%9 HỌC VIỆN CHINH TRI QUOC GIA HO CHI MINH
HOC VIEN BAO CHi VA TUYEN TRUYEN
DE TAI KHOA HOC CAP CO SO
TEN DE TAI
GIAO TRINH NGỮ NGHĨA HỌC
(GIAO TRINH NOI BOQ)
Trang 2Phân mở đầu Giáo trình nội bộ Tên học phần: Ngữ nghĩa học tiếng Anh ( English semantics) Mã số mơn học: TA9 Số đơn vị học trình: 2 Mục đích mơn học: - Cung câp cho sinh viên những kiên thức cơ bản về Ngữ nghĩa học (Semantics) Fey
- Giúp sinh viên nhận diện được các giá trị nghĩa học trong các diễn đạt ngơn từ để trên cơ sở đĩ nâng cao kỹ năng hiểu tiếng Anh và thâm các giá trị nghệ thuật ngơn từ
trong đời sống hàng ngày, các bài viết trên các phương tiên thơng tin đại chung và các
tác phẩm văn chương để ứng đụng vào việc học và cơng tác biên, phiên dịch sau nay
- Giúp sinh viên nâng cao trình độ sử dụng ngơn ngữ thơng qua việc tăng cường ý
thức về mối quan hệ giữa chủ thể phát ngơn với cách thức dụng ngơn ngữ
5 Yêu cầu: Mơn học này nhằm giúp người học : +Về tri thức:
- Hiệu được đối tượng, mục đích và nhiệm vụ của ngữ nghĩa học; Nhận biệt được sự
khác nhau của ngữ nghĩa học và các ngành ngơn ngữ học khác; Hiểu được một số
phương pháp nghiên cứu ngữ nghĩa học;
- Hiểu, phân biệt được những vấn đề cơ bản về ngữ nghĩa học như khái niệm nghĩa, sở chỉ và quy chiếu, nghĩa từ vựng, các quan hệ từ vựng, sự biến đổi nghĩa, nghĩa câu và mệnh đẻ, nghĩa phát ngơn, các hành động lời nĩi ; Nêu được thuật ngữ, khái niệm và các kiến thức mơn học một cách hệ thống:
- Áp dụng sự hiểu biết những vấn đề cơ bản trong lĩnh vực ngữ nghĩa học để bước đầu
cĩ thể nghiên cứu những vấn đề chuyên mơn cũng như vận dụng được vào việc học tập ngơn ngữ nĩi chung
+ Về kỹ năng:
- Biệt cách nhận điện, phân biệt và trình bày lại được các hiện tượng, khái niệm thuộc
lĩnh vực ngữ nghĩa học;
- Biết cách vận dụng sự hiểu biết cơ bản về ngữ nghĩa học vào thực tiễn học tập và
nghiên cứu ngơn ngữ ( tiếng Anh)
- Hình thành được kỹ năng làm việc hợp tác trong chuyên mơn, kỹ năng trình bày và trao déi ý kiến về chuyên mơn, bước đầu cĩ được kỹ năng tìm tư liệu và nghiên cứu
độc lập liên quan đến ngữ nghĩa học
+ Về thái độ, nhận thức:
- Nhận điện được “vẻ đẹp” của ngơn từ, tích cực làm giàu thêm kiên thức về ngữ nghĩa tiếng Anh nĩi riêng, ngơn ngữ học nĩi chung;
- Cĩ ý thức trau đồi kiến thức và kỹ năng ngơn ngữ thơng qua việc học và nghiên cứu
mơn Ngữ nghĩa học
Trang 36 Phân bỗ thời gian:
Học phần gồm : 30 tiết — 2 đơn vị học trình
- Phần lý thuyết : 25 Tiết - Thảo luận và làm bài tập:5 tiết
7 _ Giảng viên tham gia giảng dạy mơn học TT | Họ và tên Cơ quan cơng tác Chuyên ngành Giảng viên bộ mơn tiếng Anh biên dịch Khoa NN Học viện BCTT | Ngơn ngữ Anh
8 Điều kiện tiên quyết:
Sinh viên phải cĩ điểm các mơn kỹ năng ngơn ngữ cơ bản Nghe, Nĩi, Đọc, Viết tiếng Anh đạt 6 điểm trở lên và ít nhất đã được học các học phần kiến thức tiếng Anh học cĩ liên quan như:
Cơ sở Ngơn ngữ học ( dẫn luận ngơn ngữ), Ngữ âm học, Từ vựng học, Ngữ pháp học ,Ngữ dụng học, Phong cách học
9 Nội dung mơn học:
+ Nội dung tơng quát và phân bỗ thời gian:
+ Nội dung chỉ tiết:
TT | Nội dung Tổng Trong đĩ
số tiết |Lýthuyết | Thảo luận bàitập | Tiểu luận, kiểm tra 1 Chuong I +II 5 5 0 2 Chương II 5 4 1 3 Chương III 5 4 1 4 Chuong III 5 4 1 5 Chuong IV 5 4 1 6 Chuong IV 5 4 1
10 Phương pháp giảng dạy và học tập:
Giáo viên giới thiệu phần lý thuyết, hướng dẫn sinh viên bài tập mẫu và bài tập tự nghiên cứu trên lớp 11 Tơ chức, đánh giá mơn học: TT Cách thức đánh giá Trọng số 1 Kiểm tra điều kiện 1,5 2_ | Tiểu luận 1,5 3 | Thihếtmơn 7 DMH= KTDK x Trong sé + TL x Trong sé + THM x Trong sé 12 Phương tiện vật chất đảm bảo : Sách giáo khoa va thiết bi cần thiết cho việc dạy ngoại ngữ chuyên ngành
13 Tài liệu tham khảo:
- Tài liệu bắt buộc: Giáo trình biên soạn
Trang 5Contents
CONTENTS
CHAPTER I: SEMANTICS AND BACKGROUNDS Â 1.1 1161 1 1 1 SEMANTIC, PRAGMATICS AND SYNTAX 1.0 ccceccescesseeecesessesssssesssseeseeeneseeeseaes 1
1.2 SEMANTICS 00 — 1
1.3 SEMANTIC MEANING AND PRAGMATIC MEANING c:ccccsssssesssssssetscseeeeeeees 1 1.4 SEMANTICS AND ITS RELATED ASPECTS cccccsccssssssssesecssscesescsssscssesnseeesseseees 2 lơi: 49 010L0)/9)498./127.0010) 0c 3 2.1 SEMANTIC FEATURE / PROPERTY / COMPONENT :ccsccscsessssssessestessesseeseeeaes 3 PP ion 3 PS vu ai vui 2v nh 3 PIN go 012i: d na 3 "PA V5 Co oan nh 4
2.1.2.3 Same semantic feature in diferrent WOTS - . <5 s x3 EkEiEEsssrerserree 4 2.1.2.4 Same semantic fearture in diferrent part of speech ‹- + < + s< stress 4 2.1.2.5 Semantic feature in semantically anomalous senfence - - «<< «<< ss+2 5 „900 ,/049)02)09//.0070.)/ 004) 651 7 7
P9) ,/ 00008010 51019 0nraaẢẢẢ Ơ 7 “ENRBP- ion e 7
2.3.2 Ways of organizing semantically similar items in to semantic fields 11
2.4 LEXICAL GAPS cccsssesssessesssscecessesscesscescestestessessucssesscceseasseesssceesensessessesssetesenecsaeens 12 2.5 REFERENT, REFERENCE AND SENSE - - G4 te, 12 2.5.1 Distinction between referent, reference and sense — 12 2.5.2 ¡oTu¿(o 0 14 2.5.2.1.Varlable Reference: - - S5 s2 SH HH HH ng ng ngàng ng ngay 14 2.5.2.2 co an 15 PS No an (ca an n ậ5 16 "NV Nà vn an 13 16 2.6 REFERRING EXPRESSIƠNS - ĐGQQ Họng HH HH HH ng HH Hà Hy rệt 18 PP oi 1n -:ÍÙỪỊ:‡<ˆ¬ẦA4ÄSÃ⁄44 A 18 2.7 DENOTATION AND CONNOTA TIƠN - 5 Gà HH1 4141121151181 re 20 2.7.1 Definition 0 20
2.7.2 Distinction between denotation and connofatiOr - s5 55s s2 << <+ssessesssees 21 2.8 MULTIPLE SENSES OF LEXICAL ITEMS 5 SG S tt Sseereeexee 23 2.8.1 Primary meaning vs secondary m€aniing - - + - + sssstssrsrerstrrekrrerrrree 23 2.8.2 Literal meaning vs Fipurative me€aning - ‹- +5 + tt vn xxx 24 CHAPTER HH: SENTENCE MEANTING - - 2À ncnnHn HH HH ng 11 11131 xe, 26 3.1 PROPOSITION, SENTENCE AND UTTERANCE - S5 <5 5 S+<s<sessssresxes 26 °EBNN so) 3o ao .d3 SỔ 26
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3.1.3 Distinction between a proposition and a senn†€'ICG + cá Sa S2 sen 27
E0 27
3.1.5 Distinction between an utterance and a s€TIfenCe - 5-2 ng 28 3.1.6 Distinction between a proposition, a sentence and an utterarnce -‹-s«-«- 28 3.2 LINGUISTIC / LITERAL MEANING -S Án neee 29 3.3 FIGURES OF SPEECH /NƠON-LITERAL MEANING 30
3.3.1 SÏIHIÍ€ «ok “HH HT HH TT HH TH T000 T81 10111 001070 30 KESWA j0 on 31
3.3.3 The distinction between Simile and metapphOr - <5 «+s+vx*k+xxEekrkevrsre 31 3.3.4 Dead metaphors and live rmefapÏlOTS - 5-52 s93 9 1 11 ng 31 ca 33 EEnd n 33 co y/ hà an 34 EERNN/i0à.n n ẻ 34 3.3.9 Ways to identify a t€fOTIYIM:: - - - 5 HT HH TH HH re 34 EESNI0x-i ii 8n 35 3.3.11 HypeTbole cctHH010111121.121.111 1.111010111101101.0111110111101011111 01T 35 3.3.12 Eupheimisim - 5= s4 vn HT TH HH họ TT cư TT 001 0 35 E00 )0(0.49007 10 36 E0 on 36 EU VAM\j 8a co nh 36 E060 0A0 38 E5) ion 38 3.5.2 Types Of ambiguity 0.0 39 3.5.3 Some common forms of structural ambiguity - 5s «+s vs + Ssssesseeee 40 3.6 ANOMALY/NON-SENSE HH HH HH HH HH HH HH nung 43 CHAPTER IV: MEANING RELATION AND SENTENCES RELATION 45 102.900 06040.0009)01 45 5N ĩ0 45 “HN hà on 45 2902) 007)(079:420.00(09) 00157 52 4.2.1 Entailment nan 52 4.2.1.1 Definition - ¬— 52 Z1 co nh n6 54 4.3 PARAPHRASE AND WAYS TO PARAPHRASE A SENTENCE 56 1n 7a e 56 4.3.1.1.Paraphrase — 56 lon co nh 56
Trang 7Chapter I: Semantics and backgrounds
CHAPTER I
SEMANTICS AND BACKGROUNDS
1.1 SEMANTIC, PRAGMATICS AND SYNTAX
Semantics is a branch of linguistics which deals with meaning In order to understand this definition, we need to know what meaning is However, before we discuss the “meaning” of meaning, it is necessary to talk about the main branches of linguistics
Linguistics has three main branches: semantics, pragmatics and syntax Syntax is the study of grammar (consisting of phonology, morphology, syntax, and textual grammar) whereas semantics and pragmatics deal with meaning Semantics is the study of meaning in language (i.e what language means) while pragmatics is concerned with meaning in context (i.e what people mean by the language they use)
1.2 SEMANTICS
Semantics is the study of meaning in language (Hurford and Heasley, 18983:1) Semantics is the study of the relationships between Linguistic
forms and entities in the world; that is, how words literally connect to the
things Semantic analysis also attempts to establish the relationship between verbal descriptions and states of affairs in the world as accurate (true) or not, regardless of who produces that description (Yule, 1996:4)
1.3 SEMANTIC MEANING AND PRAGMATIC MEANING
a Semantic meaning is the meaning of a sentence of context/context-free It is the linguistic meaning of a sentence
b Pragmatic meaning is the meaning of an utterance in a particular situation Pragmatic meaning is context-dependent
Trang 8
Eg 1: A: Would you like to go out with me? B: Ihave a lot of homework to do
In the sentence “I have a lot of homework to do” has two types of meanings + Semantic meaning: the teacher gave me a lot of assignments to do at home + Pragmatic meaning: I am sorry I am afraid that I have to refuse your
invitation
Eg 2: Oh! It’s too noisy
+ Semantic meaning: there is a lot of noise here + Pragmatic meaning: Please, keep silent!
1.4 SEMANTICS AND ITS RELATED ASPECTS
Trang 9
Chapter IT: Word Meaning
CHAPTER II
WORD MEANING
Word meaning is what a word means, i.e “what counts as the equivalent in the language concerned.” [Hurford and Heasley, 1984: 3]
2.1 SEMANTIC FEATURE / PROPERTY / COMPONENT 2.1.1 Definition
Semantic features are “the smallest units of meaning in a word.” [Richards et
al, 1987: 254] |
We identify the meaning of a word by its semantic features For example, father may have the following semantic features: [+human], [+male], [raldult], [+married] and [+having children] And assassin may be described as a set of the following semantic features: [+human], [+adult],
[+killer], and [+kill a VIP]
Father + human Each Assassin | + human
+ male factor is + adult
+ adult a Semantic + killer
+ married feature + kill a VIP
+ having children
Each factor is a semantic feature
2.1.2 Semantic characteristics 2.1.2.1 Primitive semantic elements
Primitive semantic elements are basic primitive concepts in linguistics They left undefined
Trang 104.1.2.2 Redundancy rule
Some semantic features need not be specifically mentioned For example, if a word is [+human] it is “automatically” [+animate] This generalization can be expressed as a redundancy rule:
Semantic features are also referred to as semantic components or a word that is [+human] is [animate]
That is why [+animate] need not be specified as a semantic feature of father, girl, professor, etc since the semantic feature can be inferred from [+human] Some redundancy rules infer negative semantic features Thus, semantic features are often shown in the form of binary oppositions, which can be stated in terms of pluses and minuses (that is, [+] and [-])
If father is [+human], it is therefore [- inhuman]; ~ If father is [+male], it is therefore [- female]; If father is [mature], it is therefore [- immature]; If father is [+paternal], it is therefore [- maternal]
Notice that we identify the meaning of a word according to its primitive semantic features first, e.g [+animate], [+human], [+male], etc.; and then with the assistance of its other semantic features, e.g [+parental], [+paternal],
etc
2.1.2.3 Same semantic feature in diferrent words
Different words may share the same semantic feature In other words, the same semantic feature can be found in many different words
Exl: Father, mother, son, daughter, teacher, baby all share the same
semantic feature [+hunam]
EX2: Doctor, engineer, teacher, physicist, chemist, tailor, hairdresser, etc All share the same semantic feature [+professional]
Ex3: Mother, father, son, daughter, brother, sister, grandparent, aunt, uncle,
etc are all [+kinship]
Trang 11Chapter If: Word Meaning
The same semantic feature can occur in words of different parts of speech In other words, words of different parts of speech may share the same semantic feature
EX1: [+female] is part of the meaning of the noun mother, the verb breast-feed and the adjective pregnant
Ex2: [+educational] is a semantic feature found in the nouns school,
teacher, textbook, etc And in the verbs teach, educate, instruct, etc
2.1.2.5 Semantic feature in semantically anomalous sentence
Fromkin and Rodman [1993: 148-149] confirm that “the semantic properties of words determine what other words they can be combined with.” These authors give the two following sentences that are grammatically correct and syntactically perfect but semantically anomalous:
(1) My brother is an only child (2) The bachelor is pregnant
(1) is strange, or semantically anomalous, because this sentence represents a contradiction: brother is [+having at least one sibling] while an only child is
[+having no other sibling];
(2) is semantically anomalous for a similar reason: bachelor is [+male]
whereas pregnant is [+female]
Here, Fromkin and Rodman also cite Noam Chomsky’s famous classic example of semantically anomalous sentences:
(3) Colorless green ideas sleep furiously
This sentence seems to obey all the syntactic rules of English: its subject is colorless green ideas and its predicate is sleep furiously; but there is obviously something semantically wrong with the sentence The adjective colorless is [-colour], but it occurs with the adjective green the semantic feature of which [+green in colour] How can something be [-colour] and [+green in colour] at the same time? In the same way, the noun ideas, which is [+abstract], is semantically incompatible with the verb sleep the noun phrase subject of which must be [+concrete] and [+animate] How
Trang 12
can an abstract notion like ideas sleep? Then, the verb sleep, whose adverbial collocations are well, badly and soundly, is semantically incompatible with the adverb furiously How can a living being sleep when he is full of violent anger?
| In conclusion, knowing all the possible semantic features of a word enables us to combine semantically compatible words together to form larger but meaningful linguistic units such as phrases, clauses and sentences
Fromkin and Rodman [1993:134] also believe that “because we know
the semantic properties of words, we know when two words are
antonyms, synonyms or homonyms, or are unrelated in meaning.”
Exercise 1
For each group of the words given below, state what semantic properties or properties are shared by the words in group (i) and those in the group (ii) and what semantic property or properties distinguish between the classes if (1) and (ii)
Eg: i/ widow, mother, sister, aunt, seamstress
ii/ widower, father, brother, uncle, tailor
= The shared semantic properties are [+animate], [+human] => The different is: (i) => [+female]; (11) => [+male]
1 i Bachelor, man, son, paperboy, pope, uncle ii bull, rooster, drake, ram, boar
2 i bitch, hen, doe, mare, ewe, vixen ii actress, maiden, widow, woman, girl 3 i doctor, dean, professor, bachelor, parent
li teenager, child, boy, baby, infant
4 i table, stone, pencil, cup, house, ship, car ii milk, alcohol, rice, soup, mud
Trang 13Chapter IT: Word Meaning
5 1 book, temple, mountain, road, tractor ii idea, love, charity, sincerity, bravery, fear 6 i pine, elm, ash, wiping, willow, sycamore
ii rose, dandelion, carnation, tulip, daisy
7 i book, letter, encyclopedia, novel, notebook, dictionary ii typewriter, pencil, ballpoint, crayon, quill, charcoal, chalk
8 i walk, run, skip, jump, hope, swim
ii fly, skate, ski, ride, cycle, canoe, hang-glide 2.2 COMPONENTIAL ANALYSIS
In Semantics, componential analysis is “an approach to the study of meaning which analyses a word into a set of meaning components or semantic features.” [Richards et al, 1987: 53]
For example, the meaning of boy may be shown as [+human], [+male] and
[—adult] while that of man may be a combination of [+human], [+male] and [t+adult] Thus, man is different from boy basically in one primitive semantic
feature: [+adult] |
Generally speaking, componential analysis is applied to a group of related words which may differ from one another only by one or two semantic
features
2.3 SEMANTIC FIELDS 2.3.1 Definition
A semantic fieldis “the organization of related words and expressions into a system which shows their relationship to one another.” [Richards et al, 1987: 53]
A semantic field can also be defined as “a set of words with identifiable
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Egl The semantic field of kinship terms: father, mother, brother, sister, uncle, aunt, etc Human - (B) Hypernym ——~ | | | Hyponymy Bachelor Father Mother Baby Uncle Sister Hyponym
Hypernym is a word whose referent covers all the refrents of its hyponyms (hyper means above)
ExI plant
tree bush flowering plant moss grass seaweed
Eg2
Colour
blue red yellow green black
turquoise aquamarine royal blue
In this case, blue is a word that has a hyponym and a hypernym at the same time Since turquoise, aquamarine and royal blue refer to different shades of blue, these words are immediate hyponyms [Palmer: 1981: 87] of blue The word blue in its turn is, along with many other colour terms, an immediate hyponym of colour We thus obtain a hierarchy of terms related to
Trang 15
Chapter I: Word Meaning
each other through hyponymic relationships Similar hierarchies can be established for many lexical fields:
Eg3 physical entity
plant animal rock
fish bird insect bug reptile mammal
sparrow hawk crow fowl human animal (beast)
chicken turkey quail dog cat cow
Note: In this case that the word animal appears on two different levels English speakers indeed use the word to refer to at least two different referents: animals as distinct from plants and rocks, and animals (generally mammals other than humans) as distinct from humans
Hyponym
Hyponymy is a relation in which the referent of a word is totally included in the referent of another word In other words, hyponymy is the - relationship between each of the hyponyms (the “lower” word) and its hypernym (the “higher” word):
Hyponym is a word whose referent is totally included in the referent of another term (Its hypo-means below) (Finegan, 1994: 165) | EX
Cook
cook grill toast fry boil roast bake smoke
stir-fry sauté deep-fry
Hyponymy is one-way relaton between hyponyms and hypernym so that A(hyponym) is a kind of B (hypernym) We say:
Trang 16A bachelor is a kind of human Not: A human is a kind of bachelor
A boy is a kind of human Not: A human is a kind of boy Eg 1: Male am | | | | | ; | | Boy Brother Uncle Ram Stallion Ox Bull (Hyponyms)
Eg 2 The semantic field of adjectives describing human emotional states: angry, sad, happy, exuberant, depressed, afraid, etc
Eg 3 The semantic field of drinking vessels: cup, mug, tumbler, wine glass, beer glass, etc
Exercise 2: Each of the following sentences presents a pair of words Which of them is a hypernym, which is.a hyponym? |
1 She reads books all day — mostly novels 2 A crocodile is a reptile
3 There’s no flower more beautiful than a tulip 4 He likes all vegetables except carrots Sentence number Hypernym Hyponym 1 2 3 4 Exercise 3: Draw a chart to show the relationship between a hypernym and a hyponym
1 luggage and suitcase 7 plant and rose
2 green vegetable and bean 8 vocal organ and tongue tip
Trang 17
Chapter I: Word Meaning
3 animal and foal 9 head and eyelash
4 animaland child 10 furniture and dressing table
5 fowl and rooster 11 vehicle and convertible 6 plant and coconut 12 vocalize and croon
2.3.2 Ways of organizing semantically similar items in to semantic fields There are various ways according to which semantically similar items are related to one another:
(i) Items related by topics:
¢ Types of fruit: apples, oranges, grapes, bananas, pears, plums, etc
* Pieces of furniture: seats, tables, beds, storage, etc
¢ Terms of colour: blue, red, yellow, green, black, white, etc
(ii) Items similar in meaning:
¢ Ways of cooking: stew, boil, fry, steam, roast, grill, smoke, etc ¢ Ways of looking: gaze, glance, peer, squint, stare, etc
¢ Ways in which a liquid escapes from its container: drip, leak, ooze, run,
seep, etc
(iii) Terms describing people whose weight is below:
Normal: thin, bony, skinny, scrawny, underweight, emaciated, slender, slim, etc
(iv) Items which form pairs of antonyms: long/short, light/heavy, alive/dead, love/hate, approve/disapprove, approve/disapprove, begin/end, inside/outside, upstairs/downstairs, etc
(v) Items which form pairs or trios of synonyms:
Smart/bright/intelligent, conserve/preserve/safeguard, fix/repair/mend, kind/short/type/variety, happy/glad, etc
(vi) Items grouped as an activity or a process:
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* Do research: make hypotheses, collect data, analyze data, get results and come to conclusions
(vii) Items classified according to:
— male: waiter, tiger, actor, host, landlord, sir, etc
* Sex
—> Female: waitress, tigress, actress, hostess, landlady, madam, etc
¢ Age: grown-ups, adults, elderly people, middle-aged people, teenagers, children, infants, babies, etc
¢ Age and sex:
horse—stallion: [+male], [+fully grown] dog—dog: [+male], [+fully grown] mare: [+female], [+fully-grown] bitch:[+female],[+fully grown] foal: [+male], [-fully grown] puppy: [+ male],[-fully grown] 2.4 LEXICAL GAPS
“The absence of a word in a particular place in a lexical field of a language” is called a lexical gap [Richards et al, 1987: 164]
For example, in English there is no singular noun that covers bull, cow and calf either as horse covers stallion, mare and foal-or as goat covers billy-goat, nanny-goat and kid
horse goat ?
Stallion, mare, foal billy-goat, nanny-goat, kid bull, cow, calf
Exercise 6: Try to fill in each of the two blanks with an appropriate word to prove that there is no lexical gap in the given semantic fields
sheep giraffe
TS ¬ male giraffe baby giraffe 2.5 REFERENT, REFERENCE AND SENSE
Trang 19Chapter II: Word Meaning
In Semantics, a distinction is often made between referent, reference and
sense:
2.5.1.1 A referent is an object or an entity in the real world or in the world of your imagination, e.g your school, your classmates, your teacher, any thing you can see in the classroom right now, the idealistic working conditions you have ever dreamed of, etc that is talked about
Several words, especially the so-called function words, have no obvious
referents: the, could, in, since, and, etc
2.5.1.2 The reference of a word or a linguistic expression is the relationship between that word or expression and the thing, the action,
the event, the quality, etc it refers to
It is commonly believed that function words like prepositions (of, in, etc.),
definite and indefinite articles (the, a/an), conjunctions (if, however, or, etc.),
and auxiliaries (may, should, will, etc.) only “signal grammatical relations.” [Finegan, 1994: 175]
For example, the reference of Peter’s house is the relationship between this English noun phrase and the house that belongs to Peter Peter’s house the house that belongs to Peter (in the English language) reference (in the real world)
2.5.1.3 The sense of a word or a linguistic expression shows the internal relationship between that word or expression and others in the vocabulary of a language
Egl: The word “desk"
Eg2: Teacher and student have the sense relationship of the former is the one who gives a lesson and the latter is the one who has the lesson given by the former
13
Trang 20Eg 3: A dog is chasing a cat has some sense However, a dog is human has no sense
Eg 4 The King of Vietnam is bald has some sense: its sense is constructed by its individual lexical components and its syntactic structure However, this sentence has no reference: it does not refer to any real person because the King of Vietnam does not exist nowadays Consider the following table and identify referent, reference and sense via their main features
It is necessary to notice that the two linguistic terms sense and meaning will be used interchangeably from now on in this text “The SENSE of an expression is its indispensable hard core of meaning.” [Hurford and Heasley, 1984: 91]
REFERENT REFERENCE SENSE
in the external world between a language and in a language
the external world either real or imaginary abstract abstract Eg 1:
Word referent reference sense
bachelor | a man who has not ever | the relationship unmarried
been married between the word man
bachelor and a certain
unmarried man
Bach | the lovely princess the relationship | Tuyet trang Tuyet |in a fairy tale which I| between the name
have already read Bach Tuyet and the very princess
2.5.2 Type of reference
2.5.2.1.Variable Reference:
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Chapter HI: Word Meaning
Same expression may refer to different objects Or when the same linguistic expression refers to different referents, it has variable reference For example:
“My mother” (referring to the mother of the speaker) may refer to many different ladies depending on different speakers
“Here” in the sentence “I am here” (referring to the place where the speaker is standing) also can refer to different places depending on different speakers Some clues of Variable Reference
e Possessive adjectives: My sister, your brother, the government’s decision Exception: John’s hat (not a referring expression because it refers to
the hat of John only regardless the speaker)
e Demonstrative adjectives and pronouns: this, that, these, those, (this page,
that_book that car is mine )
e Personal pronouns: I, You, He, Me, Him
e Adverbs of place/ time: here, there, then, today, yesterday, now, at the station,
e Articles: the boy in the corner; I want to buy a car 2.5.2.2 Same Reference:
Different expressions refer to the same object Examples:
e Uncle Ho-Ho Chi Minh-Nguyen Ai Quoc- Nguyen Cung-Nguyen Tat Thanh:
all refer to the same person |
e Nia dém (midnight) - Gid Ty (midnight) - Canh ba (midnight): all refer to the same time period
e Vg tdi (female) - Con gai (female) - Dan ba (female) - Nit nhi: all refer the same person of the same gender
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e HCM City and Saigon: both refer to the same city
e Thang Long - Dong do - Hanoi : all refer to the same city e My father is a teacher: both underlined groups of words refer to the same person -
e We chose John leader John and leader refer to the same person ‘ e The Morning Star and The Evening Star Both refer to the same star
2.5.2.3 Constant Reference:
One expression always refers to the same object, (regardless who is the speaker) When one linguistic expression refers to one and the same referent, it ‘has constant reference: the sun, the moon, Halley’s comet, the People’s
Republic of China, Angola, the United Nations, FIFA, UNESCO, etc
e Proper names, especially geographical names: John, Smith, David, Vietnam, England, Russia, China
e Unique things: the sun, the moon, the earth, the east, the west, Halley’s Comet,
2.3.2.4 No reference:
An expression which is meaningful but does not refer to anything,
e Function words: and, but, if, almost,
e Imaginary characters: Batman, Dragon, Superman, Snow White, Tam Cam, 7 e The objects that do not exist now
Eg 1: The king of France is bald (France does not have any king nowadays) Eg 2: The Queen of Vietnam nowadays is a French (there is no Queen in
Vietnam now) ;
Exercise 4: What is identified by the word mean or meaning in the
_ following examples, i.e Reference or Sense? Write R for reference and S
for sense |
1, When Albert talks about “his former friend”, he means me 2 Daddy, what does logic mean?
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Chapter IT: Word Meaning
3 Purchase has the same meaning as buy
4 Look up the meaning of democracy in your dictionary 5 If you look out of the window now, you'll see who I mean Exercise 5 Answer the following questions
1 Does the moon normally have constant reference? Yes/No | 2 Does The People 5 Republic of China normally have constant reference Yes/No 3 Does Angola normally have constant reference? Yes/No
4 Does Haley’s Comet normally constant reference? Yes / No
S If we are talking about a situation in which John is standing alone in the Conner,
can John have the same referent as the person in the corner? Yes/No Exercise 6:
What is intended by the word mean, meaning, meant in the following exam ples, reference (R) or sense (S)?
1 When Helen mentioned “the fruit cake”, she meant that rock-hard
object in the middle of the table R/S
2 When Albert talks about “his former friend” he means me * RIS
3 Daddy, what does unique mean? R/S
’ 4 Purchase has the same meaning as buy R/S, 5 Look up the meaning of apoplexy in your dictionary R/S 6 Ifyou look out of the window now, you’ll see who I mean R/S 7 Iam sorry to have disturbed you when I said ‘will you move your chair’ I
didn’t mean you, I meant John here” | R/S
8 Ifyou look up ochlocracy, you'll find it means government by the mob R/S
Exercise 7:
1 Give an example of an expression that could have variable reference 2 Give an example of an expression that always has constant reference
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3 Give an example of different expressions that having one referent 4 Give an example of an expression that has no reference
Exercise 8: Which of the following is a correct description of ‘reference’? (a) arelationship between expressions and other expressions which have the same
meaning
(b) the set of all objects which can potentially be referred to by an expression (c) arelationship between a particular object in the world and an expression us
ed in an utterance to pick that object out
Exercise 9: Which of the following is a correct statement about ‘sense’? (a) All words in a language may be used to refer, but only some words hav
e sense
(b) Iftwo expressions have the same referent, they always have the same sense (c) The sense of an expression is its relationship to semantically equivalent
or semantically related expression in the same language
Exercise 10: Answer the following questions by choosing Yes or No
1 Imagine that you and I are in the room with a man and a woman, and making no visual signal of any sort I say to you, “the man stole my wallet” In this situation, can you identify the referent of the expression the man? Yes / No
2 Can the referent of the pronoun J be uniquely identified when this pronoun is uttered? Yes / No
3 Can the referent of the pronoun you be uniquely identified when this is pronoun is uttered? Yes / No
2.6 REFERRING EXPRESSIONS 2.6.1 Definition:
A referring expression ‘is any expression used in an utterance to refer to someone or something particular (Hurford & Heasley, 1983: 35) (on the part of the speaker) Ex: + When a speaker says, ‘My father” he has a particular person in mind
=> my father is a referring expression
18
Trang 25Chapter Hi: Word Meaning
+ The name Fred in the utterance “Fred hit me”, where the
speaker has a particular person in mind, is a referring expression + Fredin “There is no Fred at this address” is not a referring expression
because in this case the speaker would not have a particular person in mind
2.6.2 Some clues of referring expression
e Possessive: my friend, Paul’s hat, ves
e Demonstrative: this book, that machine, e Proper name: Smith, David, Vietnam
e Personal Pronouns (only when being uttered): I, You, He,
e Constant Reference (unique thing): the sun, the moon, the earth, _ the east,
the west, Halley’s Comet,
e Past tense: helps to recognize Referring Expression
Eg: Lsaw a boy yesterday I want to go fishing on the lake
My sister is a singer Yesterday, I met a singer
I’m looking for a car to buy
I bought a car in a showroom on Nguyen Hue Street 2.6.3 Not a referring expression
e Something general: family, society, people,
e Representative of social classes or species: the poor, the rich, the elephant, dogs, cats,
e Profession/ Job: singer, teacher, lawyer,
Ex: The singer in “The singer I admire most is SilkBlack” is a RE because it refers to a particular person
A singer in “My sister is a singer” is not a RE because it is a job in general Note: Whether an expression is a referring expression or not heavily dependent linguistic context and on circumstances of the utterance
19
Trang 26Exercise 11:
Could the following possibly be used as referring expressions?
1 John yes /no
2 my uncle yes / no
3 and yes /no
4 the girl sitting there yes/no
5 aman yes /no
6 my parents yes /no 7 send yes / no 8 under yes / no Exercise 12: Underline the referring expressions in the following sentences 1 2 8 9
A man was in here looking for you last night
The first sign of the monsoon is a cloud on the horizon no bigger than a man’s hand
Forty buses have been withdrawn from service by the Liverpool Corporati
on
This engine has the power of forty buses Yesterday, Nancy married a Norwegian
My sister also wants to marry a Norwegian John is looking for a car to buy
Dick believes that a man with a limp killed Bo Peep
The police officer said that a man with a limp killed Bo Peep 10 Every evening at sunset, a swan flew over my house
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Chapter I: Word Meaning
The denotation of a word is the core, central or referential meaning of the word found in a dictionary In English, a content word may have its denotation described in terms of a set of semantic features that serve to identify the particular concept associated with the word
The connotation of a word is the additional meaning that the word has beyond its denotative meaning It shows people’s emotions and/or attitudes towards what the word refers to
Eg 1 Child is denotatively described as [+human], [—mature] and [+male] Under a certain circumstance, child may positively be connoted as
[+affectionate] or [+innocent]
Under another circumstance, child may negatively be connoted as {+noisy] or [+irritating]
Eg 2 Woman is denotatively described as [+human], [+mature] and [+female] Under a certain circumstance, woman may positively be
Connoted as [+devoted] or [+patient]
Under another circumstance, woman may negatively be connoted as [+wicked] or [+talkative]
2.7.2 Distinction between denotation and connotation
The denotation of a word can easily be found in a dictionary while its connotation(s) may probably depend on such factors as (1) the culture in which the word is used; (2) the language user’s family and/or educational background; (3) the language user’s social and/or political class; (4) the language user’s speech community and/or ethnic group; etc In brief, these factors are by virtue of personal and cultural associations
Trang 28Consider the following table and identify denotation and connotation via their
main features
DENOTATION CONNOTATION
what a lexical item means emotions and/or attitudes towards what.a lexical item refers to
core, central referential
peripheral social, affective
EX:
WORD | DENOTATION | CONNOTATION
bachelor - still single after the usual age for marrying unmarried man | - decided by himself to stay single
- enjoying freedom, friendship, life, etc - ready for his impending marriage
Spinster | unmarried - still single after the usual age for marrying woman - not decided by herself to stay single
- left in an unfavorable state - a symbol for some failure in life
December | The twelfth | bad weather (usually rainy or snowy), month of the | dark evening, grey sky, slippery streets,
year, next holiday season, Christmas, winter break,
after November | loneliness, separation from the beloved
Eg 1 The word fox almost always has a negative connotation in English when it is associated with any person who is cunning or deceitful
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Ch apter IT: Word Meaning
- mother/mom (+), woman (©), witch (-);
- father/dad (+), man (@), the old man (—);
- slender (+), thin (©), skinny (—);
- plump (+), overweight (©), fat (—);
Eg 3 Synonyms, words that have the same basic meaning, do not always have the same emotional meaning For example, the words stingy and frugal both mean ‘careful with money.’ However, to call a person stingy is an insult, while the word frugal has a much more positive connotation Similarly, a person wants to be slender but not skinny, and aggressive but not pushy Therefore, you should be careful in choosing words because many so-called synonyms are not really synonyms at all
Exercise 13: Identify all the possible connotations associated with the word
Christmas
Sem wea eee eraser ener sere see Bese e et eHESES ESE eEE REESE REFEREE ERE OEE HH OED HEEB ODE HHO THETA ED ER DBO ROS
Le)
Ce
2.8 MULTIPLE SENSES OF LEXICAL ITEMS
2.8.1 Primary meaning vs secondary meaning
The first and foremost distinction made in multiple senses of a word is between its primary and secondary meanings
2.8.1.1 The primary meaning of a word (or, to be more precise, a lexical item) is the first meaning or usage that the word will suggest to most people when it is said in isolation The primary meaning of the English noun wing,
for instance,
Is ‘either of the pair of feathered limbs that a bird uses to fly?’
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2.8.1.2 Secondary meanings of a word are the meanings besides its primary meaning They’re said to be not central but peripheral
In addition, secondary meanings of a word are context bound whereas its primary meaning is not In He usually plays on the wing, for example, wing means ‘side part of the playing area in football, hockey, etc.’ Such a secondary meaning is derived from the context denoted by the verb plays
2.8.2 Literal meaning vs Figurative meaning
It is time to distinguish then within all the possible meanings of the English
noun wing, for example, those that are literal and those that are figurative
2.8.2.1 “The basic or usual meaning of a word” [Crowther (ed.), 1992: 527] is usually referred to as its literal meaning
Some literal meanings are identified via context in the noun wing:
+Part that projects from the side of an aircraft and supports it in the air: the two wings of an airplane;
+Part of a building that projects from the main part: the east/west wing of a
house;
+Projecting part of the body of a motor vehicle above the wheel: The left wing of his car was damaged in the collision;
+Part of a political party that holds certain views or has a particular function: the radical wing of the Labour Party
2.8.2.2 The figurative meaning of a word is one which is different from its usual (literal) meaning and which create vivid mental images to readers or listeners
Below are some figurative meanings of the noun wing:
- We hope college life will help him to spread his wings a bit (= extend his activities and interests)
- Having a new baby to look after has clipped her wings a bit (= has prevented her from achieving her ambition)
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Chapter II: Word Meaning
- She immediately took the new arrivals under her wing (= looked after the new arrivals)
- He retires as chairman next year; his successor is waiting in the wings (= is ready to replace him)
Trang 32CHAPTER III
SENTENCE MEANING
Sentence meaning is what a sentence means, regardless of the context and situation in which it may be used (Hurford and Heasley, 1984: 269)
3.1 PROPOSITION, SENTENCE AND UTTERANCE
3.1.1 Proposition
A proposition is that part of the meaning of the utterance of a declaration sentence which describes some states of affairs The state of affairs typically involves persons or things referred to by expressions in the sentence In uttering a declarative sentence a speaker typically asserts a proposition (Hurford &Heasley, 1993:19)
Eg 1 The following pair of sentences expresses the same proposition: 1 (a) Harry took out the garbage
1(b) Harry took the garbage out
The following pair of sentences expresses different propositions: 2(a) Isobel loves Tony
2(b) Tony Loves Isobel
Eg 2 The following pair of sentences expresses the same proposition: 3(a) John gave Mary a book
3(b) Mary was given a book by John
The following pair of sentences expresses different propositions: 4(a) George danced with Ethel
4(b) George didn’t dance with Ethel
Exercise 14: Do the two following sentences have the same proposition? Mr Dindlay killed Janet
Mr Dindlay caused Janet to die
Exercise 15: Explain why the two members of each of the following pairs of sentences do not share the same proposition
26
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Chapter IIT: Sentence Meaning
1(a) John is the parent of James 3(a) The fly was on the wall 1(b) James is the parent of John 3(b) The wall was under the fly 2(a) The hunter bit the lion 4(a) Jack was injured by a stone 2(b) The lion bit the hunter 4(b) Jack was injured with a stone 3.1.2 Sentence
“A sentence is neither a physical event nor physical object It is conceived abstractly, a string of words put together by the grammatical rules of a language A sentence can be thought of as the ideal string of words behind various realizations in utterances and inscriptions” [Hurford and Heasley,
1984; 16]
Eg: - A house is struck by lightening last night - Money doesn’t make happiness
3.1.3 Distinction between a proposition and a sentence
“Propositions, unlike sentences, cannot be said to belong to any particular
language Sentences in different languages can correspond to the same proposition, if the two sentences are perfect translations of each other.” [Hurford and Heasley, 1984: 21-22] For example, English J am cold, French
J'ai froid, German Mir ist kalt and Vietnamese Toi lanh can, to the extent to
which they are perfect translations of each other, be said to correspond to the same proposition
3.1.4 Utterance
Utterance is a piece of language (a sequence of sentences, single phrase or a single word) used by a particular speaker on particular situation (Hurford and Heasley, 1983:15)
Eg: - “Hello” - Not much”
~ “Utterance may consist of a single word, a single phrase or single sentence They may consists of a sequence of sentences”
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3.1.5 Distinction between an utterance and a sentence
“The distinction between sentence and utterance is of fundamental importance to both semantics and pragmatics Essentially, we want to say that a sentence is an abstract theoretical entity defined within a theory of grammar, while utterance is the issuance of a sentence.”[Levinson, 1983: 18]
“Utterances of non-sentences, e.g short phrases or single words, are used by people in communication all the time People do not converse wholly in
(tokens of) well-formed sentences But the abstract idea of a sentence is the
basis for understanding even those expressions, which are not sentences In the overwhelming majority of cases, the meaning of non-sentences can be best analyzed by considering them to be abbreviations, or incomplete versions, of whole sentences.” [Hurford and Heasley, 1984: 18]
“The term ‘utterance’ can be used to refer either to the process (or activity) of uttering or to the product of that process (or activity) Utterances in the first of these two senses are commonly referred to nowadays as speech acts;
utterances in the second sense may be referred to - in a specialized sense of
the term- as inscriptions.” [Lyons, 1995: 235]
Eg:
One-word utterances Well-formed sentences
Rebecca: ‘Coffee?’ Would you like some coffee?
John: ‘Sure!’ I’m sure to love it
Rebecca: ‘white?’ Would you like (black coffee or) white coffee? John: ‘Black.’ Id like black coffee, please
Trang 35Chapter II: Sentence Meaning
“Tt is useful to envisage the kind of family tree relationship between the three notions shown in the diagram For example, a single proposition could be expressed by using several sentences (say The Board of Regents deposed the Rector or The Rector was deposed by The Boar of regents) and each of these sentences could be uttered an indefinite number of times.” [Hurford and Heasley, 1984:23]
Also, it is interesting to note that the same proposition can be expressed by different sentences and that the same sentence can be realized by different
utterances on particular occasions |
Exercise 16: Fill in the following chart given by Hurford and Heasley [1984: 23] with ‘+’ or ‘-’ as appropriate Thus, for example, if it makes sense to think of a proposition being a particular regional accent, put a ‘+’ in the appropriate box; if not put a ‘-.’ Utterance Sentence Proposition Can be loud or quiet Can be grammatical or not Can be true or false In particular regional accent In particular language
3.2 LINGUISTIC / LITERAL MEANING (nghia den) The linguistic meaning of a sentence depends on:
- The sum of meanings of constituent words - The syntactic function (subject, object, .)
- The semantic role
Compare the following sentences: (1) The lion bit the hunter
Trang 36(2) The hunter bit the lion
(3) The hunter was bitten by the lion
To understand the meaning of the sentences, we must know the meanings of the
words ‘lion, bite, hunter However, we can use exactly the same words to form
different sentences with the same or different meanings (1) The lion bit the hunter # (2) The hunter bit the lion
S O 5 O
The two sentences (1) & (2) have different meanings because the words have different syntactic functions
(2) The hunter bit the lion_# (3) The hunter was bitten by the lion
5 O S O
The sentences (2) & (3) have different meanings although the words have the same syntactic functions
(1) The lion bit the hunter = (3) The hunter was bitten by the lion,
S O 5 O
The sentences (1) & (3) have the same meaning although the words have different syntactic functions What makes the meaning of the two sentences similar or different? It is what is called semantic roles, the third factor making
up the meaning of a sentence
3.3 FIGURES OF SPEECH / NON-LITERAL MEANING
A figure of speech is “a word or phrase which is used for special effect, and which does not have its usual or literal meaning.” {Richards et al, 1987: 105] 3.3.1 Simile
Simile is “the use of comparison of one thing with another, e.g as brave as a lion, a face like a mask [Crowther (ed.), 1992: 848]
It is incredible to notice that not all comparisons belong to simile, e.g He is much taller than his elder brother Only the comparisons clearly employed as examples of figures of speech do
30
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Chapter IN: Sentence Meaning
3.3.2 Metaphor
Metaphor is “the use of a word or phrase to indicate something different from (though related in some way to) the literal meaning, as in II make him eat his words or She has a heart of stone.” [Crowther (ed.),
1992: 564]
Ex: He eats like a tiger (he eats as much as a tiger does.) He is as poor as a church mouse (he is very poor) 3.3.3 The distinction between Simile and metaphor
A simile is an explicit or direct comparison in which something is compared to something else by the use of a function word such as like or as
- Her hands are as cold as ice (Her hands are very cold)
- Tome eats like an elephant (= Tom eats as much as an elephant does In the other words, Tom’s appetite is explitly compared to that of elephant
A metaphor is An implicit or indirect comparison in which no function word is used Something is described by stating another thing with which it can be compared:
- She has a heart of stone
(= She has a pitiless and unfeeling nature.) - Il make him eat his word |
(= Fll make him admit that what he’s said is wrong.) - He was a lion in the fight
(= He fought bravely and successfully just like a lion in the fight for food.)
- His words stabbed at her heart
(= Like a knife, his words are so sharp that they can cause great pain or much unhappiness for her In other words, his words did not actually stab, but their effect is implicitly compared to the stabbing of a knife.)
3.3.4 Dead metaphors and live metaphors
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Dead metaphors are used so often that they have lost their metaphoric
characteristics: the leg/face of the table, the back of the chair, the mouth of the river, the head of the state, the childhood of the earth, etc
Dead metaphors are in fact idioms or fixed expressions that native speakers of a language give special meanings and use naturally and unconsciously: these speakers do not pay attention to the implicit comparison found in any dead metaphor; they just think directly of its meaning used in a given context -
- He looks as though he hasn’t had a square meal for months (=a large and satisfying meal)
- He washed his hand out of the matter
(= refused to have anything more to do with the matter)
Dead metaphor: a metaphor which has lost its metaphoric characteristics and ˆ become a fixed expression or idiom
EX: the eye of a needle; the head quarter; the foot of the mountain; the leg of the table; the mouth of the river; the face of the table; the back of the chair; the childhood of the earth, etc
A dead metaphor is used naturally and unconsciously by a native speaker of a language
Ex: dau giuong; chan ghé; mat trai xoan; mat bé câu ; trăng lưỡi liềm; etc,
Live metaphors are implied or indirect comparisons which have a variety of figurative meanings through their endless use: Tom isa pig may be interpreted as Tom is short and fat, Tom is slow and lazy, Tom is greedy, Tom is not intelligent, Tom is neither intelligent nor ambitious, etc Live metaphors can only be understood after the implicit comparison found in any of them is seriously considered and fully appreciated Native speakers of a language use live metaphors intentionally and creatively in order to make their speech more vivid, figurative, concise, etc
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Chapter I: Sentence Meaning
Eg: You are a mist that appears for a little time and then vanishes
(= You are implicitly compared to a mist that does not last long, i.e you come and leave quickly.)
Live metaphor: a metaphor used consciously, intentionally by speaker with various figurative meanings
Ex: he is a pig may be interpreted as he is fat; he is lazy; he is stupid; he is dirty, etc, depending on the situation in which it is used Usually there is a metaphor when one:
e Puts 2 different species on the same rank
Eg: He isan old fox (a person = an animal) (he is very wicked)
He is a rock in storm (a person = a thing) (he is strong-minded person) e Applies a feature of one species for another
Eg:
+ Have you digested the lesson yet? “Digest” is a term usually used for food, now is used for study the speaker compares the process of eating and digesting food with learning and understanding (have you carefully understood the lesson yet?
+ He apes your better ‘ape’ a term used for animal is here used for a person who usually imitates others with an ape whose characteristic is to imitate (He imitate you better)
3.3.5 Irony:
Saying the opposite of one”s thought for emphasis, for fun or mocking
Eg
+ He is so kind that let all the housework for me to do (he is not kind at all) + he is so intelligent that no examiner has agree to pass him so far ( he is rather stupid)
3.3.6 Sarcasm:
Bitter irony; sneeringly ironical remarks to the hurt somebody’s feelings
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Eg: + “The more I know about human beings, the more I want to be an animal”
(Jungle Boy) (Human beings are worse than animal!)
+ “Oh yes, we know how clever you are!) “ Well, Mr Know-it-all that is the answer this time?
3.3.7 Synecdoche /si’nekdoki/:
Substitution of the whole for the part and vice vesa
Eg:
+ This work requires an intelligent brain (= person)
+ The war has robbed 2,000 souls of the village (= people)
3.3.8 Metonymy:
Substitution of related words
Eg: The kef¿le is boiling (= the water)
The disease has cut off his breath (= his life) 3.3.9 Ways to identify a metonymy:
¢ Container — Contained (vật chứa và vật được chứa):
Eg: - Very thirsty, he gulped down the whole bottle (= water in the bottle)
- As the teacher entered the room, the whole class stands up (all the students
in the class)
e Author — Works (tac giả và tác phẩm)
Eg: Have you read Nam cao yet? (= the novels of Nam Cao)
This is not a Picasso (= a painting by Picasso) e Profession — Means (nghé nghiệp & phương tiện)
Eg: -Ilive on my pen (= by writing)
- Tyson lives on his gloves (= by boxing)
® Symbol - Reality (biểu tượng & thực tai)