J A Kegl, eds 1991 Bridges between psychology and linguistics: a festschrift for Lila Gleitman Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Narayanan, S and D Jurafsky 1998 Bayesian models of human sentence processing In: Proceedings of the 20th Cognitive Science Society Conference, 84–90 Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Nelson, G., S Wallis and B Aarts 2002 Exploring natural language: working with the British component of the International Corpus of English Amsterdam: Benjamins Bibliography 369 Nicol, J 1995 Effect of clausal structure on subject-verb agreement errors Journal of Psycholinguistic Research 24, 507–16 Oostdijk, N 1991 Corpus linguistics and the automatic analysis of English Amsterdam: Rodopi Paardekooper, P C 1956 Een schat van een kind De Nieuwe Taalgids 49, 93–9 1971 Beknopte ABN-syntaksis 4th edn Den Bosch Partee, B 1972 Opacity, coreference, and pronouns In: Davidson and Harman, eds., 415–41 Pearson, P D., ed 1984 Handbook of reading research New York: Longman Pinker, S 1999 Words and rules New York: Basic Books Pinker, S and A Prince 1988 On language and connectionism: analysis of a Parallel Distributed Processing Model of language acquisition Cognition 28, 73–193 Pit’ha, P 1971 Remarks on possessivity The Prague Bulletin of Mathematical Linguistics 16, 33–46 Poutsma, H 1914 A grammar of late modern English, Part IA: Nouns, adjectives and articles Groningen: Noordhoff Poutsma, H 1926 A grammar of late modern English, Part II: The verb and the particles Groningen: Noordhoff Powers, J and K de Jong, eds 1988 Proceedings of the Fifth Eastern States Conference on Linguistics Columbus: Ohio State University Prince, E F 1981 Toward a taxonomy of given-new information In: Cole, ed., 223–55 Quirk, R., S Greenbaum, G Leech and J Svartvik 1972 A grammar of contemporary English London: Longman Quirk, R., S Greenbaum, G Leech and J Svartvik 1985 A comprehensive grammar of the English language London: Longman Radford, A 1988 Transformational grammar: a first course New York: Cambridge University Press Raskin, V 1986 On possible applications of script-based semantics In: Bjarkman and Raskin, eds, 19–45 Rayner, K and A Pollatsek 1989 The psychology of reading Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Reed, A 1988 Semantic groups and discourse groups In: Powers and De Jong, eds., 416–27 Reed, A 1991 On interpreting partitives In: Napoli and Kegl, eds., 207–24 Reid, W 1991 Verb and number agreement in English London: Longman Reid, W., R Otheguy and N Stern, eds 2002 Signal, meaning and message: perspectives on sign-based linguistics Amsterdam: Benjamins Renkema, J 1987 Tekst en uitleg: een inleiding in de tekstwetenschap Dordrecht: Foris Rickheit, G and H Strohner, eds 1985 Inferences in text-processing Amsterdam: Elsevier Science North-Holland Riemsdijk, H C van 1998 Categorial feature magnetism: the endocentricity and distribution of projections Journal of Comparative Germanic Linguistics 2, 1–48 Rijkhoff J and D Garcia Velasco, eds To appear The Noun phrase in F(D)G Romaine, S ed 1998 The Cambridge history of the English language, Vol IV: 1776–1997 Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 370 Bibliography Rosch, E 1973 Natural categories Cognitive Psychology 4, 328–50 1978 Principles of categorization In: Rosch and Lloyd, eds., 27–48 1981 Prototype classification and logical classification: the two systems In: Scholnick, ed., 73–86 Rosch, E and C B Mervis 1975 Family resemblances: studies in the internal structure of categories Cognitive Psychology 7, 573–605 Rosch, E., C B Mervis, W D Gray and D M Johnson 1976 Basic objects in natural categories Cognitive Psychology 8, 382–439 Rosch, E and B B Lloyd, eds 1978 Cognition and categorization Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Rosenbach, A 2002 Genitive variation in English Conceptual factors in synchronic and diachronic studies Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter Ross, John R 1967 Constraints on variables in syntax PhD dissertation, MIT, Cambridge, MA Rumelhart, D E 1975 Notes on a Schema for Stories In: Bobrow and Collins, eds., 211–36 1977 Toward an interactive model of reading In: Dornic, ed., 573–603 Rumelhart, D E 1980 Schemata: the building blocks of cognition In: Spiro, Bruce and Brewer, eds., 33–58 Rumelhart, D E and A Ortony 1977 The representation of knowledge in memory In: Anderson, Spiro and Montague, eds., 99–135 Russell, B 1903 The principles of mathematics London: Allen and Unwin 1905 On denoting Mind 14, 479–93 1920 Descriptions In: Linsky, ed., 95–108 Sanford, A J and S C Garrod 1981 Understanding written language: explorations of comprehension beyond the sentence Chichester: Wiley Schank, R C 1982 Representing memory: an artificial intelligence perspective In: Ulle´n, ed., 25–63 Schiffrin, D., D Tannen and H E Hamilton, eds 2001 The handbook of discourse analysis Oxford: Blackwell Scholnick, E., ed 1981 New trends in conceptual representation: challenges to Piaget’s theory Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum Seidenberg, M S and M C MacDonald 1999 A probabilistic constraints approach to language acquisition and processing Cognitive Science 23, 569–88 Seidenberg, M S and J L McClelland 1990 More words but still no lexicon: reply to Besner et al 1990 Psychological Review 97, 447–52 Seiler, H 1983a Possession as an operational dimension of language Tu¨bingen: Narr 1983b Possessivity, subject and object Studies in Language 7, 89–117 Selfridge, O G 1955 Pattern recognition in modern computers Proceedings of the Western Joint Computer Conference, New York, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Selkirk, E 1977 Some remarks on noun phrase structure In: Culicover, Wasow and Akmajian, eds., 285–316 Singer, H and R B Ruddell, eds 1985 Theoretical models of reading Newark: International Reading Association Smolensky, P 1999 Grammar-based connectionist approaches to language Cognitive Science 23, 589–613 Bibliography 371 Sopher, H 1971 Apposition English Studies 52, 401–12 Sperber, D and D Wilson 1986 Relevance: communication and cognition Oxford: Blackwell Spiro, R J., B C Bruce and W F Brewer, eds 1980 Theoretical issues in reading comprehension Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Staden M van and M E Keizer, eds To appear Interpersonal grammar: a crosslinguistic perspective Steedman, M 1999 Connectionist sentence processing in perspective Cognitive Science 23, 615–34 Steinberg, D D and L A Jacobovits, eds 1971 Semantics: an interdisciplinary reader in philosophy, linguistics and psychology New York: Cambridge Univeristy Press Stockwell, R P., P Schachter and B Partee 1973 The major syntactic structures of English New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston Stowell, T 1981 Origins of phrase structure PhD dissertation, MIT, Cambridge, MA Strawson, P 1964 Identifying reference and truth values In: Steinberg and Jakobovits, eds 1971 86–99 Taylor, J R 1991 Possessive genitives in English: a discourse perspective South African Journal of Linguistics 9, 59–63 1996 Possessives in English: an exploration in cognitive grammar Oxford: Clarendon Press 2003 Linguistic categorization: prototypes in linguistic theory 3rd edn Oxford: Oxford University Press Tomlin, R S 1986 Basic word order: functional principles London: Croom Helm Tomlin, R S., ed 1987 Coherence and grounding in discourse Amsterdam: Benjamins Traugott, E C and B Heine, eds 1991 Approaches to grammaticalization, Vol II Amsterdam: Benjamins Tyler, A and V Evans 2001 Reconsidering prepositional polysemy networks: the case of over Language 77/4, 724–65 Tyler, A and V Evans 2003 The semantics of English prepositions: spatial scenes, embodied meaning and cognition Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Ulle´n, S., ed 1982 Text processing Proceedings of Nobel symposium 51 Stockholm: Almquist and Wiksell Van Valin, R D., ed 1993 Advances in Role and Reference Grammar Amsterdam: Benjamins Van Valin, R D and R J LaPolla 1997 Syntax: structure, meaning and function Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Verschueren, J and M Bertucelli-Papi, eds 1987 The pragmatic perspective, selected papers from the 1985 internation pragmatics conference Amsterdam: Benjamins Vigliocco, G and J Nicol 1998 Separating hierarchical relations and word order in language production: is proximity concord syntactic or linear? Cognition 68, B13–B29 Vigliocco, G., B Butterworth and M F Garrett 1996 Subject-verb agreement in Spanish and English: the role of conceptual factors Cognition 61, 261–98 372 Bibliography Vigliocco, G., B Butterworth and C Semenza 1995 Constructing subject-verb agreement in speech: the role of semantic and morphological factors Journal of Memory and Language 34, 186–215 Vigliocco, G., R J Hartsuiker, G Jarema and H H J Kolk 1996 One or more labels on the bottles? Notional concord in Dutch and French Language and Cognitive Processes 11, 407–42 Wit, P de 1997 Genitive case and genitive constructions PhD Dissertation Utrechts Instituut voor Linguı¨stiek (UiL OTS) Universiteit Utrecht Vos, R 1993 Direct partitive constructions In: Drijkoningen and Hengeveld, eds., 177–88 Vos, R 1999 A grammar of partitive constructions PhD Dissertation, Tilburg University, Tilburg Wallis, S A., B Aarts and G Nelson 1999 Parsing in reverse – exploring ICEGB with Fuzzy Tree Fragments and ICE-CUP In: Kirk, ed., 355–44 Wallis, S A and G Nelson 2000 Exploiting fuzzy tree fragments in parsed corpus linguistics Literary and Linguistic Computing 15, 339–61 Weinreich, U., W Labov and M Herzog 1968 Empirical foundations for a theory of language change In: Lehmann and Malkiel, eds., 97–195 Whitney, R 1982 The syntactic unity of wh-movement and complex NP-shift Linguistic Analysis 10, 299–319 1983 The place of dative movement in a generative theory Linguistic Analysis 12, 315–22 Wiers, E 1978 Kleins ‘appositionele constructies’ Spektator 8–1/2, 62–80 Winston, P H., ed 1975 The psychology of computer vision New York: McCrawHill Book Company Wittenburg, K 1987 Extraposition from NP as anaphora In: Huck and Ojeda, eds., 428–45 Wittgenstein, L 1953 Philosophical investigations Translated by G E M Anscombe Oxford: Blackwell Woisetschla¨ger, E 1983 On the question of definiteness in an old man’s book Linguistic Inquiry 14, 137–57 Zampolli, A., ed 1977 Linguistic structures processing Fundamental studies in computer science Amsterdam: North-Holland Zandvoort, R W 1961 Varia Syntactica In: Language and society Essays presented to Arthur M Jensen on his seventieth birthday, 193–203 Copenhagen: Det Berlingske Bogtrykkeri 1978 A handbook of English grammar 14th edn Groningen: Wolters-Noordhoff Zwicky, A 1985 Heads Journal of Linguistics 21, 1–29 1993 Heads, bases and functors In: Corbett, Fraser and McGlashan, eds., 192–315 Author index Aarts, B xii, 4, 73, 85, 86 7, 88, 89, 90, 93, 95, 96, 97, 99, 101, 103, 205, 252, 255 62, 266, 281 Abbott, B 66, 69, 70, 109, 110 Abbott, V 210 Abney, S P 94, 97 Abrahamsen, A 212, 213, 215, 216, 250 Acun˜a-Farin˜a, J C 22, 24, 28, 32 4, 35 7, 39, 45 6, 47 8, 54 5, 58 Aijmer, K 162, 163 Akmajian, A 11, 12 13, 18, 110, 111, 116, 118, 120, 123, 124, 126 7, 128, 264, 265, 266 Altenberg, B 308, 327 Anderson, J A 212 Anderson, J R 212, 214 Anderson, R C 209, 210, 246 Atlas, J D 192 Austin, F O 90, 92 Bach, E 69 Ballard, D H 213 Barsalou, L W 205 Bartlett, F C 208 Barwise, J 68 Beaugrande, R de 210, 228 Bechtel, W 212, 213, 215, 216, 250 Bell, A 52, 53 Bennis, H 87, 96 Berg, Th 15, 16 Berkel, A van 211 Berlin, B 204 Bhatt, Ch 117 Birner, B J 268 Blake, B J 268, 269 Black, J B 210 Blom, A 116 Bock, J K 15 Bolinger, D L 91 Bower, G H 210 Bowers, J S 316 Bresnan, J 2, 206 Brown, C 322 Brown, G 190, 194 5, 211 Brown, P 192 Brugman, C 208 Burton-Roberts, N 24, 25, 28, 31, 34 5, 37, 38, 39, 41 2, 45 6, 54 Carnap, R 10 Caspel, P P J van 95 Chafe, W L 189, 190, 191, 192, 196, 206, 210, 226, 228, 321, 322, 324 Chang, N 216 Chater, N 215, 216 Chomsky, N 67 8, 212, 265, 315 Christiansen, M H 215, 216 Christophersen, P 226 Clahsen, H 215 Clark, H H 192, 193, 227, 228 Clark, L F 210 Cooper, R 68 Contini-Morava, E 205 Coppen, P.-A 117 Corbett, G G 13, 14 Croft, W 2, 206, 208 Cruse, D A 206 Culicover, P W 265 Curme, G O 24, 310 Da¸browska, E 215, 273 Danes, F 198 Davies, W D 243 Deane, P 322 Declerck, R 43, 337 Delsing, L.-O 116 Denison, D xii, 18, 153, 163, 170, 181, 182 Dik, S C 1, 10, 107, 190, 195, 196, 199, 200, 201, 206, 223, 269 70 Dikken, M den 73, 87, 93, 107 Dowty, D 13, 14, 252 Dresher, B E 211 Dressler, W U 327 Dubinsky, S 243 373 374 Eberhard, K M 15, 17 Erades, P 94 Es, G A van 95 Evans, V 234 Everaert, M 95 Feldman, J A 213 Fillmore, C J 2, 63, 205, 206, 207 8, 210, 216, 221 Firbas, F 198 Fodor, J A 215 Fodor, J D 68 Francis, W N 24, 27, 30 Franck, J 15, 16 Frege, G 10 Fries, C C 24 Fries, P H 237, 241 Fries, U 13 Garcı´a, E 205 Garrod, S C 210, 228 Geach, P T 10 Gestel, F C van 116 Givo´n, T 10, 194, 198 9, 205, 252, 269 Glucksburg, S 205 Goldberg, A 208 Graesser, A C 210 Greenbaum, S Grice, H P 192, 195, 196, 330 Grimshaw, J 243 Groot, A W de 95 Gue´ron, J 264, 266, 274 7, 288, 293 Gundel, J K 268, 269 Halliday, M A K 2, 192, 198, 200, 205, 212 Hannay, M xii, 197 Hasan, R 192 Haugen, E 24, 25, 28, 30 1, 34, 38, 39, 54 Haviland, S E 192, 193 Hawkins, J A 40 1, 45, 54, 156, 225 6, 227, 228, 267, 272, 274, 277 82, 288, 305, 315 18, 318 20, 322 Hawkins, R 315 18, 322, 327 Head, H 208 Heim, I 226 Hengeveld, K 1, 107, 206 Herzog, M 204 Higgins, F R 337 Hinton, G E 211, 212 13, 215, 250 Hjelmslev, L 212 Hockett, Ch.F 24, 25, 27, 31, 34, 54, 196 Hoeksema, J 66 Hopper, P 189, 198, 205, 252 Hornstein, N 211, 236 Huddleston, R 10, 67, 157, 219-226, 228, 230 3, 234, 235, 236, 237, 238, 240, 244, 307, 308, 309, 310, 312, 331 Hudson, R A 56 Author index Jackendoff, R J 66, 67, 69, 109, 110, 111, 116, 126, 148, 189, 205, 215, 216, 265 Jacobson, P 13, 14 Jespersen, O 10, 53, 310, 311, 313 Johnson-Laird, P N 268 Jucker, A H 25 Jurafsky, D 216 Kay, P 204, 208 Kayne, R 92, 266 Keenan, E O 67, 68, 194, 198 Keizer, M E 14, 31, 43, 44, 47, 71, 156, 160, 164, 181, 183, 201, 225, 227, 252, 262, 268 Kintsch, W 211 Kruisinga, E 94, 309, 310, 311, 312 Kuno, S 43, 198 Labov, W 203, 204 Ladusaw, W 68, 109 Lakoff, G 189, 203, 204, 205, 208, 322 Lamb, S 211 Lambrecht, K 189, 190, 191, 193 4, 197 8, 200 Langacker, R W 10, 11, 24, 54, 189, 205, 206, 246 7, 320, 323, 326 LaPolla, R J 1, 205, 206 Lee, D W 24, 30, 54 Leech, G N 192 Lehrer, A 11, 12 13, 18, 110, 111, 116, 118, 120, 123, 124, 126 7, 128, 264, 265, 266 Levinson, S C 189, 192 Li, C N 198 Lightfoot, D 236 Lindsay, P H 213 Lindstromberg, S 63, 233, 235 Lo¨bel, E 117 Lo¨bner, S 63, 64, 221 2, 223, 226 8, 255 62 Lyons, C G 229 Lyons, J 10, 43, 68 MacDonald, 215 Mackenzie, J L xii, 1, 179, 182, 201, 206, 223, 225, 268 Mallinson, G 268, 269 Matheson, C A 109 McCawley, J D 95, 103, 175 McClelland, J L 211, 212 13, 215, 216, 250, 255 McDaniel, C 204 McGloskey, M 205 Mervis, C B 205 Meyer, Ch.F 22 Mill, J S 10 Miller, C A 15 Author index Minsky, M 207, 209, 211 Mithun, M 198 Moravcsik, E A 13 Morgan, J L 13 Napoli, D J 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 97, 98, 101, 104, 128 Narayanan, S 216 Nelson, G Ni, Y Nicol, J 15, 16 Norman, D A 213 Oostdijk, N Ortony, A 209, 246-247 Paardekooper, P C 95 Partee, B 68, 69 Pearson, P D 210 Pinker, S 215, 216 Pit’ha, P 221 Pollatsek, A 211 Poutsma, H 94, 309, 310, 311, 312, 313 Prince, A 215 Prince, E 44, 156, 191, 193, 197, 225 6, 227, 268, 296, 331 Pullum, G K 10, 67, 219-226, 228, 230 3, 234, 235, 236, 237, 240, 307, 308, 309, 310, 312, 331 Pylyshyn, Z W 215 Quirk, R 4, 10, 11, 13, 24, 25, 27, 28, 34, 39, 45, 53, 54, 57, 63, 73, 85 106, 113, 115, 125, 157, 196, 199, 268, 307, 309, 310, 313, 322 Radford, A 89, 97, 98, 128, 230, 236, 238, 239 40, 241, 242, 243 Raskin, V 207, 208 Rayner, K 211 Reed, A 66, 70 Reid, W 13, 14, 205 Renkema, J 210 Riemsdijk, H C van 112, 117, 149 Rochemont, M 265 Rosch, E 204 5, 255, 263, 322 Rosenbach, A 310, 327 9, 330, 332 Ross, J R 103, 265, 266 Rumelhart, D E 209, 210, 211, 212 13, 215, 246 7, 250, 255 Russell, B 226 375 Sag, I 68 Sanford, A J 210, 228 Saussure, F de 212 Schank, R C 211 Schieffelin, B 194 Seidenberg, M S 215, 216 Seiler, H 63-84 Selfridge, O G 213 Selkirk, E 66, 67 8, 109, 111, 112, 116, 118, 120, 126, 127, 148 Smith, E E 210 Smolensky, P 216 Sopher, H 24, 25, 27, 31, 34, 54 Sperber, D 192, 270 Staden, M van 201 Stavi, J 67, 68 Steedman, M 216 Stockwell, R P 66, 68 Stowell, T 266 Strawson, P 195 Sussman Goldberg, B 205 Taylor, J R 189, 246-247, 307, 309, 315, 320 7, 329, 331, 332, 334, 336, 342, 346 Thomson, S A 189, 198, 205, 252 Tomlin, R S 268 Traugott, E C 198 Turner, H xii, 264, 275 Turner, T J 210 Tyler, A 234 Van Valin, R D 1, 205, 206 Vigliocco, G 15, 16, 17 Vos, R 11, 109, 112, 114, 116, 117, 149 Wallis, S xii, Ward, G 268 Weinreich, U 204 Wernicke, C 211 Whitney, R 266 Wiers, E 116 Wilson, D 192, 270 Wit, P de, 64 Wittgenstein, L 204 Woisetschla¨ger, E 45, 321 Yule, G 190, 194 5, 211 Zandvoort, R W 13, 14, 312, 313 Zwicky, A 10, 19, 56, 79, 95 Subject index aboutness 196 activation 197, 206, 246, 253, 321, 324, 325, 331 54 agreement determiner-head 18, 99, 108, 131 N1/N2 78 9, 90, 160 1, 169, 175, 176 subject-verb 12 17, 57, 79 80, 96 7, 108, 144, 161 2, 175, 177 ambiguity 2, 88 9, 315 18, 331, 340, 353 anaphoricity 49 53, 81, 170 1, 239 41 see also pronominalization anchoring 193 200, 257 62, 292, 296, 321, 324 animacy 14, 310, 315 18, 327 9, 338, 343 6, 353 apposition see close appositions, of-appositions argument structure 222 assertion 193, 200 binominals 19, 85 108 attributive binominal NPs 87, 107 comparative binominal NPs 87, 106 general characterization 85 predicate relation in 86 quantifying binominal NPs 104 semantic features 86 syntactic features 88 93 category membership boundaries 204 degree of 204 family resemblances 204 traditional view 203, 204 see also prototypicality close appositions 22 60, 74 and definiteness, see definiteness bare constructions 34 criteria 23 39 general characterization 22, 38 subtypes 22 comment and theme 268 376 and topic 196, 268 complement PPs 62 5, 218, 219, 230 44, 253 displacement of 295 9, 303 licensing of 225 36 number of 237 9, 253 prototype of 253 selection restrictions 232 semantic roles 230, 253 complex quantifiers 18, 112, 149 complexity 267, 277 82, 305, 311, 315 16, 318 20, 328, 330 54 computer metaphor 212 conceptual perspective 246 50, 251 2, 326 connectionism 211 16 general description 211 13 properties 214 15 constituent recognition domain (CRD) 278 9, 318 construction grammar 208 10 cooperative principle 192, 330 coordination 80, 106, 241 2, 254 coreference 34, 49 see also anaphoricity definiteness and extraposition 266, 286 8, 293, 294 and relational nouns 225 9, 261 discourse function of 44 in close appositions 28 9, 32 4, 39 49 in possessive constructions 321, 324, 326, 334 in sort/kind/type-constructions 155 62 see also determiners, familiarity, identifiability, uniqueness demonstrative determiners, see determiners denotation 10 determiners 28 9, 135 7, 157, 166 7, 170, 172 definite article 28, 32, 43, 59, 89 demonstrative determiners 28, 80, 88 9, 101, 135, 136, 170, 171, 181 Subject index genitive determiners 28, 45 indefinite article 29, 33 4, 68 one 88, 102 possessives determiners 28, 45 9, 88, 101, 135 scope of 40, 43, 59 second determiner in sort/kind/typeconstructions 159 60, 168, 174 such 171 2, 179 80 this/that with discourse function 88, 166 discontinuous NPs, see displacement discourse reference 20 displacement 264 passim and definiteness 286 8, 293 and type of verb 258, 293 complement-modifier switch 303 of complement clauses 283 90 of complement PPs 295 of modifier PPs 299 303 of relative clauses 290 downtoners 162, 164 Dutch 17, 87, 95, 112, 116, 117, 171 early immediate constituents 279 economy 271 end-focus 268, 282, 294 6, 313 extraposition 97 8, 110, 126 31, 242 3, 254, 265, 274 82 see also displacement familiarity 44, 193, 225 36 see also definiteness, identifiability focus 199 201, 202, 268, 274 7, 287 formal mimicry 94, 103 frame semantics 207 frames 207, 211, 246, 322 see also schemata, knowledge structures French 17 Functional Grammar 107 Functional Discourse Grammar 107, 195 fuzziness 3, 151, 185 6, 218 see also gradience, prototypes, vagueness genitive constructions 231 see also determiners, possessive constructions genitive determiners, see determiners German 16, 117 given-new distinction 190, 191 4, 202 and word order 268 given-new contract 199 taxonomy of given and new 193 gradience 3, 57, 59, 72, 212 14 see also fuzziness, prototype effects, prototype theory, vagueness grounding, see anchoring 377 headedness 21, 24, 61 2, 64 5, 185 double-headedness 95, 124 in binominal constructions 91, 93 106 in close appositions 30 4, 41, 53 in of-appositions 76 82, 82 in pseudo-partitive constructions 116 49 in sort/kind/type-constructions 155, 183 (morpho)syntactic criteria 12, 79 81, 96 9, 120 pragmatic/discourse criteria 20, 81, 99 101, 132 semantic criteria 10 12, 76 9, 95 6, 117 20 hedging 164 ICE-GB Corpus iconicity 327 identifiability 40, 197, 225, 321 see also definiteness, familiarity, uniqueness importance 199, 313 see also relevance, saliency inferrability 193, 296, 333 information retrieval 206, 214 information structure 91, 189, 190 inheritance 224 intensifying function 101, 102 interacting principles 269 74, 308 9, 327 32 intonation 25 Italian 17 kind-of constructions, see sort/kind/ type-constructions knowledge structures general 210, 246 50, 253 5, 261 2, 334, 337, 338 specific 261 2, 337 see also frames, schemata modification complex premodifiers 92, 93, 111 in binominal constructions 92, 104 in close appositions 35 7, 41 in possessive constructions 311, 353 in pseudo-partitive constructions 138 43 in sort/kind/type-constructions 158 9, 167 8, 173 5, 180 modifier PPs 62 5, 218, 219, 230 44, 253, 299 304, 303 multifactor hypothesis 271 network approach 250 see also connectionism non-referential NPs 43, 59, 71, 90 see also referentiality 378 nouns basic (non-derived) 220, 222 collective 115, 124, 133, 140 count 27 derived 220, 224 mass 27 non-relational 218, 220, 221 30, 250 2, 253 picture 223 relational 63 4, 155, 218, 219, 220, 225 9, 249 50, 250 2, 253, 261 relational use of 220, 221 sortal, see nouns, non-relational substance 27 numerals 68, 69 70, 136 obligatoriness, see omissibility of 63 4, 83 in binominal constructions 92 in of-appositions 63, 65, 82 in partitive constructions 67 in pseudo-partitive constructions 111, 148 in sort/kind/type-constructions 174 in complement PPs 254 of-appositions 61 84 of-complements, see complement PPs of-modifiers, see modifier PPs omissibility 10 11, 25, 34 in binominal constructions 95 in close appositions 30 4, 39, 53 in of-appositions 76 in pseudo-partitive constructions 117 18 in sort/kind/type-constructions 160, 168 9, 174 packaging 190, 191 4, 206 parallel distributed processing, see connectionism partitive constraint 55, 68, 109 partitive constructions 14, 62 5, 65 70, 109, 134 passives 290 pluralization in binominal constructions 96 in close appositions 19, 56 in of-appositions 80 in pseudo-partitive constructions 126 sort/kind/type-constructions 160 1, 169, 175, 176 possession 63, 222, 227 inalienable possession, see possession, inherent relation inherent (intrinsic) relation 47, 63, 221, 315 16, 318 20, 324, 326, 327 9, 333, 334, 353 prototype 329 Subject index possessive constructions 307 54 passim and ambiguity 311 12, 315 18, 331, 340, 353 and animacy 310, 327 9, 338, 343 6, 353 and complexity 311, 315 16, 318 20, 328, 330 54 and definiteness, see definiteness and end-focus 313 and style 313, 353 and topicality 321, 322, 323, 324, 325, 327 9, 330 54 postnominal possessives 332, 341 53 prenominal possessives 327 32, 333 41 see also possession possessive pronouns, see determiners Prague School 198 preposing 98 9, 243 4, 255 prepositions by 235 functional 232 lexical 232 over 234 semantic network 234 see also of presentation vs predication 274 presentational constructions 274 7, 287 8, 289, 301 presupposition 193, 200 processing 277, 280, 305, 327, 328 prominence, see importance pronominalization 20, 81, 351 definite pronouns 17 20, 49 53, 132 indefinite pronouns 17 20, 49 53, 81 2, 99 101, 133, 239 41, 254 see also anaphoricity proper names 27 8, 31 4, 41 2, 74 5, 90, 325, 336, 344 6, 347 51 prototype effects 252 prototype theory 203 prototypicality 3, 60, 159, 181, 183, 185, 186, 198, 214 15, 234, 253 6, 329 see also category membership pseudo-partitive constructions 72, 109 51, 112 16 general characterization 109 12 hybrid form 150 quantificational reading 112, 114, 115, 117, 119, 133, 143, 149 50 referential reading 94, 112, 114, 115, 117, 119, 141, 143, 147, 150 types of 109 with collection nouns 115 16, 118, 120, 123 4, 126, 131, 132, 133, 134, 136, 137, 139, 142, 144, 146 with container nouns 113 14, 118 19, 122, 129 30, 133, 136, 137, 138 9, 139 40, 141, 145 Subject index with measure nouns 113, 114, 118, 119, 121 2, 125 6, 129, 132, 133, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 141, 145, 146 with part nouns 115, 118, 119, 123, 130, 136, 137, 138 9, 139 40, 142, 146 with quantifier nouns 112 13, 118, 119, 121, 128 9, 132, 133, 135, 136, 137, 139, 140 1, 144, 147 qualifying (left-headed) constructions 71 3, 115, 133 quantifiers 68, 80, 89 90, 135 7, 170 1, 181 see also complex quantifiers raising 264 recoverability 191, 200 referent points 320, 321, 322, 323, 333, 353 referentiality 25, 34 7, 43, 62 70, 110, 159, 183 see also pseudo-partitive constructions, sort/kind/type-constructions relative clauses 66, 110 11, 143 6, 290 relevance 192, 195 6, 199, 292 see also importance, saliency restrictive appositions, see close appositions saliency 191, 199, 353 see also importance, relevance scalarity, see gradience schemata 208, 211, 246, 322 see also frames, knowledge structures selection restrictions 11 and complement PPs 232 in binominal constructions 86, 95 in close appositions 55 in of-appositions 78 in pseudo-partitive constructions 118 20 shared knowledge 192 small clause analysis 93 Spanish 17 20 specificity 68 9, 110, 297, 321 sort/kind/type-constructions 18, 19, 152 84 conventionalized referential constructions 181 history of 181 post-determiner analysis 154 5, 169 75, 178 80, 182 3, 184 prelimary characterization 153 qualifying sort/kind/type-constructions 153 4, 162 9, 176 8, 182, 184 379 referential sort/kind/type-constructions 153, 155 62, 182, 183 types of 153 sort-of constructions, see sort/kind/ type-constructions special treatment 196, 200 stress 19, 24, 25 7, 91, 156 7, 165, 172, 281 subject 196 7, 198 Swedish 116 syntactic mimicry, see formal mimicry task urgency 269 thematic structure, see argument structure topicalization, see preposing topic 194 9, 202, 267, 287 and comment 268 discourse topics 155, 194 6, 322, 333 grammatical topics 198 sentence topics 196 topic framework 195 topicworthiness 321, 322 see also possessive constructions type-of constructions, see sort/kind/ type-constructions underlying representations of binominals 106 of close appositions 58 of of-appositions 82, 83 of partitive constructions 83 of pseudo-partitive constructions 149 51 of qualifying constructions 83 of sort/kind/type-constructions 161 2, 169, 175, 183 uniqueness 40 see also definiteness, familiarity, identifiability verb-preposition constructions 266 vagueness 189, 209 see also fuzziness, gradience, prototype effects, prototype theory weight 236, 266, 267 see also complexity word order 264 306, 307 54 and stress 281 in close appositions 25, 37 8, 39 of complement and modifier PPs 237 see also complexity, weight word recognition 213