MODEL TEST 7IREAOING SECTION 463 -+ A imUati on occurs when Individuals incorporsta new Information into the;, existing knowledge . Accommodat i on occurs when Ind i viduals adjust to new information. Consider a circumstance in which a 9-year-old girl Is given a hammer and nails to hang a picture on the wall. She has never used a hammer, but from observation and vicarious experience she realizes that a hammer is an object to be held, that It is swung by the handle to hit the nail, and that It Is usu- ally swung a number of Umes . Recognizing each of these things, she lits her behavior into the information she already has (assimilation). However, the ham- mer is heavy, so she holds it near the top. She swings too hard and the nail bends, so she adjusts the pressure 01 her strikes. These adjustments reveal h er ability to iIfii slightly her conception of the world (accommodation). Piaget thooght that assimilation and accommodation operate even In the very young Infant's life. Newborns reflexively suCk everything that touches their lips (assimilation), but, after several months of experience, they construct their understanding 01 the world i such as lingers and the mother's breast, can be sucked, as fuzzy blankels, should not be sucked (accommodation). Piagel also believed that we go through lour stages In understanding the world. Each oftha stages Is age-related and consists 01 HlCIiways 01 thlnk- ing. Remember, it is the different way 01 understanding the woOd thaI makes one stage more advanced than another; knowing more information does not make the child's thinking mo re advanced, in the Piagetian view. This is what Plaget meant when he said the child's cognition is qualitatively different In one stage compared to another (Vidal, 20(0) . !AI What are Piaget's f our stages 01 cognitive development like? lSI The sansorimotor stage, which lasts Irom birth to about 2 years 01 age, is the first Piagetian stage. In this stage, infants construct an understanding 01 the world by coordinating sensory experiences (such as seeing and hearing) with physical, motOfic actions- hence the term sansorimotor. It! At the end 01 the stage, 2-year-olds have ~ sensorimotor patterns and are beginning to operate with prlmitivo symbols. IDI -+ The preoperational stage, which lasts from approximately 2 to 7 years of age, is the second Piagetian stage. In Ihis slage, children begin 10 represent the wortd with words, images, and drawings. Symbolic thooght goes beyond simple connections of sensory information and physical action. However. although preschool children can symbolically representlhe world, according to Plaget, they still lack the ability to perform operations, the Piagetlan term IOf internalized mental actions thai allow children 10 do menially what they preyi- ously did physically. 4&4 MORE MODEL TESTS -+ The concrete operational St8g8, which lasts from approximately 7 to 11 years of age, is the third Piagetian stage. In th is stage, children can perform operations, and logical reasoni ng replaces intuitive thought as long as reason- ing can be applied to specific Of concrete examples. For instance, concrete operational th inkers cannot imagine the steps necessary to complete an alge- braic equation, which Is too abstract for thinking at this stage of development. -+ The formal operational stage, which appears between the ages of 11 and 15 , is the fourth and linal Piagetien stage. In this stage, individuals move beyond concrete experiences and think In abstract and more logical terms. As part of th lnklng more abstractly, adolescents develop images of Ideal circum- stances. They might think about what an Ideal parentis like and compare their parents to this Ideal standard. They begin to entertain possibilities for the tul1Jre and are fascinated with what they can be. In soM ng problems, formal opera- tional th inkers are more systemetlc, developing hypotheses about why some- thing is happening the way it is , then testing these hypotheses in a deductive manner. 14. Which 01 the sentences belOw best expresses the information in the highlighted statement In the passage? The other cnolces change the meani ng or leave out Important Information. Qj) Our new experiences require that W9 adjust in order to understand InformatiOn that we have never seen. <D Understanding new i deas is easier If we include observations and personal experiences. <D We engage in both organization of what we see and experience and adaptation 01 novel ideas. aD Thinking must include direct observation and experiences in order to organize the information. 15. Why does the authOl" mention a hammer in paragraph 2? Qj) To explain the concepts of assimilation and accommodation <D To demonstrate now a 9-year-01d girl responds to a new experience cD To prove that a young child cannot engage in problem solving (]I) To provide an example 01 the first stage 01 cognitive development Paragraph 2 is mar1l:ed with an arrow [-+]. lpynghl maklr I MOOEL TE ST 71 REAOING SECTION 465 16. The word aJ:1ftr in the passage is closest in meaning to CD change <D improve <C> hide a> find 17. The word others in the passage relers to CD months <D objects <0 fingers <]) blankets 1 B. The word distinct in the passage is closest in meaning to CD new <D simple <0 different a> eKact 19. The word sophistjcated in the passage is closest in meaning to CD limited (J) complex <C> useful <]) necessary 20. Based on the In formation in paragraph 6, which of the following best eKplains the term "operations"? CD Symbolic thought CD Mental actions <C> Physical activity a> Abstract reasoning Paragraph 6 is marked with an arrow ( -+ 1. 21 . According to paragraph 7, why would a 10·year-old be unable to solve algebra prOblems? CD Algebra requires concrete operational lhinking. <D A 10·yea r.g1d has nol reached the formal operational stage. <C> A child of 10 does not have logical reasoning abilities. <]) An algebra protllem has 100 many steps In order to solve it. Paragraph 7 is marked with an arrow { -+) . JPyngh cd ma r I '66 MORE MOOEL TESTS 22. In paragraph 8, the author mentions parents because CD teenagers are already thinking about their roles in the future CD parents are very impo rt ant teachers during the final stage 01 development CD the comparison of real and ideal parents is an example of abstract thinki ng CD adolescents tend to be critical 01 their parents as part 01 their development Paragraph 8 is marhd with an arrow [-+ ]. 23. What can be inferr ed from the passage about people who are older than 15 years of age? Cl) They must have completed all of Piaget's stages of cognitive development. CD They are probably in the formal operational state 01 development. CO They have mastered deductive reasoning and are beginning to learn intuitively. CD They may still not be able to solve problems systematically. 24. All of the fOllow i ng refer to Plaget's theory EXCEPT Q) EVen very young infants may engage in const ru cting the way that they understand the world. CD Both assimilation and accommodation are processes that we can use to help us adapt to new information. CD When children learn more information, then their th inki ng Is at a higher stage 01 development. CD Operations require a more advanced stage of development than symbolic representation. 25. look at the four squares [ _ Itha t show where the following sentence could be inserted in the passage, At the beginnIng of th Is stage , newborns have little more than reflexive patterns with which to WOI'k . Where could the se ntence best be added? Click on a square [ _ ] to insen the sentence in the passage. )pynghtoo maier I MOOEL TEST 7IREADlNO SECTION 417 . 26. Directions : Complete the table by matching the phrases on Ihe left with the headings on the righl. Select the appropriate answer choices and drag them to the operational stages proposed by Piaget. TWO 01 the answer choices, which refer to the earlier stages, will NOT be used. This question Is worth 4 points. To delete an answer choice, click on il. To see the passage, dick on View Text. Answer Choices !AI Intuitive thought in images and drawings IBl Imagination 01 ideal situations 01' relationships (C) Logical reasoning lor specific examples !DI Applied reasoning that requires little abstract thought (E] Abstract thinking that includes hypotheses lEI Complex coordination of the five senses !ill Successful solution of tangible problems IBl Thinking about potentiat situations lor the future CD Methodical trials to determine the reason f or events Concrete Operational Stage • • • Fonnat Operational Stage • • • • -+ Patents are a form of inteilectual property rights often touted as a means to give 'incentive and reward' to inventors. But they're also a cause for massive protests by farmers, numerous lawsuits by transnational corporations and Indigenous peoples, and countless railies and declarations by members of civil society. 1\ is Impossible to understand why they can have ail Ihese eHeets unless you first recognize thai patents are about the control of technology and the protection of competitive advantage. Lessons from History In the 17605. the Englishman Richard Arkwright invented the waler-powered spinnIng Irame. a machine destined to bring cotton-spinning out of the home and Inlo the factory. Wwas an Invention which made Britain a world-dass power in the manulacture of cloth. nt I From 1774 on, those caught sending Arkwright machines or wor\(ers abroad from England were subject to fines and 12 years in jail. 468 MORe MOD£L TeSTS • -+ In 1790, Samuel Sialer, who had wor1<ed fO( years In the Ar1<wright mills, left England for the New Worid disguised as a farmer, !AI He thereby enabled the production of commercial grade cotton cloth In the New WoOd and put the U.S. firmly on the road to the Industrial Revolution and ecooomic independence. 1m Slater was highly rewarded lor his achievement. 1CI He is still deemed the 'father of American manufacturing'. [01 To the English, however, he was an intellectual property thle!. Interestingly, patent protection was a part of U.S. law at tile time 01 Slater's deed . But that protection would only extend to U.S" It is worth remembering that until the 1970s It was understood, even accepted, that coun- tries only enforced those patent protections that served their national interest. When the young United Stales pirated the Intellectual property 01 Europe-and Slater wasn't the only Infringer-people In the US saw the theft as a Justifiable response to England's refusal to transfer its technology. By the earty 1970s, the situation had changed. U.S. Industry demanded greater protection lor its I de a·based products-such as computers and biotech· nology -f or which it still held the worldwide lead. Together with its like-minded industrial allies, the U.S. pushed for the inclusion of intellectual property clauses, including standards lor patents, In international trade agreements. When U.S. business groups explained the 'need' for patents and trade- mar1<s in trade agreements, they alleged $40-60 billion losses due to Intellec- tual property piracy; they blamed the losses on Third World pirates ; Ihey discussed how piracy undermined the incenlive to invest; and they claimed that the quality of pirated products was lower than the real thing and was costing lives. -+ The opposition pointed out that many of the products made In the Industrial world, almost all its lood crops and a high percentage of its mediclnes had orig· inated in plant and animal germplasm taken from the developing woOd . First, knowledge of the materiat and how to use it was stolen, and Later the material itself was taken. For all this, they sald, barely a cent of royalties had been paid. Such unacknowledged and unco mpensated appropriation they named 'blopiracy' and they reasoned that trade agreement patent rules were likely to facllIiiiiI more theft 01 their genetic materials. Their claim that materials 'col· lected' in the developing world were stolen, elicited a counterclaim that these were 'natural' or 'raw' materials and therefore did not qualify for patents. This in turn Induced a counter-explanatlon that such materia ls were not 'raw' but rather the result 01 millennia 01 study, selection, protection, conservation, development and refinement by communities of Majority World end indigenous peoples. Others pointed out that trade agreements which forced the adoption of unsuitable iiiti&ii 01 property and creativity-not to mention an intolerable commerCial relationship to nature-were not only Insulting but also exceedingly costly. To a developing world whose creetlons might not qualify lor patents and royalties, there was first 01 all the cost of unrealized profit. Secondly, there wes MooEl TEST 7IREADING SECTION 4&9 the cost of added expense lor goods from the industrialized world. For most of the people on the planet, the whole patenting process would lead to greater and greater Indebtedness; lor them, the trade agreements would amount to 'conquest by patents'- no maner whalthe purported commercial bel"lefits . Glossary inlettectual property: an inventi on or composition t hat belongs to the person who created it 27 . According to paragraph 1, what Is the real reason for patents to exist? CD Protests <[) Law5uit5 <D Prizes CD Control Paragraph 1 is mar1ted with an arrow [ ~ l . 28. The word 11 in the passage refers to CD l aClory <D home <D conon·spinnlng <D> machine 29. Which of the sentences be l ow best expresses t he In formation in the highlighted statement In the passage? The other choices change the meaning Of leave out Important Inloonalion. CD Among the laws to pro tect Britain from competition In the textile industry was a ban on exporting Arkwright equipment and on em igration 01 fOfTTler employees. CD Former employees of Arkwright could no ll eave the country because they might pro- vide information about the co mpany to competing faClorles. <D The reason th at Britain passed l aws to prevent emigration was to k eep employees In the texti le mills from leaving their jobs to woO< In other countries. CD Parliament passed laws to ensure thaI the price 01 leXl ll es was kept high in spite 01 competition fr om the former British colonies who were exporting cloth. 30 . In paragraph 3, how does the author explain the concept of technological transfer? CD By recoun ti ng how Samuel Slater, an American fa rmer, established a successful textile mill In Great Britain CD By describing how Samuel Stater used workers fr om Britain to devel op the te xtile Industry In the Un il ed States <D By exposing how Samuel Slater stole ideas and technology fr om one nation to intro- duce them in another CD By demonstrati ng how Samuel Slater used the laws to hi s advantage In ()(der to trans- fer technology Paragraph 3 is marked with an arrow [ ~ l . )pynghl mater I . soM ng problems, formal opera- tional th inkers are more systemetlc, developing hypotheses about why some- thing is happening the way it is , then testing these hypotheses in a deductive manner motOfic actions- hence the term sansorimotor. It! At the end 01 the stage, 2-year-olds have ~ sensorimotor patterns and are beginning to operate with prlmitivo symbols. IDI -+ The preoperational. greater protection lor its I de a based products-such as computers and biotech· nology -f or which it still held the worldwide lead. Together with its like-minded industrial allies, the