There are fewer distinctions in any natural language than there are distinct things in the universe; if, therefore, the languages people speak are ways of representing the universe their speakers live in, it is not unreasonable to suppose that one central function of the various kinds of element constituting a natural language is to allow the much more varied kinds of thing populating the universe to be categorized in specific ways.
ROUTLEDGE LIBRARY EDITIONS: LINGUISTICS Volume 20 M EANINGS A N D PROTOTYPES 7KLVSDJHLQWHQWLRQDOO\OHIWEODQN MEANINGS AND PROTOTYPES Studies in linguistic categorization Edited by S L TSOHATZIDIS RRoutledge Taylor & Francis Group LONDON AND NEW YORK First published in 1990 This edition first published in 2014 by Routledge Park Square, M ilton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4R N Simultaneously published in the USA and C anada by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, N Y 10017 Routledge is an imprint o f the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 1990 Selection and editorial matter, Savas Tsohatzidis; 1990 individual chapters, the respective authors All rights reserved N o part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be tradem arks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation w ithout intent to infringe British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: 978-0-415-64438-9 (Set) eISBN: 978-0-203-07902-7 (Set) ISBN: 978-0-415-72373-2 (Volume 20) eISBN: 978-1-315-85739-8 (Volume 20) Publisher’s Note The publisher has gone to great lengths to ensure the quality of this reprint but points out that some imperfections in the original copies may be apparent Disclaimer The publisher has m ade every effort to trace copyright holders and would welcome correspondence from those they have been unable to trace Meanings and Prototypes Studies in linguistic categorization edited by S L Tsohatzidis ROUTLEDGE i London and New York First published 1990 by Routledge 11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge a division of Routledge, Chapman and Hall, Inc 29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001 Selection and editorial matter © 1990 Savas Tsohatzidis; individual chapters © 1990 the respective authors Typeset in 10/12 pt Times Roman by Linotron 202 at Columns of Reading Printed in Great Britain by T J Press, Padstow, Cornwall All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Meanings and prototypes : studies in linguistic categorization Linguistics I Tsohatzidis, S L 410 ISBN 0-415-03612-7 Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Meanings and prototypes : studies in linguistic categorization / [edited by] Savas Tsohatzidis p cm Includes bibliographical references ISBN 0-415-03612-7 Categorization (Linguistics) Semantics I Tsohatzidis, Savas P128.C37M4 1990 401' 43—dc20 89-10910 CIP Contents Introduction by S L Tsohatzidis Part One: On the content of prototype categories: questions of word meaning 15 A survey of category types in natural language Cecil H Brown 17 Possible verbs and the structure of events 48 William Croft Prototypical considerations on modal meanings Steven Cushing 74 Belief ascription, metaphor, and intensional identification Afzal Ballim, Yorick Wilks, John Barnden 91 Negated beliefs and non-monotonic reasoning Ryszard Zuber Lexical hierarchies and Ojibwa noun derivation Richard A Rhodes 132 151 Some English terms of insult invoking sex organs: evidence of a pragmatic driver for semantics Keith Allan 159 The lexicographical treatment of prototypical polysemy 195 Dirk Geeraerts v Contents Part Two: On the content of prototype categories: further questions 211 Settings, participants, and grammatical relations Ronald W Langacker 213 10 On the semantics of compounds and genitives in English Paul Kay and Karl Zimmer 239 11 A notional approach to the French verbal adjective Roger McLure and Paul Reed 247 12 Prototypical uses of grammatical resources in the expression of linguistic action Rene Dirven 267 13 Toward a theory of syntactic prototypes Margaret E Winters 285 14 Accent in prototypical wh questions Dwight Bolinger 307 15 Prototypical manners of linguistic action Anne-Marie Diller 315 16 Where partonomies and taxonomies meet Barbara Tversky Part Three: On the context of prototype methods: questions of word meaning 17 18 'Prototypes save': on the uses and abuses of the notion of 'prototype' in linguistics and related fields Anna Wierzbicka Prototype theory and its implications for lexical analysis Adrienne Lehrer 334 345 347 368 19 Prototype theory and lexical semantics D A Cruse 382 20 403 vi Representation, prototypes, and centrality Claude Vandeloise Contents 21 A few untruths about 'lie' S L Tsohatzidis Part Four: On the context of prototype methods: further questions 22 On 'folk' and 'scientific' linguistic beliefs Roy Harris 23 Gestures during discourse: the contextual structuring of thought Nancy L Dray and David McNeill 438 447 449 465 24 Why words have to be vague Roger McLure 488 25 Schemas, prototypes, and models: in search of the unity of the sign John R Taylor 521 26 Psychologistic semantics, robust vagueness, and the philosophy of language Terence Horgan 535 Bibliography 558 Index 582 vii Bibliography comprehension’, Memory and Cognition 5: 482-90 Kripke, S (1972) ‘Naming and necessity’, in D Davidson and G Harman (eds) Semantics o f Natural Language, Dordrecht: Reidel Kronenfeld, D (1988) ‘Full bloods and protestants: semantic extension in complex domains’, Ms, University of California, Riverside Kronenfeld, D , Armstrong, J., and Wilmoth, S (1985) ‘Exploring the internal structure of linguistic categories: an extensionist semantic view’, in J Dougherty (ed.) 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Syntax and Semantics , New York: Academic Press 581 Index allophonic variation 457-61, 527-31 ambiguity 377-9 analyticity 255-6, 371-3 antonymy 375 arbitrariness 493-7 Armstrong, S.L 352, 368, 530, 558 bachelor 348-9, 491 basic level term 334-6, 377 believe 132-50 Berlin, B 27, 28, 29, 31, 155, 285, 334, 388,559-60 bird 22-3, 286, 350-1, 361-2, 371, 387, 389, 394 Black, M 488, 489, 560 Bloomfield, L 409, 436, 446, 454, 560 bo a t 348 Brown, C.H 340, 341, 560-1 Brown, R 335, 527, 561 Brugman, C 219, 403, 406, 416, 430-1, 435-6, 523, 561 Bybee, J.L 294, 306, 561 can 83-7 Carnap, R 84, 459, 561 categories 17-47 boundaries of 338-9 central v non-central members of 384-6, 414-16 complex 390-1 covert 153-5 feature-centred v member-centred conceptions of 382-3, 391 gradability v degree of category membership 386-7 perceptual v propositional motivation of 20-1, 404-35 radial 288-9, 297-304 582 special purpose v general purpose 33-5 typical v prototypical members of 392-3 categorization by schema v prototype 220-4, 416-34, 523-35 causative verb 49-58 Chomsky, N 251-2, 289, 294, 361, 410, 500, 561 Clark, E.V 414, 561 clim b 363-4, 528-9, 531 cognitive grammar 213-19, 267-8, 287-9, 304-6 cognitive models 50-1, 176, 331, 409, 412-13, 434-5 billiard ball model 215-16 causal chain model 49-58 stage model 215 Coleman, L 20, 351-2, 391-2, 438-16, 488-92 colour 501-6 colour terms 358-9 compounds 239-46, 257-9 congratulate 349-50 connectionism 547-51 c o o k 375-8 cunt 161-74, 183-5, 189-92 cup 286, 360, 379-80 Davidson, D 49, 123, 563 default reasoning 95-100, 105-9, 132-50 definition 341-61, 369-70, 399-400 Descartes, R 259, 263, 564 dictionary v encyclopedia 176, 395-400, 511 diminutive 151-7 d og 26-7, 372 Index dysphemism 159-92 emotion words 359-60 etic v emic units 456-61 family resemblance 336-7, 356-8, 412, 436 Fauconnier, G 93, 102-3, 192, 232, 331,413,43 4,565 Fillmore, C.J 159, 213, 215, 221, 332, 348-9, 363, 392-3, 413, 434, 488, 528, 565 flexible conceptualization 52-8 Fodor, J.A 366, 379, 547, 565, 569 folk etymology 456-7 F rege,G 135 furniture 354-5 game 356-8, 536-7 Gamkrelidge, T 495-7, 565 genitive 239, 246, 531 gestures and speech 465-87 give v receive 226-7 Givon, T 220, 238, 566 Grice, H.P 322, 323, 347, 481, 566 Harrison, B 500-2, 567 Horn, L.R 143, 478, 568 Hudson, R 523, 532-3, 568 Hunn, E -1 ,3 -1 ,3 ,5 Husserl, E 508-9, 513, 568 implicature 477-82 inalienable possession 245-6 incohative verb 49-58 incommensurability 461 intensionality 110-19, 125-30, 132-50 intension v extension 509-13 Jackendoff, R 359, 363-4, 568 Jakobson, R 521-6, 568 Jespersen, O 277-8, 451, 569 Johnson, M 23, 92, 128, 267, 285, 413, 434, 569, 570 Katz, J.J 175, 366, 379, 510-13, 569 Kay, P 20, 21, 31, 74, 160, 285, 332, 351-2, 377, 387-8, 391, 409, 431, 434, 438-46, 560, 562, 569 kill ,2 -8 ,3 ,3 ,3 know 132-50 Kronenfeld, D 21-3, 570 Labov, W 159, 360, 570 Lakoff, G 20-3, 42, 46, 50, 51, 52, 92, 102, 127, 128, 130, 131, 155, 160, 190, ,2 0 -1 ,2 ,2 ,2 , 288, 348-9, 353-4, 355-6, 387, 392-3, 403, 406-37, 514-17, 523, 529, 533, 570 Langacker, R 50, 267, 288, 411, 413, 424, 425, 434, 523-7, 529-30, 533-4, 570 langue v parole 492-3, 485-7, 508 Leech, G 176, 570 lexicography 195-7, 366-7 lie 20, 351-2, 391-2, 438-46, 488-92 Lindner, S 416, 523, 571 Lounsbury, F.G 21,461,571 McCawley, J.D 347, 369, 478-81, 571-2 mammal 35-7 markedness 58-66, 226-9, 477-82 Merleau-Ponty, M 493-6, 503-9, 515, 572-3 metalanguage 175-6 metaphor 23-6, 119-23, 127-30, 173-80 conduit metaphor 131, 269, 514, 517-18 mind-as-container metaphor 102, 127,130 modals and modalities 74-89, 137-8 mother 353-4 Muller, M 452-5, 573 must 75-87 mutt 33-4 negation 81-7, 132-150, 301-2 neo-pragmatist semantics 536, 541 ought to 77-81 over 416-34 Palmer, S 404, 412, 420, 421, 432, 435, 573 partonomies 337-44 passive 229-32 past tense 525-6, 531 penny 38-9 performative 315-31 pet 33-5, 44, 368-9, 372 phenomenology 493, 497-500, 506-9 Pike, K.L 456-9, 574 positivism 453 583 Index pragmatics 191-2, 465, 477-82 prescriptivism 449 prick 161-74, 185-92 proper name 241-5 propositional attitude verbs 132-50 propositional attitudes 91-130 psychologistic semantics 535-57 Pulman, S.G 373, 388, 574 Putnam, H 74, 160,174-5, 510-12, 535-7, 541, 544, 552, 574 Quine, W 446, 537, 540, 574 Sweetser, E 160, 352, 446, 577 syntactic prototype 289-304 talk 272-80 Talmy, L 50, 51, 577 Tensiere, L 216, 577 there 232-3 toy 20-1, 33-5, 42-3, 355-6 Traugott, E.C 294, 577 tree 30-2, 526-8 Trier, J 389, 577 true!false 137, 445 twat 161-6, 181-3, 189-92 reference 118-19, 252, 370-1 referential semantics 174-5, 535-42 regret 132-50 relevance 108-10 representation 404-14 Rosch, E 17, 21, 74, 285, 287-8, 296, 334, 335, 336-7, 364-5, 350-1, -5 ,3 ,3 ,3 ,3 ,4 , 405-7, 415, 434, 485, 530, 575 vagina 178-81, 189-92 vagueness 204-5, 542-54 van Oosten, J 67, 228, 578 vegetable 33-5, 44, 372 verbal adjective 247-66 Verschueren, J 315, 348-9, 363, 578 Saussure, F de 454-5, 462-3, 467, 486, 492, 495, 497, 521-3, 576 screwdriver 39-42, 45-6 Searle, J.R 315, 320-1, 329, 333, 576 semantic change 490-2 semantic fields 374-80 sorites paradox 543-52 speech act verbs 267-84 speech acts 123-5, 315-31 stative verb 49-58 subject 219-37 subjunctive 302-4 weed 33-5, 372 Weinreich, U 175, 371, 578 Wertheimer, R 75, 77, 78, 578 w/z-question 290, 307-14 Wierzbicka, A 21, 23, 26, 31, 33, 34, ,4 ,4 , 175, -7 ,3 ,3 , 400, 526, 579 Wittgenstein, L 336, 356-8, 412, 436, 461, 464, 490, 497-8, 501, 580 word grammar 532-3 word-specific semantic poperties 396-400 584 uncle 361 [...]... the robin to be a prototypic bird, a penguin may be included in the class bird by right of being perceptually similar to a robin (robins and < /b> penguins share feathers, wings, etc.), cf (a) above With respect to property specifications of propositional models, bats may 22 A survey of category types in natural language be included in the category bird based on the acknowledgement that bats, like robins,... possible that penguins and < /b> ostriches are included in the category bird because they are similar in appearance to prototypic birds, i.e., probably robins for many speakers of American 21 Cecil H Brown English: penguins and < /b> ostriches, like robins, have feathers, wings, and < /b> a beak, but they differ from robins since they do not fly A ‘bird’ category may be further extended from the prototype through inclusion... example since the attributes of robin and < /b> the attributes specified in a propositional model relating to robin are the same While it is possible, it is highly unlikely that any significant portion of English-speaking people recognize a variety of robin among all birds called robin that they consider most robin-like Little introspection is required to convince oneself that there is no prototypic robin and.< /b> .. convincingly arguing that linguistically encoded meanings < /b> are, in any literal sense, organized prototypically This, however, might well be a mistake After all, saying that a concrete object is the ‘best example’ of its kind is an elliptical way of saying that humans tend (or, in some cases, decide) to regard it as the best example: in a world without perceiving minds, no object could possibly be a better,... its introduction in linguistics;< /b> and < /b> they thus offer some new perspectives within which the answers to those questions could be profitably sought In ‘On “folk” and < /b> “scientific” linguistic beliefs’, Roy Harris attacks a central thesis of modern linguistics < /b> which would seem to underlie a familiar kind of objection to prototype theory The objection is, roughly, that, by taking speakers’ untutored beliefs... about the universe (including their linguistic universe) as a phenomenon that linguists not only should not disregard but should rather take as the basic force behind linguistic categorization, prototype theory encourages its practitioners to abandon the neutral stance that they should at all costs maintain towards their assigned objects of study And < /b> the assumption behind the objection is, presumably,... interprets this possibility as creating constraints on semantic representation, and < /b> the range of linguistic phenomena that they purport to be able to elucidate by thus interpreting it is quite remarkable 3 Introduction In ‘Possible verbs and < /b> the structure of events’, William Croft argues that the familiar semantic trichotomy between inherently causative, inchoative, and < /b> stative verbs fails to account... discontinuities in nature are underlain by feature or attribute clustering Bruner, Goodnow, and < /b> Austin (1956: 47) illustrate this by citing the example of birds in general, creatures possessing feathers, wings, a bill or beak, and < /b> characteristic legs Any one of the latter features is highly predictive of the others For example, if a creature possesses feathers, it will invariably also have wings, a bill... patterns and < /b> that as these larger chunks emerge the amount of message that the operator can remember increases correspondingly In the terms I am proposing to use, the operator learns to increase the bits per chunk Bruner, Goodnow, and < /b> Austin (1956: 46) illustrate the recoding of attributes into a single Gestalt property by using the following biological example (cf Hunn 1977: 47): The student being introduced... language having the feature —P/E In addition, robin is a biological category and,< /b> hence, shows the 24 A survey of category types in natural language feature - AR (non-artifactual) Finally, since robin relates to an unambiguous discontinuity in nature, it is almost certainly motivated by a Gestalt quality, i.e., ‘robinness’, and,< /b> hence, shows -I- GM The features - AR, + GM and < /b> - P/E define a Type 1