Phương pháp nghiên cứu khoa học bổ sung bằng tiếng anh

One Big Mess . . . O.k., you're already in a mess and are looking out of the window thinking about having a nervous breakdown. You're sitting there surrounded by books and copies of articles that seem to be multiplying on their own and you don't know how to get started with the paper or even how to make sense out of all of this information. And the kids are knocking at your door and the paper is due in a week. So how do you get out of this mess? Calm down. That's the first thing. Then start reviewing your sources. A good way to review is to re-read with your pen in your hand so you can make margin notes and jot down the main ideas and main points of argument. Review those margin notes. Can you find a common thread of idea or argument in them (other than their common topic)? Do many of the authors advocate the same thing? Do you agree? As you can see, the first thing to do (the thing you should have done before starting your research) is to approach the research with a focused question or a tentative argument in mind. Sift through the sources to eliminate those that don't fit your focus and identify relevant portions of those that do. Then follow the research writing steps that we've outlined here, in the virtual writing center. Read and work the examples for those steps that are new or confusing. You can always check a working thesis with the writing center tutor and your course tutor as well. And calm down the next time definitely will be easier, once you know the process and special considerations for writing a research paper. Developing a Research Question • Developing a Research Question explanation Developing a Research Question It's absolutely essential to develop a research question that you're interested in or care about in order to focus your research and your paper (unless, of course, your instructor gives you a very specific assignment). For example, researching a broad topic such as "business management" is difficult since there may be hundreds of sources on all aspects of business management. On the other hand, a focused question such as "What are the pros and cons of Japanese management style?" is easier to research and can be covered more fully and in more depth. How do you develop a usable research question? Choose an appropriate topic or issue for your research, one that actually can be researched (Exercise 1). Then list all of the questions that you'd like answered yourself. Choose the best question, one that is neither too broad nor too narrow. Sometimes the number of sources you find will help you discover whether your research question is too broad, too narrow, or okay? If you know a lot about the topic, you can develop a research question based on your own knowledge. If you feel you don't know much about the topic, think again. For example, if you're assigned a research topic on an issue confronting the ancient Babylonian family, remember, by virtue of your own family life, you already know a great deal about family issues. Once you determine what you do know, then you're ready to do some general reading in a textbook or encyclopedia in order to develop a usable research question. It's a good idea to evaluate your research question before completing the research exercise (Exercise 3) and to Ask the writing tutor for feedback on your research question. And you also should check your research question with your course tutor. Topic/Issue A topic is what the essay or research paper is about. It provides a focus for the writing. Of course, the major topic can be broken down into its components or smaller pieces (e.g., the major topic of nuclear waste disposal may be broken down into medical, economic, and environmental concerns). But the important thing to remember is that you should stick with just one major topic per essay or research paper in order to have a coherent piece of writing. An issue is a concept upon which you can take a stand. While "nuclear waste" is a topic, "safe and economic disposal of nuclear waste" is an issue, or a "point of discussion, debate, or dispute" (American Heritage Dictionary). Choose a Question that is Neither Too Broad or Too Narrow For example, if you choose juvenile delinquency (a topic that can be researched), you might ask the following questions: a. What is the 1994 rate of juvenile delinquency in the U.S.? b. What can we do to reduce juvenile delinquency in the U.S.? c. Does education play a role in reducing juvenile delinquents' return to crime? Once you complete your list, review your questions in order to choose a usable one that is neither too broad nor too narrow. In this case, the best research question is "c." Question "a" is too narrow, since it can be answered with a simple statistic. Question "b" is too broad; it implies that the researcher will cover many tactics for reducing juvenile delinquency that could be used throughout the country. Question "c," on the other hand, is focused enough to research in some depth. (Exercise 2) Exercise 1: Can the Topic be Researched? Which of these questions cannot be easily or fully researched (given that you are writing a research paper right now, at the beginning of the 21st century? Click on the letter to see if that question has research potential. Question A: Do the economies that result from a trash burning plant outweigh or not outweigh its environmental impact? Question B: Is sexual preference a result of nature (physically based) or nurture (socially- culturally based)? Question C: Does McDonald's or Burger King make a better burger? Question D: Is Prozac a good way to treat clinical depression in certain cases? Question E: Is there a link between hours of television viewing and violent behavior in children aged 8-14? Exercise 2: Is the Question Too Broad or Too Narrow? Below are five exercises designed to improve your ability to select a good research question. Click on any letter to start the exercise.  A. Exercise: Is the Question Too Broad or Too Narrow?  B. Exercise: Is the Question Too Broad or Too Narrow?  C. Exercise: Is the Question Too Broad or Too Narrow?  D. Exercise: Is the Question Too Broad or Too Narrow?  E. Exercise: Is the Question Too Broad or Too Narrow? Exercise 3: Evaluate Your Own Research Question Ask the following 8 questions to evaluate the quality of your research question and the ease with which you should be able to answer it: 1. Does the question deal with a topic or issue that interests me enough to spark my own thoughts and opinions? 2. Is the question easily and fully researchable? 3. What type of information do I need to answer the research question? E.g., The research question, "What impact has deregulation had on commercial airline safety?," will obviously require certain types of information:  statistics on airline crashes before and after  statistics on other safety problems before and after  information about maintenance practices before and after  information about government safety requirements before and after 4. Is the scope of this information reasonable (e.g., can I really research 30 online writing programs developed over a span of 10 years?) 5. Given the type and scope of the information that I need, is my question too broad, too narrow, or okay? 6. What sources will have the type of information that I need to answer the research question (journals, books, Internet resources, government documents, people)? 7. Can I access these sources? 8. Given my answers to the above questions, do I have a good quality research question that I actually will be able to answer by doing research? Evaluation Tip: Contact your course tutor if you're not sure whether your research question fulfills the assignment. Exercise 2A: Is the Research Question Too Broad, Too Narrow, or Okay? Select what you think is the best research question (neither too broad nor too narrow). Click on the letter next to the best one. Question A: What marketing strategies does the Coca-Cola company currently apply? Question B: What is the Coca-Cola company's future marketing plan? Question C: What marketing strategies has the Coca-Cola company used in the past? Explanation Question "c" may be too broad as well, since "the past" covers a lot of time, especially since the Coca-Cola company was incorporated in 1919. Explanation Question "b" is very broad as well as being unresearchable it's unlikely that Coca-Cola personnel will reveal their marketing plan Explanation Question "a" is the best research question. Your research to answer this question may include observation of print, television, and radio advertisements as well as research into various current marketing theories and strategies. Both types of research are "do-able," and the question is focused enough to yield a fully-developed research paper Developing a Research Thesis • Developing a Research Thesis explanation • Exercise 4:Choose the Best Research Thesis • Ask the writing tutor to Review Your Research Thesis Developing a Research Thesis A research thesis has most of the same thesis characteristics as a thesis for a non- research essay. The difference lies in the fact that you gather information and evidence from appropriate, valid sources to support your perspective on a topic or stand on an issue. Yet although your sources provide information that informs your thesis, the thesis idea should be your own, particular to your personal way of thinking about and analyzing a topic. The thesis focuses your ideas and information for the research paper. Remember that word "focus." Student writers often make the mistake of forgetting the focus and making the research thesis far too broad in order to include a lot of research. Yet depth more than breadth is the hallmark of a sophisticated research paper. Create a working thesis for the research paper by specifying and ordering your categories of information. For example, the following theses offer the writers' main arguments and focus their research by specifying and ordering the reasons for their stance: • Competency-based management is practical, logical, and accessible to managers and workers. • Workforce training in basic skills is now necessary due to the lower reading and writing levels of the workforce, the fact that a person now entering the workforce will change jobs many times, the shift in jobs from the manufacturing to the service sectors, and the more comprehensive, abstract nature of those service jobs. As you can see, a research thesis is your proposed answer to your research question, which you finalize only after completing the research. (It's o.k. to modify and revise the working thesis as you research more about the topic or issue.) Developing a good working thesis, just like developing a good research question (researchable; neither too broad nor too narrow), is an important research skill. Thesis Characteristics Whenever you are writing to explain something to your reader or to persuade your reader to agree with your opinion, there should be one complete sentence that expresses the main idea of your paper. That sentence is often called the thesis, or thesis statement. (Some other names it goes by are "the main idea" and "the controlling idea.") Based on everything you've read, and thought, and brainstormed, the thesis is not just your topic, but what you're saying about your topic. Another way to look at it is, once you've come up with the central question, or organizing question, of your essay, the thesis is an answer to that question. Remember, though, while you are still writing your paper, to consider what you have to be a "working thesis," one that may still be "adjusted." As you continue to write, read, and think about your topic, see if your working thesis still represents your opinion. Handy reminders about the thesis: 1. Where to put it 2. Put it as a statement 3. Don't go overboard 4. Focus further 5. Choose the right shape 6. Exercise: Thesis statement Were to Put the Thesis The thesis usually comes within the introductory paragraph, which prepares the reader to listen to your ideas, and before the body of the paper, which develops the thesis with reasons, explanations, and evidence or examples. In fact, if you examine a well-written thesis, you will find hidden in it the questions your reader will expect you to answer in the body. For example, if your thesis is "Cannibalism, if practiced tastefully, can be acceptable in extreme circumstances," the body of your essay will develop this idea by explaining HOW it can be practiced tastefully, WHY it would be acceptable, and WHAT you would consider extreme circumstances. Put the Thesis as a Statement Make sure your thesis is in the form of a statement, not a question. "Can we save the Amazon rain forest?" is an ear-catching question that might be useful in the introduction, but it doesn't express an opinion or perspective as the following statements do: • "We can save the Amazon rain forest by limiting tourist presence, boycotting goods made by companies that deplete the forest's resources, and generally educating people about the need to preserve the rain forest in order to preserve the earth's ecological systems." • "We cannot save the Amazon rain forest since the companies that deplete its resources in their manufacturing are so widely-spread throughout the world, so politically powerful in their respective countries, and wealthy enough to fight the opposition fully." Don't go Overboard! Make sure your thesis expresses your true opinion and not an exaggerated version of it. Don't say "Computers are wonderful" or "Computers are terrible" if what you really believe is "Computers do more good than harm" or "Computers do more harm than good." Why commit yourself to an extreme opinion that you don't really believe in, and then look like you're contradicting yourself later on? Focus Further Make sure your thesis covers exactly the topic you want to talk about, no more and no less. "Drugs should not be legalized" is too large a thesis if all you want to talk about is marijuana. "Boxing should be outlawed" is too small a thesis if you also want to discuss wrestling and football. Bite off as much as you can chew thoroughly then chew it! Choose the Right Shape Shape your thesis to fit the question you wish to answer. A thesis can come in many forms, including the following: • Simply stating an opinion • "Langston Hughes was a master stylist." • Indicating categories or reasons • "Langston Hughes was a master stylist because of his vivid imagery, surprising metaphors, and effective alliteration." • Showing two aspects of a topic and emphasizing one (in this sample, the 2nd topic in the sentence is emphasized) • "While Langston Hughes was a master stylist, as a critic he had several blind spots." Exercise: Thesis Statement Directions: Suppose you've been answering a research question about adult illiteracy in the United States, and have a fourteen-page draft about how widespread the problem is, six or seven pages analyzing the causes of the problem, and six or seven pages evaluating possible solutions and proposing one you feel would be effective. Which of the following sentences might make the best thesis statement for your paper? (Remember, of course, that there are zillions of ways of stating your thesis, or main idea, and that no version is "perfect.") Adult illiteracy poses the greatest threat to America today. Adult illiteracy has many causes, but it can be eliminated. How can the problem of adult illiteracy in America be effectively addressed? Subsuming a myriad of causal factors, adult illiteracy manifests itself throughout contemporary American society. We can eliminate adult illiteracy in America now! "Adult illiteracy poses the greatest threat to America today." This certainly is a direct, active opinion statement, and refers to the topic of adult illiteracy in America. However, there are a couple of problems with it as the thesis, or main idea, for the draft you've written. First, calling adult illiteracy the "greatest threat" to America today is a very large claim: what about all the other terrible problems confronting us? (What a cheerful thought that is!) There's no need to make such a large claim, which may only distract your reader with thoughts of other problems. Second, the focus of your draft isn't the threat that illiteracy poses you've got only about one page out of fourteen about how widespread the problem is (maybe for your introduction), and nothing about its consequences (economic, social, political, whatever). Clearly, that's not what your paper is "about." (If it is what you want your paper to be about or what your reader expects your paper to be about, you've got some major revising to do!) Instead, what your draft does discuss at length are causes and possible solutions, but your thesis doesn't let your reader know that. So, choosing this thesis statement might lead your reader to expect one kind of paper and be disappointed to find a different one (and not appreciate it)! Please return to the previous page and choose again. "Adult illiteracy has many causes, but it can be eliminated." Let's see this sentence identifies the topic of the paper as adult illiteracy, and indicates that there are many causes, which the reader will naturally expect you to explain (and you do, for about half of your draft). Then comes the "but," a logical link to the opposite of "causes," which would be "solutions" or "cures" or something of the sort. Instead, the sentence continues "but it can be eliminated." Well, this seems to do the same job as "solutions" or "cures" in fact, asserting that adult illiteracy can actually be eliminated is a strong positive statement indeed. What's more, just as your draft addresses the causes of illiteracy, it goes on to discuss its elimination, but evaluating solutions and proposing one you feel would be effective. All in all, then, this sentence prepares your reader for exactly the paper you are delivering. It works as a thesis sentence for your paper. Wait a minute! You may be grumbling, "There's something wrong! This sentence talks about 'adult illiteracy,' but doesn't mention 'America!' Doesn't that open up the discussion to the whole world?" Our answer to you grumblers: a. Excellent! It's good for writers to grumble especially to each other. The more grumbling the better; it shows how careful you're being, how concerned you are about your reader! b. Excellent! You've certainly taken to heart our warning about making your thesis statement too large for your paper. Your draft does limit itself to America, and that doesn't appear in this possible thesis statement. Well, we reminded you at the start of this exercise that no statement is "perfect," and if you'd rather include "America" please do so. However, sometimes you can leave out information from a sentence if it is already known to your reader from the context. If, for example, your introduction makes it clear that your topic is limited to America, not the whole world, you can leave "America" out of the thesis statement. (Similarly, once you make it clear that you are discussing illiteracy among adults and not among children, you don't need to use the phrase "adult illiteracy" every time just "illiteracy" will be enough. As you (and other writers you work with) read over your draft, see if there are points where it would be clearer to repeat the entire phrase, and points where it would be easier reading and no loss to use the shorter version. (And keep up that grumbling!) "How can the problem of adult illiteracy in America be effectively addressed?" The topic is certainly clear here: adult illiteracy in America. Also, this sentence goes on to focus on how this problem may "be effectively addressed," which is one good way to prepare the reader for your evaluation of possible solutions and proposal of one you feel would be effective. However, while this is a major part of your draft six or seven pages and perhaps even the most important part, your draft first devotes almost equal space to analyzing the causes of the problem. Shouldn't you let your reader know that? Otherwise, instead of fully appreciating the fact that you deal with causes, then solutions (a logical and thorough approach), your reader might wonder why you don't immediately get to addressing the problem, becoming impatient instead of valuing your efforts and ideas. Hold on, though! There's another problem with using this sentence as your thesis statement. Its not a statement!!!! It's in question form, and that's not what your reader ordinarily expects of a thesis. A question can be a very good way to "get the ball rolling" in an introduction, inviting your reader to get involved and think about the topic before you state your opinion: the thesis statement. Of course, there is such a thing as a rhetorical question, a sentence in question form that really makes a statement: "How long are taxpayers going to put up with government overspending?" is really stating an opinion, something like "It's time that taxpayers stopped putting up with government overspending!" Similarly, "What writer today has the power and sensitivity of Maxine Hong Kingston?" isn't really seeking an answer, but stating an opinion, something like, "Maxine Hong Kingston is a writer of great power and sensitivity." A rhetorical question can be very useful, challenging your reader while expressing your opinion. Still, it is usually not as effective as an actual thesis statement. Why not? The problem comes with that phrase "something like," used in explaining both examples. We might say that a rhetorical question expresses "something like" a certain opinion, but that's not the same as "exactly like" it's a little (or a lot!) unclear. That also . front or the back of the book (the one in the back is always more detailed, but not all books have one) to be sure that the information you are looking for is in the book. A book can have a great. topic you want to talk about, no more and no less. "Drugs should not be legalized" is too large a thesis if all you want to talk about is marijuana. "Boxing should be outlawed". illiteracy poses you've got only about one page out of fourteen about how widespread the problem is (maybe for your introduction), and nothing about its consequences (economic, social,