Collective nouns fall under the following groups: а} nouns used only in the singular and denoting а number of things considered as one object: machinery, people, crowd;... Such nouns a
Trang 3ББК 81.2Анrл
У84
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Trang 4От автора
Настоящее пособие представляет собой полное и систематизированное описание морфологического строя современного английского языка и узловых тем синтаксического строя, часто представляющих значительные трудности при изучении Оно предназначено для учащихся школ с углубленным
изучением английского языка, гимназий, лицеев, колледжей, а также для сту
дентов университетов и лиц, занимающихся английским языком на курсах или самостоятельно
Цель пособия - познакомить изучающих английский язык с системой грамматических правил, чтобы способствовать улучшению навыков правильной устной и письменной речи При составлении пособия использовался традиционный подход, но при этом учитывались последние достижения грамматической мысли Описывая грамматические явления, их формы и функции, автор стремился представить самую современную языковую норму, используемую в новейшей английской учебной литературе
Каждой новой теме предпослана краткая характеристика описываемого
грамматического явления Пройденный материал закрепляется упражнения
ми Основные виды упражнений: анализ грамматической формы, определение её функций и значений, перевод с английского языка на русский и с русского на английский Характер упражнений определяется как общими целями пособия, так и спецификой каждой конкретной формы Упражнения типа
"Traпslate into English", имеющие целью контроль усвоения грамматического
материала, предусматривает уnотребление лексики, доступной учащимся,
на которых рассчитано данное nособие Все упражнения направлены на практическое и активное владение английской грамматикой Ответы-ключи к большинству из них изданы отдельной книгой
Пособие состоит из основной части и приложений, которые включают краткое изложение глагольных времен, сведения о сокращенных формах глаголов
в разговорной речи, таблицу неправильных глаголов, список выражений с предлогами, список соединительных слов и фраз, список фразовых глаголов
и упражнения на их использование, сведения по словообразованию, список идиом, материал о различиях в грамматике английского языка в Великобритании и США и другие материалы
В книге также имеется алфавитный словарь грамматических терминов и основных слов nособия
Trang 51
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Contents
~ The Parts of Speech 1 О
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с!
с The Noun 1 О
= Kinds of Nouns 13
и .j ~ 2 ~ 4 Proper Nouns 13
Common Nouns 13
Class Nouns 13
Collective Nouns 13
Mass Nouns 14
Abstract Nouns 14
Gender 16
Masculine Gender 16
Feminine Gender 16
Neuter Gender 16
Ways of lndicating Gender 17
Number 17
The Formation of the PltJral 18
Nouns Used Only in the Singular or in the Plural, or in 8oth Singular and Plural 19
The Plural of the Compound Nouns 20
The Plural of Abbreviations 20
The Plural of Foreign Words о 21 Nouns with Two Plurals, Each with а Different Meaning 21
Nouns Having One Meaning in the Singular and Another in the Plural 22
Case 26
The Use of the Possessive Case 26
The Article 31
The Use of the lndefinite Article 31
The Use of the lndefinite Article with Nouns in Set Expressions 32
The Use of the Definite Article 33
The Use of the Definite Article with Nouns in Set Expressions 35
The Absence of the Article 36
Nouns Used in Set Expressions without an Article 38
The Adjective о • • • • • • • • • • • • 45 Word Order of Adjectives 49
Comparison of Adjectives 52
Two Ways of Forming the Comparative and the Superlative Degrees 52
Adjectives of One SyllaЫe 52
Trang 6Adjectives of Two SyllaЫes 53
Adjectives of Three and More SyllaЫes 54
lrregular Forms of Comparison 54
Constructions with Comparisons 55
The Use of Some Adjectives 57
TheAdverb 63
The Formation of Adverbs 63
Adverbs with Two Forms and Differences in Meaning 64
Kinds of Adverbs 65
Comparison of Adverbs 66
Word Order of Adverbs in the Sentence 66
The Use of Adverbs 68
The Numeral 74
Cardinal Numerals 74
Ordinal Numerals 75
Words and Expressions Used in Mathematics 76
The Pronoun 78
Personal Pronouns 79
Possessive AdjectivesjPronouns 79
Demonstrative Pronouns 84
lnterrogative Pronouns 87
Relative Pronouns 89
Conjunctive Pronouns 91
ReflexivejEmphatic Pronouns 93
Reciprocal Pronouns 95
lndefinite Pronouns 97
Negative Pronouns 100
Much, Many, Little, Few, а Little, а Few 108
The Verb 111
То Ве in the Present Simple Tense 112
There ls ( Are) Construction 113
То Have in the Present Simple Tense 115
Тt1е Use of Tenses 118
Simple Tenses 118
The Present Simple Tense 118
The Past Simple Tense 122
The Future Simple Tense 127
Continuous (Progressive) Tenses 131
The Present Continuous (Progressive) Tense 131
The Past Continuous (Progressive) Tense 139
Comparison of the Past Continuous (Progressive) and the Past Simple 142
г 7 (,Ц г 7 ""' ,
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5
Trang 7~
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с ~ '-' ;:с ~ < :;t ~ < ~ ::.; :r: ' / ; -.] ~ z ~ б The Future Continuous (Progressive) Tense 144
Perfect Tenses 147
The Present Perfect Tense 147
Comparison of the Present Perfect and the Past Simple 151
The Past Perfect Tense 154
The Future Perfect Tense 158
Perfect Continuous (Progressive) Tenses 160
The Present Perfect Continuous (Progressive) Tense 160
The Past Perfect Continuous (Progressive) Tense 168
The Future Perfect Continuous ( Progressive) Tense 17 4 The Sequence of Tenses 178
Direct and Reported Speech 182
Changing from Direct into Reported Speech 183
The Tense Shift when Changing from Direct Speech to Reported Speech 184
Reported Questionsjlndirect Questions 186
Reported CommandsjRequestsjSuggestions 186
Modal Verbs in Reported Speech 192
Reporting а Dialogue or а Conversation 193
ExclamationsjYesjNo Short AnswersjQuestion Tags 194
Conversational Formulas 194
The Voice 198
The Formation of the Passive Voice 198
The Use of the Passive Voice 199
Modal Verbs 207
Сап 207
Мау 213
Must 218
То Have to - Have Got to 226
То Ве to 228
Need 231
Ought to 234
Should 236
Shall 238
WilljWould 239
Dare 242
The Mood 248
The lndicative Mood 248
The lmperative Mood 248
The Subjunctive Mood 249
The Subjunctive Mood after the Verb Wish 249
Trang 8The Subjunctive Mood in Conditional Sentences 254 "'
The Subjunctive Mood after but for in Conditionals 255
lmplied Conditionals 255
The Subjunctive Mood after the Conjunctions as if ( as though) 262
The Subjunctive Mood after the Verbs Expressing Orders, Commands, Suggestions 265
The Subjunctive Mood after lt is necessary; lt is natural etc 267
The Subjunctive Mood after lt's (about) time; lt's high time 269
The Subjunctive Mood iп AdverЬial Clauses of Purpose 271
The Verbals (Non-Finite Forms of the Verb) 279
The lnfinitive 279
The Use of the lnfinitive 280
The Use of the lnfinitive without the Particle to 280
The Functions of the lnfinitive in the Senteпce 281
The lnfinitive Constructions 290
The Objective-with-the-lnfinitive Construction (The Complex Object) 290
The For-to-lnfinitive Construction 296
The Subjective lnfinitive Construction (The Complex Subject) 300
The Gerund 309
The Forms of the Gerund 309
The Functions of the Gerund in the Sentence 310
The Tense and Voice Distinctions of the GerLind 310
Noun Characteristics of the Geruпd 311
Verb Characteristics of the Gerund 311
Constructions with the Gerund 312
Rendering of the Gerund in Russian 312
The Use of Gerund 313
Verbs Used witt1 the Gerund and the lnfinitive 317
Verbs Used with the Gerund and the lnfinitive without а Change in Meaning 318
Verbs Followed Ьу the Gerund or That-Ciause 319
Verbs Fotlowed Ьу the Gerund, the lnfinitive and That-Ciause 319
The Gerund and the Verbal Noun 320
The Participle 328
The Forms of the Participle 329
The Functions of the Present Participle (Participle 1) 329
The Functions of the Past Participle (Participle 11) 329
The Tense and Voice Distinctions of the Present Participle and the Past Participle 330
Verb Characteristics of the Participle 331
7
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8 Adjective Characteristics of the Participle 331
The Objective Participial Construction (The Complex Object) 346
The Subjective Participial Construction (The Complex Subject) 349
The Nominative Absolute Participial Construction 351
The Prepositional Absolute Participial Construction 351
The Nominative Absolute Construction (without а Participle) 355
The Prepositional Absolute Construction (without а Participle) 356
The Preposition 357
Kinds of Prepositions 358
The Place of Prepositions 358
The Use of More Frequently Met Prepositions 358
Prepositions of Place 358
Prepositions of Movement and Direction 361
Prepositions of Time 362
The Use of Some Prepositions: Confusing Cases 363
Verbs, Adjectives, Nouns, Participles with Prepositions 372
The Conjunction 379
Coordinating Conjunctions 379
Subordinating Conjunctions 380
The Particle 383
Kinds of Particles 384
The lnterjection 385
The Sentence 386
Kinds of Sentences 386
lnterrogative Sentences 386
YesjNo Questions 386
Wh-Questions 387
Subject/Object Questions 388
Question Tags 388
Alternative Questions 389
lndirect Questions 390
Short Answers 390
Emphatic Structures 396
lnversion 398
Punctuation 403
The Full Stop 404
The Comma 404
Trang 10The Semicolon
The Colon
The Question Mark
The Exclamation Mark
The Brackets
The Hyphen
The Dash
The lnverted Commas
The Apostrophe
Abbreviations Letter-Writing Appendices Appendix 1 Appendix 2 Appendix 3 Appendix 4 Appendix 5 Appendix 6 Appendix 7 Appendix 8 Appendix 9 Appendix 10 Appendix 11 Appendix 12 Summary of Tenses
Short Forms
lrregular Verbs
Spelling
Numbers
Prepositional Phrases
Linking WordsjPhrases
Phrasal Verbs
Word Families
ldioms
American English
List of Grammar Terms and Кеу Words
Sources
406 l-406 z 407 ~ l-407 z ,
407 ._, u
407
408
408
408
408
409
410
413
415
420
423
425
429
433
451
455
460
462
477
Trang 111, you, she, this, по etc
one, six, tweпty, the first etc
to work, to go, to write etc
here, there, поw, theп, well etc
апd, but, пeither noretc
оп, iп, at, under, belowetc
but, only, too, also etc
Oh, yes! Of course etc
The Noun
The поuп is а part of speech which denotes things (а tаЬ!е, а book), liviпg beiпgs (а girl, а Ьоу), materials (air, gold), qualities (kindness, strengt/1), processes (conversation, writing), abstract пotioпs(beauty, love, реасе) апd states(sleep, consciousness)
Nouпs сап Ье divided ir1to simple поuпs, derived пouns and compouпd
поuпs
Simple поuпs coпsist of опlу оп е stem: dog, chair, room
Derived поuпs are composed of опе stem апd prefixes or suffixes:
disarmament, uneasiness, inequality, freedom, cruelty, friendship, visitor, brotherhood etc
Compouпd поuпs coпsist of at least two stems
There are а great many compouпd nouпs in Eпglish such as: newspaper, seaman,
Ь/иеЬе/1, forget-me-not, passer-by etc
Trang 12The main noun forming suffixes are:
The main prefixes are:
MEXERCISES
Exercise 1
State the part of speech of each word in bold type giving а reason for your answer
1 1 like spring flowers 2 The cat springs on the nюuse 3 Spring is the first season of the year 4 1 haven't any douЬt about the result 5 1 douЬt whether you can do this work 6 The Ьоу is а very hard worker 7 You must work hard
8 That firm is а very good one 9 Не spoke in а firm voice 1 О The Оу walked over the taЬle and then began to Оу round the room 11 The pond is round
12 Give те а drink ofwater 13 1 am going to water the garden, it is very dry
Trang 13Exercise 11
Moscow 3 I iron my clothes with an iron 4 The iron bars were covered with
Exercise 111
Exercise IV
-dom, -hood, -ness, -ist, -ion, -tion
resistaпt, neighbour, to move, material, scieпce, to collect, to dictate, to produce, weak
Exercise V
Арреаrапсе, armameпt, comfort, certainty, dependeпce, justice, trust, truth, decisioп, aЬility, easiness, employment, agreemeпt, comfort, convenience
Exercise Vl
Trang 14а room where we dress
Proper names are always written with а capitalletter
Class nouns are countaЬies for they сап Ье counted
Therefore they have two numbers: the singular and the plural
Col/ective Nouns
Collective nouns denote а number of individuals or things considered as one completewhole: nation, army, cattle, machinery
Collective nouns fall under the following groups:
а} nouns used only in the singular and denoting а number of things considered
as one object: machinery, people, crowd;
Trang 15Such nouns are: army, audience, crew, crowd, family, press, puЬ/ic,
These nouns may Ье used in plural number to denote different sorts of that material:
Different kinds of coals are excavated in Siberia
Mass пouns сап 't Ье couпted, апd therefore they are called uncouпtaЫe поuпs
Abstract Nouns
Abstract поuпs deпote some quality, actioп or idea: kindness, friendship, /iberty, love, know/edge, freedom, sorrow, courage etc
Abstract nouпs may become class поuпs wheп used with the article Then they
сап Ье used iп the plural пumber too:
beauty-а beauty- beauties
The girl is а beauty
coal - а coal - coals
Соа/ is mainly composed of carbon
А coal fe/1 out of the fire
iron - an iron - irons
/гоп is heavy
1 have bought а new iron
Мапу uпcountaЫe nouпs can Ье made соuпtаЫе Ьу means of partitives:
А piece of cake/informationjadvicejfurniture; ajar of jam; а glassjbottle of water;
а tiп of beans; а piпt of milk; а Ьох of chocolates; а packet of Ьiscuitsjtea; а slicej loafof bread; а potofyoghurt; а potjcup oftea; а kilo of meat; а bottle ofvinegar; а tube of toothpaste; а bar of chocolatejsoap; а Ьit/piece of chalk; an ice cube; а lump of sugar; а sheet of paper; а bag of flour; а pair of trousers; а game of soccer;
а( n) item jpiece of news; а dropjcaп of oil; а сап of со/а; а carton of milk; а Ыосk of woodetc
Trang 16(железо), iroп (утюг), happiness, hero, sand, music, friend, frieпdship, coffee,
sentences into Russian
6 Wheпl think ofthis my heart turns to stone 7 Her hair has gone quite grey
dangers at sea 13 The Crimea is famous for its wines 14 Wine is made of
Exercise IV
State whether the nouns in bold type are proper or common Translate the tences into Russian
almost deserted 2 The group of ancient fortified buildings, called the Tower, is
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15
Trang 17power is called the newton
Gender
There are three genders of nouns:
1) masculine, 2) feminine, 3) neuter
Masculine Gender
Masculine gender is used for all male persons, animals, Ьirds etc: Ьоу, actor, poet, cock, son, father, тап, husband, brotheretc
Note ln fairytales and folklore in general Ьig and strong animals always are
considered as masculine: the bear, the lion, the elephant, the tiger
But: the cat, the hare, the mouse is considered to Ье feminine
Feminine Gender
Feminine gender is used forfemales: girl, daughter, mother, sister, wife, woman, hen, Ьее etc
Neuter Gender
Neuter gender is used for names of inanimate objects and abstract notions:
tаЬ/е, bed,pen, tree, stone, road, storm, fear
Note Veryyoung children and animals are usuallyconsidered as neuter:
ЬаЬу, horse, sheep
Most nouns descriЬing people have the same form whether they are male or
female: teacher, studentetc
Some nouns have different forms, though: actor- actress, groom- bride etc
Trang 18Ways of lndicating Gender
There are usually three ways of showing the gender of different nouns
а} Ьу using different words:
brother - sister son- daughter
father- mother groom - bride
husband- wife lord - lady
widower - widow barman - barmaid
Ь} Ьу adding the suffix (usually -ess):
gentleman - lady king-queen monk-nun uncle-aunt cock-hen
actor- actress lion - lioness prince- princess
author- authoress mister- mistress steward- stewardess duke- duchess poet- poetess host - hostess
tiger - tigress waiter- waitress hero- heroine
host- hostess emperor- empress usher- usherette
с) Ьу adding а word denoting gender ( after or before):
man-teacher- woman-teacher etc
ln poetry or in folklore many things are often personified and considered as being either masculine or feminine:
The Sun, time, day, death, names of rivers, mountains are masculine;
The Moon, the Earth, night, nature, names of countries, names ofvesse/s ( ship, boat, steamer, ice-breakeretc), namesofvehicles(car, carriage, coach), abstract nouns(beauty, реасе, wisdom) arefeminine
Number
English nouns have two numbers: the singular and the plural А noun that names only one thing is in the singular number А noun that names more than one thing is in the plural number
Proper, material and abstract nouns, unless used as common nouns, have no plural
Trang 19The Formation of the Plural
The different ways of forming the plural of nouns are
а) Ьу adding -s to the singular;
-s is pronounced like [s] aftervoicelessconsonants:
book - books; map - maps;
like [ z] after vowels and voiced consonants:
tаЫе- taЫes; girl - girls;
Ь) Ьу adding -es to the singular, if the noun ends in -s, -х, -z, -sh, -ss or ch; -es are pronounced like [iz]:
class - classes; bus- buses; watch - watches; Ьох-boxes; brush brushes;
-с) Ьу changing final -у into i + the ending -es:
сору-copies; country- countries; berry- berries; fly- flies
Note А final-yis changed into -ies onlywhen it is preceded Ьу another consonant
Otherwise, i е if the -у is preceded Ьу а vowel, the plural is formed Ьу
adding simply -s
day- days; monkey- monkeys; toy- toys;
d) Ьу adding -es to nouns ending in -о which is preceded Ьу а consonant: hero - heroes; potato - potatoes; echo - echoes
lf -о is preceded Ьу а vowel, then the plural is formed Ьу adding simply -s:
studio- studios; cuckoo- cuckoos; portfolio- portfolios е) Some nouns ending in -о can take -es or -s These are: buffaloesjbuffalos, mosquitoesjmosquitos, volcanoesjvolcanos, zeroesjzeros, tornadoesj tornados etc
f) Ьу changing final -for -fe into -ves:
thief- thieves; half- halves; leaf -leaves; wolf- wolves; knife- knives; life - lives; self- selves; shelf- shelves; calf- calves
Trang 20ln а few cases both -fs and -ves are possiЫe:
scarf- scarfsjscarves
dwarf- dwarfsjdwarves
hoof - hoofsjhooves
g) bychanging the rootvowel:
man- men; woman- women; tooth- teeth; foot- feet; goose- geese; mouse- mice; louse -lice
h) Ьу adding -en or -ren:
ох-oxen; child- children
i) Nouns ending in -th after а long vowel or а diphthong have [oz] in the plural:
baths [ba:oz]; paths lpa:oz]; oaths [;)uoz]
youths [ju:es]; Ьirths [Ьз:еs]
Nouns Used Only in the Singular or in the Plural,
or in Both Singular and Plural
1 Some nouns are used only in the singular form:
weather, advice, air, реасе, knowledge, strength, business, luggage, money, information, progress, news, research, furniture
2 Some nouns are used only in the plural form:
compasses, pyjamas, Ыnoculars, outskirts, congratu/ations, wages, spectacles, scissors, trousers, tongs, contents, proceeds, thanks, sweets, goods, stairs, oats, riches, clothes, cattle, police, people, earnings, premises, surroundings, ashes etc
3 The following nouns have the same form in the singular and in the plural:
sheep- sheep; fish- fish; deer- deer; trout- trout; swine- swine; salmon; grouse- grouse; aircraft- aircraft; means- means; spacecraft- spacecraft; species- species; hovercraft- hovercraft; series- series; corps
19
Trang 21army, audieпce, c/ass, committee, сатрапу, crew, crowd, family, couпcil,
club, jury, headquat1ers, governmeпt, puЬ/ic, team etc
With expressioпs of duratioп, distaпce or mопеу meaпiпg "а whole amouпt"
we use а siпgular verb
Теп miles is а loпg way to ride
Two weeks isп 't /опg to wait
Names, iпdicatiпg пumber, such as: pair, coup/e, dozeп, score, stoпe (мера
веса: 14 англ фунтов= 6,35 кг) апd head have the same form for both the
siпgular апd plural wheп they are preceded Ьу а пumeral: two dozeп of
haпdkerchiefs, five pair of shoes, оп е thousaпd head of cattle
But wheп they are поt preceded Ьу а numeral they take the usual plural form:
to go iп pairs, dozeпs oftimes
5 Nationality nouns ending in -ese, -ss have the same form in the singular and
in the plural:
Chiпese, Japaпese, Pot1uguese, Swiss
We met а Japaпese We met тапу Japaпese оп our holiday
The Plural of the Compound Nouns
Compound nouns form their plural Ьу adding -sj-es:
1} to the second nouп if the compound consists of two nouns:
pocket-knife- pocket-knives; tooth-brush- tooth-brushes;
2) to the noun if the compound consists of an adjective and а noun:
flying рап -flying pans; walking stick- walking sticks;
3) to the first noun if the compound consists of two nouns connected Ьу а
preposition or to the noun if the compound has only one noun:
mother-in-law- mothers-in-law; passer-by- passers-by;
4) at the end of the compound if it does not include any nouns:
forget-me-not- forget-me-nots; grown-up- grown-ups
The Plural of Abbreviations
МР (Memberof Parliament)- MPs [' em'pi:z]
MD (Doctor of Medicine)- MDs [' em' di:z]
Со (Company)- Cos [kэuz]
The plural of abbreviations is sometimes formed in spelling Ьу douЫing а letter:
Ms (manuscript)- MSS
р (page)-РР
Mr (Mister)- Messrs ['mesэz]
Trang 22The Plural of Foreign Words
А number of foreign (particularly Latin and Greek) nouns have their original plural endings
Singular Plural Singular Plural
analysis - analyses -ora [ ;:}f;:}], -е га [ эrd]
Some foreign nouns may have two plural forms: the English plural and the original foreign one:
Nouns with Two Plurals, Each
with а Different Meaning
Some nouns have two plurals used with some difference of meaning:
brother 1) brothers (sons ofthe same mother)
2) brethren [Ъrеопn] (members ofthe same society)
Trang 23cloth 1 ) cloth ( kinds of cloth)
2) clothes ( artic/es of dress)
penny 1) pennies(coins)
2) репсе ( amount of pennies in va/ue)
staff 1) staff ( military staffs, staffs of an institution)
[ sta:f] 2) staves ( sticks)
genius 1 ) geniuses ( men of talent)
[' d,)i:nj<)s] 2) genii ['<trnrar](spirits) index 1) indexes (tаЬ/е of contents)
2) indices ['rndrsi:z](mathematica/terms)
Nouns Having One Meaning in the Singular
and Another in the Plural
compass ( magnetic instrument) - compasses ( mathematica/ instruments) beef ( meat) - beeves ( live animals)
custom ( haЬit)-customs ( import duties) colour(tint)- colours(f/ag)
force ( strength) - forces ( troops) spectacle ( sight) - spectacles ( eyeglasses) work ( action)- works ( plants, factories)
pain(ache)- pains(effort)
damage ( injury)- damages ( compensation for injury)
quarter (fourth part)- quarters (lodgings) paper ( matiиia/)- papers ( documents) scale ( proportion) - scales ( weighing machine) glass ( drinking vesse/)- glasses ( spectacles)
Exercise 1 Give the plural ofthe following пouns
1) man, womaп, tooth, foot, mouse, goose, child;
2) fly, city, toy, key, fox, watch, clock, bus, bush, thiet·, life, wolf, roof, shelf,
Trang 24Exercise 11
Give the plural ofthe following nouns
4) rоош-шаtе, fellow-worker, sister-in-law, woшan-doctor
Give the plural ofthe tollowing nouns
Exercise IV
fellow-student story
storey brush stepшother
Ьее
wife genius
plшal, if any
forget-шe-not, swine, halves, staff, sleeves, grief, шiсе, species, contents, sledges,
bнsiness, knowledge, feet, corps, phenoшena, clothes, bases, sheep,
inforшation, loнse, сору, oxen, shelves
correspondiпg singular ol" plшal form
bшnch of physics 13 Sнch phenomena as we saw last nigl1t are rarely to Ье
Trang 25and ооооооооооооооооооо (lion), but you rare1y see ооооооооооооооооооо (ох),
(sheep), 0000000000000000000 (deer) or 0000000000000000000 (goose), probab1y because these
сап Ье seen commoп1y eпough in the wi1do Each day 1arge 00 о о о о о О о о о о 000 0000 (delivery) offood arrive for 0000000000000000000 (beast) to eato Not expensive items like
оооооооооооооооооооо (potato) and ооооооооооооооооооооо (tomato) - a1t1юugh the
ооооооооооооооооооооо (panda) 1ike оооооооооооооооооооо (bamboo)o The whole fami1y,
Оооооооооооооооооооо (man), 00000000000000000000 (womaп) and 00000000000000000000 (chi1d) can
Exercise Vll
p1ura1, if anyo
shilliпgs а weeko 40 Do you ski?- Used too But 1 haveп't any skis поwо 50 You did not witness any of these phenomena yourse1f, did you? 60 One of the air
were quite sure of themse1ves from the first rehearsalo 110 Three mouthfuls of
souпd iп the darkness was from the streamo
Exercise Vlll
Chaпge the пumber of the nouпs iп bo1d type making all the necessary changeso
Trang 26Exercise IX
Change the nouns in bo1d type into the singu1ar and make other necessary changes
in the valley 5 In the 1ibrary we saw 1ong shelves witl1 books 6 The wolves have been shot 7 The leaves ofthe flower were dark-green 8 The mice were caught
9 The keys to the boxes were 1ost 10 These factories produce furniture
11 Women and children came to the shore 12 Where are the knives? 13 Some
1 Мне нужен ваш совет в этом вопросе 2 Многие из этих советов нам очень пригодились 3 Все сведения были очень важные 4 Мы получили такие же сведения 5 Эти деньги не мои 6 Сколько у тебя денег?- У меня
мало денег; их не хватит на покупку приемника 7 Его знания в этой обла
сти поразили нас 8 Ваших знаний недостаточно, чтобы выполнить эту работу 9 Его работы в области физики широко известны 1 О Какая интересная работа! 11 Какие вы нам принесли новости? 12 Эти новости уже всем известны 13 Какая дождливая погода! 14 В детстве её волосы были
совсем светлые; теперь они потемнели 15 Я могу рассказать вам об очень интересных явлениях, которые наблюдались нашими учеными
1 Фрукты в нашем саду уже созрели 2 Мне очень нравятся эти часы Где вы их купили? 3 Волосы растут быстрее в детстве 4 Какая приятная
новость: к нам приезжают друзья, которых мы давно ждали 5 Каково
содержание этой книги? 6 Знания, приобретенные в молодом возрасте,
остаются в памяти на долгие годы 7 Деньги держат в бумажнике или
кошельке 8 Когда мы спим, наша одежда обычно лежит на стуле около кровати 9 Какие из этих овец будут посланы на выставку? 10 Рыбаки были довольны: они поймали много рыбы 11 Мои попутчики были веселые и интересные люди 12 Возьмите эти ножницы, они острые
13 Мальчик вырос, и брюки стали ему коротки 14 В коробке было шесть пар чулок 15 Его одежда совсем новая
Translate into English
1 Фрукты и овощи полезны для здоровья 2 Молодой специалист всегда следовал советам своих друзей 3 Ваш брат делает большие успехи в
Trang 2710 Твои часы неправильно идут 11 Я не мог войти в сад, так как ворота
были закрыты 12 Товар только что прибыл 13 Содержание его письма было совсем неожиданным 14 Кому принадлежат эти деньги? 15 Какого цвета у нее волосы? J 6 Это твои деньги, не так ли?
Case
English nouns have two cases:
1) the common case with no ending: father, Ьоу, sister;
2) the possessive casewhich is marked bythe apostrophe s( 's): father's, sister's; fathers', sisters'
The possessive case usually shows possession ln the singular it has ending -'s
lt is pronounced [ s] after voiceless consonants: the student's book; and [ z] after voiced consonants and vowels: the dog 's taif, the boy's сар ln the plural it is formed
Ьу -(e)s': the boys' caps, the horses' hoofs
When а proper noun ends in -s, -ss, -х, only apostrophe is added, and the
ending is pronounced [rz]: Burns' ['Ьз:nzrz] poems, Dickens' ['drkrnzrz] nove/s
Sometimes- 's is added, the pronounciation remains [rz]: Burns's poems, Dickens's
The Use of the Possessive Case
1 As а rule, the possessive case is used with nouns denoting persons and
animals: John 's idea, the swal/ow's nest
2 ln the following instances the possessive case may Ье used with names denoting inanimate objects
а With nouns denoting time and distance, such as: minute, moment, hour, day, week, month, year, inch, foot, mile and adverbs: today, yesterdayetc:
today'snewspaper; а month'sabsence; aweek'stime; amile'sdistance;
а night's rest; а few minutes' silence
Trang 28Ь Often with the nouns town, city, country, гivег, wateг, ocean, woг/d, life: the country's сатрs, the wateг's edge, the town 's stгeets
с With the nouns ship, boat, саг: the ship 's сгеw
d With nouns denoting planets sun, тооп, eaгth: the sun 's гауs, the earth 's life
е With the names of newspapers and nouns denoting different kinds of
organizations: the Tгibune 's го/е, the governтent's policy
f With some inanimate nouns in а few set expressions: atdeath's dоог(при смерти); at агт's length (на расстоянии вытянутой руки); fог огdег's
sake (порядка ради); at а stone's thгow (в двух шагах); at one's fingeгs
end (до крайности); fог pity's sake (умоляю вас); а pin's head (ушко иглы) etc
There are some cases when the noun in the possessive case is not followed Ьу the head noun and then it stands for the whole noun phrase lt is used:
1) to avoid repetition: Оиг house is betteг than Магу's
2) after the preposition ofif there is an attribute before the noun modified Ьу the
of-phrase: an o/d fгiend of ту тotheг's, that cousin of ту husband's;
3) to denote places where business is conducted such as: at the butcheг's,
at the bakeг's, at the gгocer's, at the cheтist's or institutions, where the possessive is usually а saint's name: St Paul's (Cathedral), St Jaтes's
(Palace), or places of residence: at Тiтothy's, at ту uncie's, at oid Jolyon's
5( EXERCISES
Use the nouns in bold type in the possessive case
(2 variants) 4 The rights ofwomen 5 The poems ofByron 6 The flat ofmy brother-in-Iaw 7 The interval ofthree hours 8 The rights of ajudge 9 Rights
the boys 4 The streets ofthe town 5 The plays ofShakespeare 6 The voice of
27
Trang 29woтen 16 The fathers of Peter and 1 ohn 17 The роетs of Byron a11d Shelly
Exercise 111
froт the сатр 7 The supper of the chi1drel1 is ready 8 The house of ту
c1oth 11 We visited the village of Mikhailovskoye where Pushkin, the great
sou11d of carriage wheels was heard
Exercise IV
Russia11
тi\k contai11s тоге fat than cows тilk 4 Dickeпs пovels are true to life
gentleтens shoes are оп sale 8 Му youпger bюthers wife is а singer 9 It is
appeared above the hedge
Exercise V
Магу_ old teacher_ ofтusic 3 Those were Nick_ and Kate_ pareпt_ 4 We
froт his pocket and gave it to ту youпger brother_ 9 Esenin_life was short
the huпter_ club were decorated with тountaiп goat_ and wild deer_ horп_
Trang 30Exercise Vl
1 the exercise-books ofthe pupils
4 the days ofthe week
5 work ofthree years
6 theatres of Moscow
8 the crew ofthe ship
9 the best museums of our city
11 the windows of thc room
Exercise Vll
1 Вы знаете телефон Петра? 2 У вас есть карта Европы'? 3 Рабочий день моего брата начинается в 9 часов утра 4 Вы знаете мнение вашего учителя? 5 Муж моей сестры уехал в Москву 6 Они сообщили нам о прибытии такси 7 Учащиеся выполнили советы учителя 8 Я еще не знаю решения директора 9 Мы еще не получили ответы покупателей 10 Сестра моего мужа работает в школе 11 Давай зайдем в кондитерскую
12 Он все ещ~ у твоей матери
Exercise Vlll
Traпs1ate into Eng1ish
1 Лагерь туристов был расположен на берегу реки 2 Они пошли в отдел детской обуви 3 Чье предложение вы поддерживаете- директо
ра или главного инженера? 4 Как зовут сестру вашего друга? 5 У него
не было своего велосипеда, он брал велосипед у соседа 6 Ее глаза были
такие же красивые, как у ее матери 7 Мы с братом купили башмаки в одно и то же время Мои уже износились, а у брата совсем еще новые
8 В санатории nосле обеда необходимо отдыхать в течение часа 9 Мне
ния разошлись Одни предлагали встречать Новый год у Петровых, а другие- у Никитиных 1 О По дороге домой мы куnили большой букет роз- любимые uветы моей матери 11 Население Лондона составляет более восьми миллионов 12 Портрет жены Рембранта- один из ше
::::
! 29
Trang 31ной площадке было четыре двери Я не знала, которая из них была дверь моих друзей 11 Каково ваше мнение о сегодняшнем путешествии?
12 Несколько дней тому назад я встретила старую подругу моей мамы
13 Вчера я отдала мои часы часовшику 14 У меня была пятиминутная беседа с преподавателем литературы 15 Я очень хорошо помню эту улыб
ку Марии! 16 Глаза доктора встретились с его глазами 17 Не люблю я эту новую приятельницу Мэри!
Exercise Х Traпslate iпto Eпglish
вращались от друзей 13 Чье сочинение вам больше нравится: Ника или
Елены? 14 Она одна из двоюродных сестер моего отца 15 Это одна из любимых книг моей мамы 16 Маленький Том улыбался Его улыбка была похожа на улыбку отца 17 У меня нет своего фотоаппарата Это фотоаппарат моего дедушки 18 Филипп был одним из старых школь
ных друзей Джана
Trang 32The Article
The article is used as а deterтiner of the noun There are two articles in the English language:
1) the indefinite article and
2) the definite article
cardinal nuтeral оп е lt is pronounced [ ;J] before consonants and [ ;Jn] before vowels:
а tab/e [ ;J 'terЬl]; ап apple [ ;Jn 'repl]
The definite article the [o;J, or] has developed froт the deтonstrative pronoun
this The definite article is pronounced [o;J] before consonants and [or] before vowel
sounds: the реп [o;J 'pen]; the hour [ar 'au;J]
The use of articles in English is а difficult thing, but graттar rules сап help in this work
The Use of the lndefinite Article
The indefinite article is used:
1) before соттоn nouns in the singular used in а general sense:
1 have а chair iп ту rоот
Note ln the plural по article is used in this case: 1 have chairs iп ту rоот
2) before nouns showing tiтe, nuтber, weight, тeasure, price:
Suттer сотеs оп се а year
1 go to the сiпета опсе а week
1 bought а kilograт of sugar
3) before the words dozeп, huпdred, thousaпd, тillioп etc:
1 waпt а dozeп of eggs
А huпdred studeпts took part iп the festival
4) before the words fewand little in the тeaning of sоте:
There were а few apples iп the tree
1 have а little tiтe for you
5) after the words тапу, such, quite, ratherfollowed Ьу а noun in the singular:
Не is such а clever Ьоу
She is quite а good girl
This is rather а difficult probleт
f-31
Trang 336) after what in exclamatory sentences:
What а nice day!
7) afterthe verbs Ье and have:
She is а teacher
8) before а noun in apposition:
Pete, а sixth-form pupil, is our best chess player
9) it is often used in the sense of every:
The students have two English lessons а week
А child сап understand it
А square has four sides
1 О) after adjectives preceded Ьу so and too:
lt is not so simple а question as it seems
There was too difficult а рrоЬ/ет for the child to solve
11) before MrjMrs/Miss + surnamewhen we referto an unfamiliar person:
There 's а Mr Smith waiting for you
The Use of the lndefinite Article with Nouns in Set Expressions
at а speed of со скоростью
at а time when в то время когда
for а short (long) time в течение короткого (долгого) времени
in а loud (low) voice громким (тихим) голосом
on а large (small) scale в большом (малом) масштабе
to have а good time хорошо провести время
to have а mind to do something намереваться что-либо сделать
Trang 34to fly into а passion прийти в бешенство
to fly into а fury (rage) прийти в ярость
The Use of the Definite Article
The definite article is used:
1) before common nouns in the singular and the plural in а particular sense:
How did you like the film?
1 have got the dictionary, you gave те
The performances at this theatre are of great artistic value
2) before nouns denoting only one thing of its kind:
the Sun, the Мооп, the Earth, the sky, the world, the ground, the cosmos, the universe, the horizon
3) before nouns preceded Ьу an adjective in the superlative degree:
the best pupil, the worst news, the most difficult thing
Note Most used as а determiner followed Ьу а noun, does not take the:
:: -~ J 1 i 1
Most children like animals
4) before family names meaning all its members:
The Petrovs moved to а new f/at
The Smiths left London for the USA
5) before the names of certain buildings which are unique:
the Kremlin, the Hermitage, the British Museum etc
б) before the names of ships, railways, planes etc:
the Aurora, the Great Midland Railway
7) before the names of puЫic institutions, theatres, cinemas, museums, libraries and hotels:
the Bolshoi Theatre, the Russian Museum, the Russian Nationa/ Library
8) before the names of English-language newspapers:
The Тimes, The Guardian
)
v
f-;:.: -<
:::::
,
33
Trang 35Other plural nationalities are used with or without the:
(the) Russians, (the) Germans, (the) ltalians
1 О) before an individual representing the whole class:
The tiger is а fierce fighter
11) before the names of four cardinal points and winds:
the пorth, the south, the west, the east, the пorth wiпd
But when these words show direction, the is not needed:
The expeditioп moved пorth
12) before geographical names of rivers, seas, groups of islands, oceans,
canals, deserts, mountain ranges and the names or nouns with of: the Thames, the North Sea, the Alps, the Pacific Осеап, the Suez
Сапа/, the Sahara Desert, the Bahamas, the Tower of Lопdоп, the Statue of Liberty
1 3) before the names of states wh ich contain either а preposition or the words Kingdom, States, RepuЫic:
the Uпited Кiпgdom of Great Britaiп апd Northern lre/aпd, the Uпited
States of America, the Уетеп Arab RepuЬ/ic
Exceptions /
the Netherlands, the Argentine, the Hague, the Ukraine, the Crimea, the Congo, the Caucasus, the Transvaal
14) before musical instruments, dances:
the рiапо, the taпgo
15) before the words: statioп, shop, ciпema, pub, library, city, village etc.: She weпt to the statioп to see Peter off
16) before the words: morniпg, afternooп, eveпiпg, пight:
1'11 Ье at home iп the eveпiпg
17) before historical referencesjevents:
the Reпaissaпce, the Middle Ages, the Secoпd Wor/d War
18) before adjectives used as plural nouns:
The rich сап 't uпderstaпd the poor
19) before titles: the Queeп, the Priпce The is omitted before titles with proper
names: Qиееп Victoria
Trang 3620) before the nouns preceded Ьу sате and very:
1 should like to read the sате story
Не read the book to the very end
21) before the words: оп/у, last, first (used as adjectives):
Не was the last person to соте
22) after the expressions: one of, sоте of, тапу of, each of, тost of, а/1,
both:
8oth of the girls won а prize
Sоте of the children got а five for а test
The Use of the Definite Article
with Nouns in Set Expressions
the other day на днях
the day after tomorrow послезавтра
bythe dozen (hundred) дюжинами (сотнями)
in the morning утром
in (during) the night ночью
in the afternoon днем
in the evening вечером
what's the time? который час?
the day before yesterday позавчера
on the one hand с одной стороны
on the other hand с другой стороны
it's out of the question об этом и речи быть не может
to tell the time сказать, который час
to pass the time проводить время
to tell the truth говорить правду
to break the record побить рекорд
_:; '"' -
35
Trang 37to ruп the risk подвергаться риску
to play the рiапо (the violiп, the harp) играть на пианино, скрипке, арфе
to take the trouЫe to do somethiпg потрудиться
to keep the house сидеть дома
to keep the bed соблюдать постельный режим
to Ье оп the safe side для верности
totake {seize) smb bythe shouldercxвaтить кого-либо за плечо
to pull smb Ьу the hair тащить кого-либо за волосы
to kiss smb оп the cheek (оп the forehead etc.) поцеловать кого-либо в щеку(в лоб}
to Ье wouпded iп the knee (in the arm etc.) быть раненым в колено (в руку}
just the same точно такой же
bythe Ьу кстати, между прочим
Ьу the way между прочим, кстати
The Absence of the Article
Usually the article is oтitted:
1) before proper поuпs:
Peter, Апп, Магу, Johп
2) before the пouns of тaterial:
/гоп is а very usefuf metaf
Some chi/dreп dоп 't like mifk
3) before abstract nouns:
After the day's work we пeeded rest
4) before соттоn nouns in the plural used in а general sense:
Cows are useful domestic aпimals
5) before the naтes of years, тonths, days:
М у work begiпs оп Мопdау
Last wiпter was rather warm
6) before the naтes of тeals:
Our first те а/ is breakfast
1 usual/y dгiпk tea at supper
7) before the патеs of scieпces and languages:
Mathematics is myfavourite subject
Му sister studies Eпglish
Trang 388) before the names of natural substances:
We сап 't live without oxygen
9) before the names of sports and games:
Figure-skating is popular in this country
1 О) before the names of different kinds of arts:
The exhibltion of Dutch painting is open in the Hermitage
11) before the names of continents:
Asia, Europe, South America
12) before the names of countries and states:
Japan, France, Texas
London is the Ьiggest city in Eng/and
14) before the names of individual mountains, islands and lakes:
Everest, Ben Nevis, Easter lsland, Lake Michigan
15) before the names of holidays:
Easter is а re/igious holiday
16) before the names of planets and constellations:
Mars, Pluto
17) before the names of streets, roads, squares, bridges, parks:
Red Square, Broadway, Piccadil/y Circus, Tower Bridge, Hyde Park
18) before the words: bed, church, col/ege, court, hospital, prison, s.chool, university, when we refer to the purpose for which they exist:
Тот was sent to prison
19) before the words: pubs, restaurants, shops, banks and hotels, which
have the nате of their founder and end in -s or- 's:
L/oyds Bank, John's shop
20) before the names of airports, stations and universities where the first word is usually the name of а person or place:
Cambridge University, Victoria Station, Kennedy Airport
21) before the words: home, fatherjmother when we talk about our own
homejparents:
/'// ask Father about it
22) before cardinal numerals:
Three and four is seven
v
f-~ -<
ш :::
~
37
Trang 39;:: 23) before countaЫe nouns in the singular when they show а post or а rank:
о We '11 discuss the matter with Petrov, dean of our faculty
from time to time время от времени
from morning till night с утра до вечера
from day to day со дня на день
from shop to shop из магазина в магазин
from head to foot с головы до ног
from beginning to end с начала до конца
Ьу land, Ьу sea, Ьу air сушей, морем, по воздуху
bytram (train, boat, bus etc) трамваем (поездом, пароходом, автобусом и т д.)
Ьу air воздушным путем
Ьу water водным путем
Trang 40films 2 We had fish and chips for lunch That doesn't sound very
iпterestiпg lunch 3 1 had very bad night; I didn't sleep wink 4 Не is
)
u f