The coursebook is composed of six chapters: Chapter 1: Introduction to semantics Chapter 2: Word meaning Chapter 3: Dimensions of word meaning Chapter 4: Sense relations Chapter 5: S
INTRODUCTION TO SEMANTICS
S EMANTICS AND ITS SUBJECT MATTER
Semantics, fundamentally, is the exploration of meaning in language As noted by Lyons (1995: viii), linguistic semantics specifically examines how meaning is systematically represented within the vocabulary and grammar of natural languages.
The classification of meaning into two types—literal and non-literal—is essential in understanding language Literal meaning, which is the focus of semantics, depicts a specific state of affairs or situation in a possible world In contrast, non-literal meaning, emphasized in pragmatics, conveys the intentions and interpretations of the speaker and listener during a communication event.
The term "journey" traditionally signifies the act of traveling from one location to another, often by vehicle However, in a broader context, it encapsulates the lifelong process of accumulating knowledge and experiences.
As Frawley (1992) states, linguistic semantics is the study of literal, decontextualized, grammatical meaning His viewpoint echoes with Lyon’s while adding the grammar and removing the context
Philosophers such as Austin, Grice, and Wittgenstein have extensively explored the concept of meaning It can be understood as the intersection of three key elements: language, mind, and the world, as illustrated in Figure 1-1.
The relationships between language, the mind, and the world are essential for understanding the meaning of language The connection between the mind and the world explores aspects such as perception, actions, and the mind's physical makeup, focusing on how the mind interprets the world Additionally, the mind-language connection highlights the role of language in expressing thoughts and intentions about our experiences and surroundings.
Understanding language is a cognitive process that gives meaning to communication This mental activity is essential for creating meaningful language, as it allows the mind to invest significance into words Furthermore, the relationship between language and the world emphasizes that language serves as the medium through which we articulate and interpret reality.
The term "university" gains meaning through its representation in language, as a physical building or educational institution in the world, and its recognition in the mind when articulated Effective communication hinges on the connection between language, the world, and mental understanding; if this link is absent, questions like "What does it mean?" arise A listener may struggle to grasp a word's meaning, such as "heureusement," if they cannot associate it with a tangible item or abstract concept.
Semantics is the systematic study of meaning in language, focusing on how words, sentences, and utterances convey meaning It explores the relationships between these linguistic units, illustrating how a single word can have multiple meanings For instance, the term "watch" can function as a verb meaning to look at something for a duration or as a noun referring to a small clock worn on the wrist.
T HEORIES OF MEANING
The referential theory, also known as the denotational theory, posits that the meaning of an expression is determined by what it refers to or denotes For instance, the term "student" signifies either the broader category of students or the essential characteristics that all students possess.
The ideational or mentalist theory posits that the meaning of an expression is rooted in the ideas or concepts it evokes in the minds of individuals who comprehend it.
The semiotic triangle illustrates the relationship between a symbol (or word) and its referent, emphasizing that this connection is mediated by concepts In this conceptual framework, meaning arises from an indirect association between the symbol and the referent.
The behaviorist theory posits that the meaning of an expression is determined by the stimulus that triggers it, the response it generates, or a combination of both during specific instances of utterance.
1.2.4 The meaning-is-use theory
The theory integrates J Austin and Searle’s speech act theory with Wittgenstein’s theory of meaning, positing that the meaning of an expression is defined by its use in language Speech acts can serve multiple functions, highlighting the dynamic nature of communication.
(i) A locutionary act is actually the act of making an utterance according to the rules of a given language
(ii) An illocutionary act assigns the speaker’s intended meaning or intend to the utterance he or she make
(iii) A perlocutionary act is the effect of saying
E.g There is a snake in the corner
The meaning of an expression is, if it has one, determined by the verification of the sentences, or propositions, containing it
The meaning of a sentence depends on how we establish the truth (verification condition)
The meaning of an expression is defined by its role in establishing the truth conditions of the sentence it appears in Central to this theory is the idea that a sentence's meaning is determined by the conditions that must be met for it to be considered true Furthermore, the meanings of individual components within a sentence are derived from their contributions to these truth conditions.
The theory requires that there exists a person named John, and he is not married.
S EMANTICS PROPERTIES
Word meaning can be subdivided into different parts called semantic properties They can be used to define the meanings of the word This method is called “componential method”
S.Pro dog puppy cat kitten hen chick old + - + - + - young - + - + - + biped - - - - + + quadruped + + + + - - winged - - - - + +
Words can possess various semantic properties, and a single semantic feature may contribute to the meanings of multiple words These properties play a crucial role in defining a word's meaning.
Semantic properties can be subdivided into two types:
(i) Distinguisher: reflect different senses among the words
(ii) Marker: reflect the same senses among the words
In the example above, “biped” is the marker for both “hen” and “chick”, but
“young/old” is the distinguisher.
C OMPONENTS OF WORD MEANING
Denotation or denotative/ denotational meaning is the ability to denote things or concepts It is described in terms of a set of semantic properties which serve to identify a particular concept
Denotation can be classified into two types
(i) Conceptual meaning (significant denotation): denotes a concept or an abstract thing For example, the word “dog” contains a set of semantic meanings like animated, quadruped, domesticated, etc
(ii) Referential meaning (demonstrative meaning): denotes individual objects
The term "dog" can convey different meanings depending on context, as illustrated in the sentences, "I want to have a dog," which refers to any dog in a general sense, and "My dog is so cute," which specifies a particular dog with distinct characteristics.
Connotation refers to the associations and emotional undertones that words acquire based on their context and usage It reflects the speaker's attitude and feelings towards the subject The pragmatic communicative value of a word is shaped by factors such as the time, place, manner, and intention behind its use, highlighting the importance of context in understanding meaning.
They can be classified into different categories
Stylistic connotation is influenced by the context in which a word is used, including social circumstances such as formal, familiar, or colloquial settings It also reflects the social relationship between speakers, whether polite or rough, and the purpose of communication, which can range from learned and poetic to official.
E.g - horse # steed (literary - a horse train for riding)
- help # assist (formal - provide specialised support)
- house # residence (formal - place to live temporarily)
- policeman # cop (informal/slang of policeman)
Emotional connotation, also known as affective connotation, arises from a word's repeated use in emotionally charged contexts or through its association with emotionally significant referents in its denotative meaning.
E.g - look : watch/ see sb/st intentionally
- glare : to look to challenge sb
- stare : to look to threaten sb
- gaze : to look to express emotion or affection
(iii) Evaluative connotation expresses approval or disapproval
(iv) Intensifying connotation (intensity) is expressive and emphatic
- wonderful, magnificent, gorgeous, splendid, superb
Structural meaning is the meaning a word acquires by virtue of its membership in a system or a set
Structural meaning can be classified into four types
(i) Reflected meaning: the meaning which arises in cases of multiple conceptual meanings when one sense of the word forms part of our response to another sense
E.g - Uncle Ho: The pioneer of the Vietnam Communist Party
The Father of Vietnamese people
(reflected meaning: the personality or the role of Uncle Ho)
- Reagan: The 40 th President of U.S and the Great Communicator
(reflected meaning: the talent of Reagan)
(ii) Collocative meaning: the association a word acquires on account of the meaning of the word which tends to occur in its environment
E.g - pretty/beautiful + girl, woman, lady handsome/ good-looking + boy, man, gentleman
In some cases, the collocation of a “handsome woman” can be see and it refers to a decent and strong woman
(iii) Associative meaning: is the meaning which arises because of its association with other meanings
(iv) Thematic meaning: the kind of meaning which is communicated by the way in which a speaker or writer organizes the messages in terms of ordering, focusing or emphasizing
E.g - The man told me this story v.s That is the man who told me this story
- She grows a lot of flowers in the garden v.s In the garden, she grows a lot of flowers v.s A lot of flowers are grown in the garden
Categorical meaning is one part of grammatical meaning which words deprive from being a member of one category rather than another
Words fall into such categories as nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, interjections, determiners, vocatives, conjunction, etc
In summary, a word is used most appropriately when the user can capture its four components of meaning well
Uncle Ho is the Father of the Vietnamese people
The term "Father" signifies Uncle Ho as an individual, conveying deep respect and admiration It highlights his pivotal role in the lives of the Vietnamese people, illustrating his significance in their history and culture Additionally, it categorizes him as a noun, emphasizing his identity and status within the nation.
L EXICAL MEANING AND GRAMMATICAL MEANING
Every word combines lexical and grammatical meaning There are distinctions between lexical meaning and grammatical meaning
Lexical meaning refers to the specific meaning of each word within a language system, uniting the various forms of a single word In contrast, grammatical meaning serves to differentiate between these forms.
Grammatical meaning pertains to how relationships between words are expressed in speech, focusing on the contrasting features of their arrangements This form of meaning is characterized by its abstract and generalized nature.
Different forms of the word will share the same lexical meaning, but different grammatical meanings
Different words may share the same grammatical meanings but different lexical meanings
The interplay between grammar and lexicon highlights that each relies on the other; every grammar system is built upon a foundation of vocabulary, while every lexicon is structured by grammatical rules This relationship illustrates how grammar serves to shape the functioning of the lexicon, facilitating effective communication and enhancing cognitive processes.
S ENTENCE AND UTTERANCE MEANING
A sentence is to an utterance what language is to speech; an utterance represents a specific instance of spoken or written communication, while a sentence is a structured arrangement of words that adheres to grammatical rules.
Sentence meaning refers to the inherent significance of a sentence, independent of any specific context or situation In contrast, utterance meaning pertains to the intended message conveyed by a speaker during a particular interaction.
Sentence meaning: the speaker shows a negative feeling to the listener Utterance meaning: (between a couple) I love you, etc.
EXERCISES
Exercise 1: Write the definition for the following terms
Ngữ nghĩa học ngôn ngữ
Liên hệ giữa trí não và thế giới
Liên hệ giữa trí não và ngôn ngữ
Distinguisher Yếu tố phân biệt
Marker Yếu tố xác định
Exercise 2: Discuss with your partner the semantic properties of the following words
Exercise 3: Discuss with your partner about the meaning of the following words in terms of their four components of meaning
Word Denotation Connotation Structure Category
Home - a place where someone lives in, especially with their family
Exercise 4: Decide whether the underlined word in the following sentences has literal or non-literal meaning
1 Time flies and my old neighbour became a beautiful lady
2 When you hear someone knocking at the door at night, you must be careful
3 She broke my heart when she ended the relationship for no reason
Exercise 5: Give two examples to illustrate the sentence meaning and utterance meaning of each
Exercise 6: Basing on the definition of meaning, imagine you are a teacher or interpreter, what implication can you draw out when you explain the meaning of a new word to the hearer? Illustrate your explanation with examples
WORD MEANING
WORDS AS MEANINGFUL UNITS
Words, phrases, and sentences in language carry specific meanings, with sentences formed by the combination of these elements Each word serves as the smallest meaningful unit that can stand alone, while composite expressions blend form and meaning, whether spoken or written.
MEANING RELATIONS
Homonymy occurs when distinct words unintentionally share the same form, leading to identical phonetic or graphic representations These homonyms can create ambiguity in communication, making it essential to interpret them within their specific contexts for clarity.
E.g: I can can a can (same phonetic forms)
I can’t stand the wait/ I can’t stand the weight (same graphic form) Homonyms can be classified in terms of two ways
(i) According to the sound form, homonyms can be absolute or partial
Absolute/ full/ perfect homonyms should satisfy the following three conditions:
❖ they will be unrelated in meaning;
❖ all their forms will be identical;
❖ the identical forms will be grammatically equivalent
E.g : bank: the riverside or financial institution sole: a fish or bottom of foot or shoe bark: outer part of a tree or noise made by a dog
Partial homonyms include homophones, which sound the same but have different meanings, such as "air" and "hair," as well as "our" and "hour." Additionally, they encompass homographs, which are spelled identically but differ in meaning, like "wind" (noun, a current of air) and "wind" (verb, to wind a clock) Other examples include "row" (noun and verb), "bow" (noun and verb), and "lead" (noun and verb).
Homonyms can be categorized into lexical and grammatical types Lexical homonyms are words that share the same part of speech but have distinct meanings, with no semantic connection between them.
E.g.: saw: saw the log into pieces or “saw him walking down the street.” spring: metal spring, the spring of 2000
Grammatical homonyms are words of different parts of speech
E.g.: work(n) – work(v), light(n) – light(adj) – light(v)
Polysemy refers to a linguistic phenomenon where a single word possesses multiple related meanings, a common characteristic of many English words Unlike speech, where a word typically conveys a singular meaning, polysemy is an aspect of language itself.
I class myself as an ordinary working person
Homonymy and polysemy are interconnected linguistic concepts, often discussed together due to their shared characteristic of multiple meanings linked to the same word form The key distinction lies in semantic relatedness: polysemy occurs when the different meanings are perceived as related, while homonymy applies when the meanings are entirely unrelated Understanding this differentiation is essential for grasping the complexities of language semantics.
Etymology, or the study of word origins, plays a significant role in understanding how native speakers perceive certain words For instance, the words "pupil" (referring to the eye) and "pupil" (referring to a student) share a common origin, making them polysemic by etymological standards However, the meanings are so distinct that most people intuitively categorize them as separate lexical items, essentially treating them as homonyms.
Tip: in the dictionary, if two words are on two separated parts, they are homonyms
1 Bank: institution offering services, such as the safekeeping and lending of money
2 bank: raised mass of earth
If the word is explained as followed, it is a polysemic word
Bank: 1 raised mass of earth.2 sloping ground at the side of the river
Synonymy refers to the occurrence of words within the same part of speech that have similar, yet not identical meanings These words are known as synonyms and can share either denotational or connotational meanings While synonyms may have comparable definitions, they can vary in their denotative and connotative implications.
- die vs pass away vs kick the bucket (# connotation)
- misfortune vs accident vs catastrophe (# denotation)
- Nice to see you vs Pleased to meet you
Synonyms can be classified into three types: absolute synonyms, partial synonyms and near synonyms:
Two (or more) expressions are absolute synonyms if, and only if, they satisfy the following three conditions:
(i) All their meanings are identical;
(ii) They are synonymous in all contexts;
(iii) They are semantically equivalent (like (i)) on all dimensions of meanings and descriptive and non-descriptive
The case is extremely rare
Partial synonyms share similar meanings in certain contexts but differ in connotation For instance, while we can use "big" and "large" interchangeably when describing a house, we would say "a big mistake" instead of "a large mistake."
Near synonyms differ in terms of denotation
E.g.: - mist: large number of tiny drops of water in the air, which make it difficult to see very far fog: a mass of droplets of condensed water vapour suspended in the air, often greatly reducing visibility,
- gift: a special ability or power given to someone, often by a higher power talent: a natural ability or aptitude for something
English contains approximately 8,000 synonymic groups, which are collections of synonyms Within each group, there is often a "synonymic dominant," a general and neutral term that typically belongs to the core vocabulary of the language.
E.g.: big, huge, enormous, titanic, etc hope, expectation, anticipation leave, depart, quit, retire, clear out
Other way to classify synonyms make them seven types: absolute synonyms, semantic synonyms, stylistic synonyms, semantic-stylistic synonyms, phraseological synonyms, territorial synonyms and euphemism
(i) Absolute synonyms: rare, if exist, often terms which are devoid of connotations or emotional colouring
E.g.: semantics vs semasiology; nouns vs substantive; functional affix/ flexion/ inflexion
(ii) Semantic synonyms: differ in terms of their denotation
E.g.: look (turn one’s eyes in a particular direction in order to see) glance (a quick and stolen look)
(iii) Stylistic synonyms: differ in terms of their connotation
E.g.: policeman-bobby (colloq.)-cop (slang) father – dad (colloq.) – daddy (colloq., emotional) fellow – chap (colloq)– lad begin – commerce (lit., official)
(iv) Semantic-stylistic synonyms: popular, differ in both denotation and connotation
E.g.: to reduce - to ax - to cut back betrayal - sell out house - shack - slum - pad to dismiss - to sack - to fire - to layoff
(v) Phraseological synonyms: differ in collocation
(foreign) language- (mother) tongue lift (or raise a finger) – raise (a question)
(vi) Territorial synonyms: used in different regions
E.g.: fall (America) – autumn (Britain) sidewalk (America) – pavement (Britain)
(vii) Euphemisms: inoffensive expressions substitute for offensive or upsetting ones
E.g.: redundant for unemployed/be out of work the underprivileged for the poor die for be no more/ be gone, lose one’s life/breathe one’s last/joint the silent majority
WC for the restroom/bathroom
Antonymy refers to the relationship between words that have opposing meanings, known as antonyms These words share nearly all semantic properties but differ in one key aspect Antonyms belong to the same semantic field and exhibit similar distribution patterns within language.
E.g.: married >< single; young >< old; good > distant and uncaring excited cool: neither warm nor not very cold => calm and not easily large: big => noble
There are different types of of similarities
(i) Similarity of shape a person’s head head of the cabbage a person’s teeth teeth of the saw
E.g midget (short) jumbo (big) elephantine (huge)
E.g mouth of the river tail of the procession foot of the mountain
E.g worm (v) : She is worming a shirt/ carpet caterpillar of the tank
E.g finger of the instrument key to success hand of the clock
E.g orange rose : Her cheek is rose violet
(vii) Similarity of behaviour or character
Othello – a jealous person fox – a cunning person snake – a spiteful person bear – a rude person bee/ beaver – a hard-working person
Metaphors originate from various sources, with three prominent categories being body parts such as head, hand, leg, and finger; animal names like bee, fox, and snake; and mental concepts including phrases like catch an idea, take a hint, and gain success.
Metaphor is classified into three types
(i) Living metaphor (poetic, individual metaphor)
Living metaphor is the case in which the word has unusual metaphorical sense or it is used by an individual
E.g - She lent wings to his imagination
- Beauty is a flower that wrinkles with devour
(ii) Faded metaphor (Trite metaphor)
Faded metaphor mentions the case in which the word loses its freshness due to long and traditional use
Dead metaphor is the case in which the word have lost its direct meaning and are used only figuratively
E.g - to ponder (v) (weigh) : meditate, consider carefully
- capital (n) (head) : capital city /capital punishment
Metaphor and simile are both essential forms of figurative language used for comparison While metaphor involves a hidden or indirect comparison, simile makes a direct comparison using words like "like" or "as." Understanding the distinction between these two techniques enhances the richness of language and expression.
She is like a bookworm (Simile)
She is as hardworking as a bee
Metonymy is a figure of speech where a word or phrase is substituted with another that is closely related, based on their association This linguistic device involves transferring meaning from one object to another, highlighting the connection between concepts.
He can drink 5 glasses at a time
(He can drink the liquid in the glass)
(a T-shirt refers to the person who wears the T-shirt.)
The substitution can be place-for-institution, thing-for-perception, object- for-possessor, part-for-hold, place-for-event, etc
E.g The White House objected to the plan
There goes my knee (pain in the knee)
The crown was angry with the PM’s proposal
We don’t hire long hair
Watergate strikes at the heart of the American political system
Metonymy are in the following cases:
(i) Names of containers used to refer the things contained in them
E.g glass : He has drunk two glasses bottle kettle can bowl dish plate
(ii) Names of parts of human body used as symbols
E.g have a good ear : She has a good ear for music clever head kind heart have a good eye have a big mouth have a heart
(iii) Concrete things used to refer to the abstract ones
E.g from the cradle to the grave
He has won the chair in the White House
(iv) Materials used to refer to the things made of them
E.g canvas : set up a canvas glass brass stone : gold silver
(v) Names of the authors used to refer to the works composed by them
(vi) Part used to refer to the whole thing and vice versa
E.g We live under the same roof
He is following a white shirt
Hyperbole is the exaggerated statement which is not meant to be understood literally The effect of hyperbole is powerful
Litotes is really the understatement It is defined as expressing something in the affirmative by the negative of its contrary
E.g bad : not very good brave : not cowardly very silly : rather unwise ugly : not very beautiful short : not very tall old : not very modern
It is taken from rhetoric What it does is to express the meaning by words of the opposite senses
E.g You have got us into a nice mess (bad)
He is very tall (rather short)
He is so intelligent (rather silly)
He is so handsome (not handsome at all)
Euphemism is the use of the milder expression for something unpleasant E.g die - pass away
- join the majority liar - the person who does not always strictly tell the truth drunken - intoxicated
Euphemism is used to avoid hurt or unpleasant feeling, or using social taboos
E.g Speak of the devil and he will appear devil : the black one, the evil one, dickens, deuce, Old Nick
EXERCISES
Exercise 1: Write the definition for the following terms
Naming theory Thuyết đặt tên
Metaphor Phép/từ ẩn dụ
Exercise 2: Find out the referent of the underlined expression a Mr Brown was a clever (1) man b The Dutch data are interesting for a number of reasons Since (2) they are cross-classify the German data, (3) they cast doubt on the assumption that language directly reflects independent cognitive distinctions c The principle of compositionality says that the meaning of an expression is determined by the meaning of (4) its parts The previous lecture provided a first sketch of how (5) this might work d Sense is sometimes distinguished from meaning (6) The former is the realization of the meaning in speech whereas (7) the latter is seen as part of the language system e In it broad sense, semantic is the study of meaning and linguistic semantics is the study of meaning as expressed by the words, phrases and sentences of human languages It is, however, more usual within linguistics to interpret (8) the term more narrowly, as concerning the study of (9) those aspects of meaning encoded in linguistic expressions that are independent of (10) their use on particular occasions by particular individuals within a particular speech community
Exercise 3: Fill into the blank with one best word a A word or a sentence is (1) when it has more than one sense b Metaphor is the transference of meaning/ name based on the (2) between two things or objects It can be of shape, position, movement, character, size, function or (3) Metaphorical transference is the source of (4) c While (5) is the overstatement, (6) is really the understatement, using the negative of a word to talk about its opposite; (7) used the good word to imply the opposite meaning; and euphemism uses the (8) expression for something unpleasant
Exercise 4 Distinguish between denotation and reference
Exercise 5 Distinguish between sense and reference
Exercise 6 Identify and comment on the types of transference in the following sentences
1 We must roll up our sleeves
2 Will the mature economies have the nerve to stay the course of the second industrial revolution?
3 Your goal of becoming a teacher is a worthy one With all the crosscurrents in society today that has not been easy
3 That advice has been a big help to me when troubles have come – and they do come
4 Has there been a price for going back to work after you were born? – Yes, and I paid for the price because I want to work
5 But I rely on the bond between us - unconditional love
6 The red-hot centre of official Washington was asking her to stay and gold- plated law firms in New York City and Chicago were were beckoning her to come back
7 Both believe that education is the key to good life
8 The Clinton bend of yin and yang brought about what may be the couple’s most lasting legacy to the country
Exercise 7 Explain what the speaker means when using euphemisim
1 He’s between jobs these days
2 She is just big-boned and nothing else
3 My dad is a senior citizen
4 The under-privileged should be given more opportunities
5 The soldiers rested in peace
Exercise 8 Translate the following paragraph into Vietnamese, pointing out types of meaning transference in the sentence
Mr Dursley, the director of Grunnings, a drill manufacturing company, was a large, stout man with a prominent moustache and minimal neck In contrast, Mrs Dursley was thin and blonde, possessing an elongated neck that she often used to spy on their neighbors They had a son named Dudley, whom they regarded as the finest boy in existence.
(Extract from Harry Porter and the Philosopher’s Stone, p.7)
SENSE RELATIONS
SUBSTITUTIONAL AND COMBINATORIAL RELATIONS
Sense relations may be of two types: substitutional and combinatorial which roughly correspond to the two Saussurean terms paradigmatic and syntacmatic
Substitutional relations are those existing between members of the same grammatical category since they are interchangeable
E.g.: generous / handsome / rich/ open-minded
The man is generous handsome rich
Combinatorial relations normally hold between items of different grammatical categories, for example adjectives which co-occur with nouns
There is a number of words which tend to co-occur with others This type of combinatorial relation is called collocational relation
OTHER TYPES OF SENSE RELATIONS
The relation of hyponymy is often defined in terms of inclusion One is hyponym, the other is superordinate
“Animal” is the superordinate and “horse” is the hyponym of “animal”
A hyponym refers to a term with a specific meaning that falls under a broader category, known as the superordinate In this relationship, the superordinate encompasses a wider range of meanings, which includes the more specific hyponym.
The set of terms which are hyponyms of the same superordinate term are called co-hyponyms For example, horse, dog, cat are co-hyponyms
Hyponymic relations make substitution possible
E.g: I bought a Honda yesterday The motor is not expensive
They are more frequently found in nouns than other word classes
To characterize hyponymy intensionally, we will say that if X is a hyponym of
Y, then the semantic content of Y is proper sub-part of the semantic content of
Hyponymy is a transitive relation If X is a hyponym of Y and Y is a hyponym of Z, X is the hyponym of Z
E.g.: spaniel - dog spaniel - animal dog - animal
Synonymy is the special case of hyponymy, a symmetrical hyponymy
If X is a hyponym of Y and Y is a hyponym of X, then X and Y are hyponyms of each other Hyponymy, on the other hand, involves inclusion This relationship is asymmetrical
Meronymy, also known as the part-whole relationship, involves discrete referents where one referent is a part (meronym) of another (holonym) This relationship is inherently transitive; if X is a part of Y, and Y is a part of Z, then X can be described as a part of Z.
E.g Nail– finger – Hand: nail is part of the hand
Meronymy and hyponymy are similar in hierarchical relationship For example, a rose is a kind of flower; an arm is a part of the body, not a kind of the body
Meronym is name of the part while holonym is name of the whole
A semantic field is a network of interconnected words defined by their differences and oppositions The meaning of a word is established in relation to the values of surrounding or contrasting terms Thus, a semantic field represents a collection of related meanings grounded in a broader conceptual spectrum.
E.g Colour terms: red, blue, green …
The semantic fields has the following features
The members of the field are incompatible For example, an animal cannot be referred to as a lion and an elephant
In various fields, certain terms serve as dominant references for related subsystems For instance, the color red acts as the dominant term for shades such as scarlet, orange, crimson, and rose These terms differ across four key aspects: frequency of use, underlying motivation, whether they are simple or compound in nature, and their stylistic connotations.
Words can be categorized thematically or ideographically Thematic grouping includes words of the same part of speech that relate to a specific conceptual field, such as terms associated with the human body, colors, or military jargon Ideographic grouping, on the other hand, encompasses words from different parts of speech that are thematically connected, such as verbs, nouns, and adjectives used to describe a plan or a city.
Paraphrase is the relationship where two propositions have the same truth conditions
E.g The police chased the burglar (a)
The burglar was chased by the police (b) (b) is the paraphrase of (a)
Contradiction is a relationship where a proposition must be false because of the meanings of the words involved
Paraphrases can be defined in terms of entailment If sentence x entails sentence y and sentence y entails sentence x, then x and y are paraphrases of each other
E.g.: It seems that she is a good boss (c)
She seems to be a good boss (d)
On the other hand, a sentence that is false by virtue of the senses of the words that occur in it expresses a contradiction
E.g He is both married and single
In the above sentence, “married” and “single” are incompatible
Lexical gap refers to the absence of a lexeme or a word at a particular place in the structure of a lexical field
In the hierarchical structure of lexical categories, there exists a notable gap where we would anticipate a superordinate term for "teacher" and "pupil." Similarly, while we have specific terms like "carcass" for a dead animal and "corpse" for a deceased human, there is no equivalent lexeme for a dead tree.
The terms marking or markedness is formal as it is based on the presence or absence of some particular element of form
E.g hat: unmarked hats: marked (marked to show the opposition, the plural form)
Formal marking is associated with a difference in distribution, where the formally marked element is typically more limited in its occurrence compared to the formally unmarked counterpart This concept of formal marking extends beyond grammar, encompassing aspects such as tense, voice, and mood, as well as derivation.
Marking may be not only grammatical as above but also semantic, where the unmarked member has a more general sense
E.g heavy : unmarked (underlying basis of the opposition) light: marked
ENTAILMENT AND THE TRUTH CONDITION
Entailment refers to a logical relationship between two propositions, where the truth of one proposition guarantees the truth of the other due to the meanings of the words used.
Entailment is a logical relationship between two sentences such that the truth of the second sentence necessarily follows from the truth of the first E.g Everyone passed the examination (a)
No one failed the examination (b)
In the above example, (a) everyone passed the examination entails (b) no one failed to pass the examination
Sentences can be classified as necessarily true or contingently true A necessarily true sentence, also known as an analytically true statement, is one that holds true in all possible circumstances or is true by virtue of linguistic meaning alone.
A contingently true sentence (synthetically true one) is one whose truth value might have been, or might be, different in other circumstances (possible worlds)
E.g.: The Magna Carta was signed in 1215
We understand it but we may not know whether it is true or false because it depends on our knowledge of the sentence meaning and history of the world
Thus, part of the meaning of the sentence is knowledge of its “truth conditions”, the conditions under which a sentence can be true or false
E.g The President believes that America has won the peace
This sentence is true if someone referred to as president does believe the statement, and it is false if he does not
The synthetic sentences are more informative than analytic counterpart
E.g She’s beautiful vs She’s a girl
Exercise 1: Write the definition for the following terms
4 hyponymy Quan hệ bao trùm
Co-hyponym Từ con đồng đẳng
Meronymy Quan hệ tổng thể-bộ phận
10 entailment Quan hệ kéo theo
Exercise 2: Match the terms with their definitions
1 Sense relation a is a system of networks held together by differences, oppositions and values
2 Substitutional relations b is one that is true in all possible circumstances or by virtue of linguistic alone
3 Combinatorial relations c is the relationship where two propositions have the same truth conditions
4 Meronymy or part-whole relation d normally hold between items of different grammatical categories, for example adjectives which co-occur with nouns
5 A semantic field e is one whose truth value might have been, or might be, different in other circumstances (possible worlds)
6 Paraphrase f is defined as a logical relationship that applies between two propositions, where the truth of one implies the truth of the other because of the meanings of the words involved
7 Lexical gap g are those existing between members of the same grammatical category since they are interchangeable
8 Entailment h is the one which holds between discrete referents, one is meronym, another is holonym
(analytically true one) i refers to the absence of a lexeme or a word at a particular place in the structure of a lexical field
10 A contingently true sentence (synthetically true one) j the semantic relationships which words contract with each other within the linguistic system on the basis of their sense
Exercise 3 Look at the following and fill in the missing hyponyms or the superordinate
Exercise 4 List some meronyms of the following items:
Exercise 5 Look at the following sentences and identify which of them will qualify as entailments
1 John cooked an egg entails John boiled an egg
2 John boiled an egg entails John cooked an egg
3 I saw a boy entails I saw a person
4 That was an expensive meal entails That was an expensive hot-dog
5 John stole a car entails John took a car
6 His speech disturbed me entails He speech deeply disturbed me
7 We went in a small vehicle entails We went in a small bus
8 We passed the exam entails We got mark 10
Exercise 6 Identify which of the following sentences will be analytically or synthetically true
4 The boy is his own father’s son
6 If it breaks it breaks
7 Society has no idea to help old people who live alone
8 The scientists know the job of every gene
9 Cats never live more than 20 years
Exercise 7 Below are some pairs of sentences In each pair assume that the first sentence is true Then decide what we know about the second Mind that the pair have the same subject/topic If the first is true, must the second to be true? (No) Or does the truth of the first tell us anything about the truth of the second? (Y)
1 a JKN is married to Jacqueline b JKN is Jacqueline’s husband
2 a Tom is not married b Tom is a bachelor
3 a The tea is too cold to drink b The tea is not warm enough to drink
4 a My wife likes to play tennis b My wife is fond of playing tennis
5 a My wife has stopped drinking b My wife used to drink
6 a Higher in education in the US is more expensive than that in Australia b Higher education in the US costs more than that in Australia
7 a My friend has lost his paintings in the fire b My friend has paintings (T-presupposition)
8 a The city council has decided to go ahead with the plan to build a new car park b The council has the plan (T-presupposition)
SENTENCE MEANING
INTRODUCTION
The sentence is considered the largest syntactic unit due to its widespread recognition and significance in language structure In simple sentences, there is no clear distinction between clauses and sentences Additionally, the clauses in composite sentences can be formed by embedding simple sentences into complex structures or by conjoining them in compound formats.
The meaning of a sentence transcends the mere combination of individual word meanings Instead, it is influenced by the functions of the words used, the modality expressed, and the structural meaning conveyed through the organization of those words within the sentence.
Several distinct theories contribute to understanding sentence and utterance meaning, with four primary theories highlighted: (i) denotational theory, (ii) conceptualist theory, (iii) pragmatic theory, and (iv) cognitive theory These theories overlap, and the first two are particularly useful for determining word meanings.
Compositionality is fundamental to the relationship between syntax and semantics, as it enables language users to comprehend sentences by understanding their structural components A proficient English speaker can easily identify the underlying structure of sentences, which is essential for effective communication.
The secretary is working on the company report
Language possesses an extraordinary ability to convey an infinite array of thoughts using just a few syllables As highlighted by Glottlob Frege (1923), even a novel idea can be articulated in a way that makes it comprehensible to others This remarkable feat relies on our capacity to identify components of a thought that align with the elements of a sentence, allowing the sentence's structure to mirror the underlying thought's organization.
Understanding a sentence means understanding the parts and the way they are put together In other words, understanding a sentence means understanding the interface between syntax and semantic
Fromkin (2000) stated that “compositionality means the meaning of the sentence is determined by the meanings of its parts and by the way in which those parts are assembled”
The compositional approach in linguistics focuses on two key aspects: first, it examines the meanings of fundamental language elements such as words and morphemes; second, it explores how the meanings of more complex expressions, including phrases and sentences, are constructed from the meanings of these individual components.
Compositionality suggests a number of meanings residing in the sentence: structural, textual, representational/ interpersonal/modality.
COMPONENTS OF SENTENCE MEANING
5.3.1 Halliday’s components of sentence meaning
According to Halliday, the meaning of a sentence can be seen from three aspects: representational meaning, interpersonal meaning and textual meaning
Logical Halliday’s sentence meaning: Interpersonal
E.g.: When Bill Gates was in the sixth grade, his parents decided he needed counseling He was at war with his mother, an outgoing woman who haboured the belief that he should do what she told him
Experiential actors: Bill Gates, parents, mother; actions: decide, tell, do, habour; states: is at war; place: at sixth grade; qualities: outgoing; objects: belies, counseling, etc
Interpersonal should, factual (denoted by the mood)
Textual Bill Gates, he, his, parents
The first type of meaning as the representation of the world
Processes (actions, events, states, relations)
Experiential Participants (persons, objects, abstractions)
Circumstances (time, place, manner, reasons, conditions, concession, results)
The logical function (of meaning) relates ideas to each other on an equal or subordinate basis
I came, I saw, and I conquered (coordination) What he said was a nonsense (subordination)
The experiential function serves to convey ideas through processes, participants, and circumstances, all of which reflect our world This highlights the significant connection between grammar and semantics.
Mary kissed the dog in the kitchen
*Process realized by the verb: kissed
*Participants realized by the noun phrases: Mary, the dog
*Circumstance realized by the prepositional phrase: in the kitchen
The relationships between processes, participants, and circumstances are termed transitivity network, which means “going through” or “extending to another entity”
Material (actor + goal) She kicked the dog
Mental (senser/ experiencer + phenomenon/ experienced)
(i) perception (seeing, hearing, etc.) (ii) affection (liking, fearing, etc.) (iii) cognition (thinking, knowing, etc.) Relational (i) identification (identified + identifier)
The chairman is my brother
Behavioral (behaver + act of behaving) She smiled
(i) processes of consciousness: look, watch, listen, etc (ii) verbal processes: chatter, grumble, talk, etc
(iii) psychological processes: cry, laugh, smile, etc
Bodily postures and pastimes encompass activities such as singing, dancing, and sitting In verbal communication, the structure typically includes a sayer, a goal, and verbiage, as illustrated by the statement, "He said it loud to everyone." Additionally, existential statements highlight the presence of entities, such as "There is a cat in the kitchen." Finally, agentive expressions focus on the actor or agent involved in an action.
He (1) bought her (14) the meal (9)
The knife (2) cut the cake
I went to the cinema with him (7)
She robbed me (8) of my last chance to see my daughter She (11) sang
The chairman (15) is my brother (16)
There lived a princess(17) in the woods
The interpersonal meaning or modality expresses the attitude and opinion of the speaker toward the representational content of the sentence
“Attitude” or “opinion” here has little, if nothing, to do with a person’s emotional state! It deals with the functions of speech
Interpersonal communication encompasses various speech functions, including the phatic function, which establishes and maintains social relationships, as seen in phrases like "Nice to meet you." Additionally, the instrumental function aims to influence others or achieve specific outcomes, exemplified by commands such as "Listen." Lastly, the expressive function serves to convey emotions, illustrated by statements like "Surprisingly, he passed."
The meaning of a sentence is the function of P (proposition of modality) and without reference to context
E.g.: He has loved her for a long time (P = heLOVEher)
She is very beautiful (P = sheBEAUTIFUL)
Examples Types of sentences/ Mood Possible functions
Can you help me with the suitcase?
Could you help me with the suitcase?
Question/imperative More polite request
I have the happiness to know it’s a rising sun
I wish I could get the job Statement/ subjunctive Wish
English modality can be expressed by the process called grammaticalization (in the form of mood) and lexicalization (by means of lexical items like modal verbs and modal adverbs)
Mood Examples Speaker’s attitude/functions
Indicative It rained hard last night Proposition as a fact
Imperative Come on in Proposition as command Subjunctive If I were you Proposition as non – fact
She is certainly the best
You must finish the report by tomorrow
I suppose that it is critical to start it now
Textual meaning is the combination of cohesion and coherence in the text
Cohesion refers to the formal connections between sentences that enable a text to cohere or stick together According to Halliday and Hasan (1976), the unique texture of a text is what sets it apart from non-textual forms.
*The familiar and unexpected relationships in experience which we use to connect the meaning of the utterances, even when those connections are not explicitly made
*Content links/semantic or rhetorical relationships underlie texts Coherence is built upon semantic ties in discourse
*Coherence can obtain on the basis of relevance, the common shared knowledge between participants in a speech event, and how discourse is structured
Cohesion and coherence are intricately linked, with cohesion serving as a key indicator of coherence Conversely, coherence can also be viewed as a specific form of cohesion, highlighting their interdependent relationship in effective communication.
M: meaning, F: function, s: structural, t: textual, i: interpersonal, r: representational
EXCERCISES
Exercise 1 Write the definition for the following terms
Sentence meaning Nghĩa của câu
Textual meaning Nghĩa văn bản
Phatic function Chức năng giữ quan hệ xã giao
Ms = F (stir) Nghĩa của câu
Exercise 2 Match the terms with their definitions
1 The meaning of a sentence a expresses the attitude and opinion of the speaker toward the representational content of the sentence
2 Compositionality b is the combination of cohesion and coherence in the text
3 The experiential function c is formal links which exist between sentences/ relationship that causes texts to cohere or stick together
4 The logical function d content links/semantic or rhetorical relationships underlie texts
5 The interpersonal meaning e should be seen as functions of the meaning of the words used in the sentence, modality and structural meaning signaled by the ways words are organized into sentences
6 Textual meaning f is to communicate ideas
7 Cohesion g lies at the center of the interface between syntax and semantics
8 Coherence h relates ideas to each other on an equal or subordinate basis
Exercise 3 Decide the sentence True (T) or False (F) If it is false, correct
1 The meaning of the sentence means the meaning of the words that compose it
2 Compositionality is the convergence of semantics and syntax
3 Understanding the meaning of a sentence means understanding the meaning of the words and the way they are arranged in the sentence
4 Halliday proposes three major components of meaning, namely representational meaning, experiential meaning and textual meaning
5 The underlined part in the sentence “Learning semantics provides an insight into language meaning.” is an instrumental subject
6 The sentence “How are you?” has an instrumental function
7 One type of sentence can have different functions
8 Modality can be expressed by grammaticalizing and lexicalizing
Exercise 4 Fill into the blank with one best word
(1) suggests a number of meanings residing in the sentence: structural, textual, (2) , and interpersonal/modality
The (3) meaning is the kind of meaning that results from a particular arrangement of the parts of the (4)
The meaning of a sentence transcends the mere sum of its individual words Instead, it should be understood as a combination of the meanings of the words, the modality, and the structural significance conveyed by how words are arranged within the sentence.
(8) meaning is the combination of (9) , which refers to the formal links between sentences and (10) , which means the underlying links
Exercise 5: Discuss the types of processes with specific examples
Exercise 6 Identify the participant and the process of the underlined parts in the following sentences:
1 In the past few years, social media has swept across the globe
2 There are a lot of myths about the human brain
3 People everywhere are still debating this issue
4 Wind power is a very clean source of energy
5 Millions of people buy things online every day
6 There are a few drawbacks to wireless charging
7 The multi-national coffee retailer now purchases over 93 percent of its coffee from ethical sources
8 Automobile accidents are one of the leading causes of death each year
9 Global warming is the rise in the world’s temperature
10 You don’t know the name of the song
Exercise 7 Identify the participant and the processes and circumstances of the following sentences:
Living away from home offers significant benefits for both individuals and society, particularly in fostering independence among students This experience enhances their social skills and personal development as they navigate new environments, such as halls of residence, and forge new friendships Consequently, students experience increased maturity and confidence, leading to more fulfilling lives.
The serious effects of rising health-related diseases among children, particularly diabetes, are alarming This chronic condition requires lifelong insulin injections, significantly impacting a child's quality of life Additionally, overweight children frequently face bullying, which can severely harm their mental health and self-esteem, further exacerbating the challenges they encounter.
Playing computer games can enhance children's cognitive skills by promoting abstract thinking and problem-solving abilities that are often not taught in traditional educational settings Many popular games require players to follow instructions, tackle complex challenges, and apply logical reasoning These experiences can significantly contribute to a child's development, preparing them for future adult responsibilities.
Exercise 8: Decide the sentence type and their most possible function
Types of sentences Possible function
2 Can you turn on the radio?
4 Excuse me, could you tell me how to get to Old
5 It costs her a fortune to buy this necklace
6 Would you like to go out with me tonight?
7 Why don’t we try that new club?
8 I wish that I hadn't eaten so much
9 It was their 25th wedding anniversary last week
10 Would you mind opening the window?
UTTERANCE MEANING
CONTEXT
Context plays a crucial role in determining the meaning of utterances in three key ways: it clarifies the specific sentence being communicated, reveals the speaker's intended position, and indicates the illocutionary force attributed to the proposition By providing this contextual information, it helps disambiguate and identify the most suitable and appropriate interpretation of the message.
Context of situation (Extra-linguistic factors/ physical environment
Co-text (Linguistic factors/ linguistic environment)
An old man to a young man: I’ll teach you how to kiss my daughter The young man: Too late I’ve already learnt it
The young man's response is influenced by the old man's statement, with the context encompassing all pertinent aspects of the situation surrounding their interaction It is clear that a sentence has been spoken, conveying a specific proposition, while also highlighting the relationship between the two individuals.
We know the illocutionary force – a possible punishment to the young man, etc.
UTTERANCES
Utterances, as mentioned, are known as speech acts in terms of process sense and inscriptions in terms of product sense
According to Austin, utterances can be classified into:
- Constative (i.e descriptive) utterances: a statement-making utterance/represent a state of affair, or experience (can be either true or false)
- Performative utterances: performs an act of doing something rather than saying/ bring about a state of affairs such as bids, blessing, etc (no true value)
I thank you for being here
+ Explicit performatives (EP): explicit the kind of act that is being performed with a Vp
I request all the passengers to fasten the seat belt
Limitation of EP: subject: 1 st personal pronoun, verb: the act performed
+ Primary/non-explicit/implicit performatives: no obvious Vp
All the passengers are requested to fasten the seat belt
I ask you to do this quickly
Many performatives in English are implicit.
TYPES OF SPEECH ACTS
Austin distinguishes three kinds of acts: locutionary (acts), illocutionary ( force) and perlocutionary
3 types of speech acts: Locution: the actual form of the utterance
Illocution: the communication force of the utterance Perlocution: the communicative effect of the utterance
To perform a locutionary act is to produce an utterance with a particular form and a more or less determinate meaning according to the rule of a given language
*phonic act of producing an utterance in the phonic medium of sound
*phatic act of constructing a particular sentence in a particular language
*rhetic act of contextualizaing a sentence
Have you ever tried thinking?
To effectively communicate in English, it's essential to utilize specific sounds and intonation patterns (phonic act) Additionally, constructing sentences requires adherence to particular vocabulary and grammatical rules (phatic act) Finally, the context in which a sentence is delivered plays a crucial role in its meaning and relevance (rhetic act).
Two people uttering the same utterance don’t mean the same thing and vice versa
The illocutionary force may be understood as some kind of intended message/purposes that a speaker assigns to the sentence that he utters such as thanking, promising, threatening, etc
One kind of illocutionary force is implication
Have you got the time?
The illocutionary force is asking the time, not asking whether the speaker has time or not
- four types of Fecility/ Appropriate conditions (the act meets certain conditions)
(i) The propositional content condition expresses the content of the act
I will get him on board (promise to get something done)
(ii) the preparatory condition(s) expresses the contextual background required for the act
I will A marriage vow in the context of a wedding
A promise ( a reply to “Will you help me?”
(iii) the sincerity condition requires that the speaker be sincere
By uttering ‘I will”, the speaker must willingly keeps the promise: to stay married or render assistant
(iv) the essential condition is that the speaker intends the utterance to have a certain force
The information age is already upon us
The speaker must intent the utterance to be a true representation of a state of affairs
Some of the force has been grammaticalized For example, declaratives are used to make statements
Perlocution is the non-linguistic effect of uttering a sentence
Can you open the door? Someone may get up to open the door
According to Austin, there are five types of speech acts.
(i) Verdictives: typifed by the giving of a verdict by a jury, umpire, arbitrator such as acquit, grade, estimate, diagnose
(ii) Exertives: which are the exercising of powers, rights, or influence such as appoint, order, advise, warn
(iii) Commissives: which commit the speaker to doing something, but also include declarations or announcements of intention such as promise, guarantee, bet, oppose
(iv) Behabitives: A miscellaneous groups concerned with attitudes and social behavior such as apologies, criticize, bless, challenge
(v) Expositives: clarify how utterances fit into ongoing discourse, or how they are being used – argue, postulate, affirm,concede
Based on Searle’s system, there are six types of speech acts
(i) Directives: acts which get people to something (imperative sentences, questions, statements whose illocutionary force is of a directive.)
Oh, the sugar’s all gone Can you close the door? Come on in
Bring me some hot water
(ii) Commissives: statements that function as promises or refusals for action
Maybe I can do that tomorrow Don’t worry I’ll be there I promise to meet him
I pledge my absolute support for the new President I promise, I will complete the work by tomorrow
Directive and commissives may be seen symmetrically in the sense that a commissive is speaker-oriented whereas a directive is hearer-oriented
(iii) Representatives: can be judged for the truth value The purpose is to inform
Representatives may vary in terms of how hedged or aggravated (To make worse, or more severe) the assertion might be
She did a good job vs Perhaps she did a good job
(iv) Declaratives: bring about a new state of being
I now pronounce you husband and wife
(v) Expressives: express joys, disappointment, likes and dislikes
I am sorry for my disrespectful behavior
(vi) Phatics: establish the rapport (Relation) between people Phatics can involve all sorts of utterances made about the weather, health and whatever is expected or usual in the community
How are you? (not a question for information)
ENTAILMENT: ASSERTION AND PRESUPPOSITION
Any competent English user can recognize that if (a) is true, so is (b)
The relationship is called entailment Sentence S1 entails sentence S2 if, and only if, whenever S1 is true in a situation, S2 is also true in that situation
In the example above, (a) entails (b) but (b) does not entail (a) That means if (b) is true, (a) is not necessarily true
Entailment involves understanding the meaning of the parts of sentences
In (a), “a rich husband” is included in the scope of “a husband” So entailment can be seen a kind of hyponymic relation
Assertion belongs to declarative sentences though not all of them have presupposition
(b) Mary denied kicking the dog
(c) Mary did not deny kicking the dog
(a) asserts that a state of affairs exists The test is it can be cancelled by negation of “didn’t”
The statement does not claim that Mary kicked the dog; instead, it highlights her denial of the action while the situation "Mary kicked the dog" remains true In semantic terms, the act of denying involves a presupposition that cannot be negated by simply denying the denial.
Fromkin et al (2007: 387) stated that a sentence S1 presupposes S2 just in case S1 entails S2 and the negation of S1 also entails S2 So (b) presupposes (a) because both (b) and (c) entail (a)
According to Givon (1979), presupposition is the assumption the speaker makes about what the hearer is likely to accept without challenge
Interrogative sentences always have presuppositions
(a) Have you finished the Exercise I gave you?
(b) Why did you beat him?
In (a) the speaker has presupposed that the speaker gave the hearer a
Exercise and in (b) the hearer did beat a person.
IMPLICATURES
Grice (1975) used the term implicature to account for what a speaker can imply, suggest, or mean, as distinct from what the speaker literally says
He divided implicature into two types: conventional implicature and conversational implicature
An additional unstated meaning associated with the use of a specific word, e.g “A but B” implies a contrast between A and B, so ‘contrast’ is a conventional implicature
He is handsome but he is poor
An additional unstated meaning that has to be assumed in order to maintain the cooperative principle
B’s utterance may implicate that B does not love A
Grice (1967) introduced the Co-operative Principle comprising four basic maxims: Quality, Quantity, Relevance and Manner
Try to make your contribution one that is true, specifically:
(i) do not say what you believe to be false
(ii) do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence
(i) make your contribution as informative as is required for the current purposes of the exchange
(ii) do not make your contribution more informative than is required
(iii) obscurity avoid ambiguity be brief be orderly
It is noted that other social constrains contribute to the communicative process such as face and politeness.
REFERENCE
Reference is an act of using a linguistic expression to enable the listener to identify something or somebody
Reference is the relationship between a linguistic expression and the thing denoted by that expression
(linguistic expression) →(reference) → referent (thing meant)
It is a context-dependent aspect of utterance meaning The extension of such expression called referring expression is fixed by its meaning in the language, i.e its sense and denotation
A referring expression is literally seen as having the same property as
English examples of deictic words include:
(i) pronouns I, you, we, he, she, it and they
We clean up after ourselves around here
(ii) locative expressions here and there, this/ these and that/ those
Jame hasn’t been here yet
Is he there with you?
(iii) temporal expressions: now, then, yesterday, today, tomorrow, last week, next month and so on
We can’t go today, but tomorrow will be fine.
MODALITY
This section aims to explore the role of modality within its context, highlighting how the surrounding circumstances influence the identification of modality types Specifically, it examines the distinction between objective and subjective modalities, illustrating how context plays a crucial role in their determination.
Objective epistemic modality means the propositional content will be a matter of fact
He may not love her
Subjective epistemic modality is the speaker’s qualification of his or her epistemic commitment It concerns his beliefs, attitudes, will or authority (I think he will not love her)
Deontic modality encompasses both obligations and permissions, highlighting the imposition of certain states of affairs on individuals It serves to express how specific conditions or actions are mandated or allowed within a given context, effectively bridging the gap between an articulated world and a reference world.
You must be nice to her (obligation) You may use my car (permission)
Epistemic modality: possibility-based; Deontic modality: necessity- based
EXERCISES
Exercise 1: Write the definition for the following key terms
Co-text Đồng văn bản
Speech act Hành động lời nói
Exercise 2: Match the terms with their definitions
1 Context of situation a are known as speech acts in terms of process sense and inscriptions in terms of product sense
2 Co-text the communication force of the utterance
3 Utterances the relationship between a linguistic expression and the thing denoted by that expression
4 Locution account for what a speaker can imply, suggest, or mean, as distinct from what the speaker literally says
6 Perlocution is the assumption the speaker makes about what the hearer is likely to accept without challenge
7 Entailment the communicative effect of the utterance
9 Implicature involves understanding the meaning of the parts of sentences
10 Reference the actual form of the utterance
Exercise 3 Explain the notion of illocutionary force
Exercise 4 Decide types of deixis
1 They go to church on Sundays
2 He called yesterday while you were out
3 The museum is closed today We'll go there tomorrow
4 Click here for more details
5 We went to Italy last summer
6 Yesterday she went to school at 7am
8 She was sitting over there
Exercise 5 Discuss the possible conversational implicatures in the following utterances
1 (Wife to husband) “This is really a nice dress.”
2 (Father to daughter) “Remember to phone me when you arrive at the airport.”
3 (Son to mother) “I ’ve finished all the assignments for this week.”
4 (Daughter to mother) “My leg hurts.”
5 The table is too heavy for me to move alone
6 Punctuality is imperative in your new job
8 (Daughter to mother) “We've run out of milk”
9 The lift has broken down
10 (Son to mother) “I have a terrible headache.”
Exercise 6 Identify the presuppositions in the following sentences:
1 Would you like another cup of coffee?
2 When did Shortz first become interested in puzzles?
3 Scientists are still experimenting on gene therapy
4 My father hasn't smoked for three years
5 My friend advised me to accept the offer
6 Nam is living with a very kind stepmother
7 “You’re late again, Michael.”
8 Why did you decide to study abroad?
9 I gave up smoking two years ago
10 “Your kids are very cute.”
Exercise 7: State whether the following sentences have deontic modality or epistemic modality
1 She might be in her classroom
2 That child ought to be in bed
4 Is he serious? No, he can’t be that serious
5 A reader may borrow up to six books at any one time
6 It may rain this afternoon
7 He seem to understand why you are upset
8 We must get someone to fix that wheel.