TABLE OF ABBREVIATIONSAbbreviations Standing for AAP-06 NATO glossary of terms and definitions English and French DOD Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms CTT Communicative Termin
Terminology management research ứap
It is common knowledge that specialized texts require the use of specific terminology to be properly understood Military and peacekeeping contexts are no exception In today's society, where science and technology are highly valued, the way we name, organize, describe, and translate specialized concepts has become increasingly important Scientific and technical texts, especially those in the military, rely heavily on these terms or units of specialized knowledge to encode information and provide access to more complex knowledge structures.
Terminology is a relatively new discipline that emerged in response to the need for specialized communication, translation, and knowledge transfer among text users
5 from different language communities with similar knowledge levels It became a subject field with explicit premises because technicians and scientists needed to unify concepts and terms in their respective fields, making professional communication and knowledge transfer easier (Cabre, 2000a) For a long time, the discipline has been searching for a theory that can explain specialized knowledge representation, category organization and description, as well as the semantic and syntactic behavior of terminology units in different languages.
Since the 2000s, terminology has been recognized as an interdisciplinary field, implying a cognitive shift that focuses on meaning, conceptual structures underlying language, and texts in general (Temmerman, 1997, 2000, 2006; Faber, Marquez, and Vega, 2005; Faber et al., 2006, 2007; Faber, 2011) While the world has seen a growing focus on terminology research from a terminology management perspective, particularly through Frame-based Terminology, with EcoLexicon (Faber, 2012) being an excellent example, this area has not received much attention in Vietnam In Vietnam, studies on terminology, of which a more detailed overview is given in Chapter 2, have mainly focused on terminology models, denominalization, structural and semantic characteristics, as well as terms and their transference into Vietnamese Recently, Tuyen's study (2022) identified paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations of highway bridge design terminology using Lexical Functions No studies have been found utilizing frame-based and corpus-based approaches Given their benefits in generating semantic information and conceptual structures underlying a language, it is necessary to conduct a thorough study with its theoretical foundation based on Frame-based Terminology and a combination of research methods including corpus-based analysis.
Having considered the aforementioned reasons, the author conducted the study entitled “Military terminology used in English and Vietnamese military documents — from bilingual terminology management perspective”.
The overarching aim of this study is to manage military peacekeeping terminology in such a way that enables users to access a wider variety of linguistic and conceptual information In other words, a standardized list of alphabetically arranged concepts is transformed into a bilingual terminological knowledge base in which each concept appears within a hierarchy of conceptual categories and a semantic network.
To achieve the above stated aim, the following objectives are set:
- to identify fundamental semantic relations existing among English military peacekeeping terminology
- to identify conceptual categories of English military peacekeeping terminology based on the recognized semantic relations
- to build a bilingual terminological knowledge base via constructing knowledge structures of English military peacekeeping terminology
The research abovementioned objecttives are formulated into the following research questions:
1 What are fundamental semantic relations of English military peacekeeping terminology based on the Frame-based Terminology management approach?
2 How can English military peacekeeping terms be conceptually categorized based on their semantic relations?
3 What bilingual knowledge structures can be generated based on the semantic relations and conceptual categories of English military peacekeeping terms?
It is noted that the linguistic structure served as a means to reflect and extract the domain's structure from the definitions found in the glossary of terminology From term definitions, the semantic relations and general category of each concept are extracted These initial findings are further enriched with semantic relations extracted from the corpus The semantic relations identified in Research Question 1 are then used to relate categories found in Research Question 2 in a general frame-like structure
7 and concepts in semantic networks or knowledge structures The semantic relations and conceptual categories are then to be employed to construct typical knowledge structures which serve as answers to Research Question 3.
It is widely acknowledged that for the cause of international integration and defense diplomacy to be successfully implemented, military terminology management is of great necessity In other words, determining conceptual categories and semantic relations among military terms in the international military settings has a significant role to play However, due to the limitations of time and resources, for this study, the researcher focuses on English and Vietnamese peacekeeping terminology in military peacekeeping texts only Once being successfully employed, this approach is to be recommended for further research conducted on other sub- fields of this military domain.
Data for the study includes the glossary of military peacekeeping terms used by the VNDPO The glossary contains more than 1441 terms arranged in the alphabetic order The glossary was compiled by Vietnamese peacekeeping officers and workers as they collected terms while in mission or during translating There are a number of underlying reasons for the choice of the data Firstly, all terms were collected while being encountered; as a result, they are those that cause most troubles to users (Vietnamese peacekeepers) in the process of understanding and translating Another reason is that these terms are thought to be typical of peacekeeping terminology since they are encountered by most users.
Additionally, semantic relations and conceptual categories of those terms are also the major focus of the current study This information is extracted from definitional analysis (definitions taken from 02 specialized dictionaries including the DOD Dictionary and the AAP06 Dictionary) and text analysis (with the employment of a corpus of military peacekeeping texts compiled with 280 peacekeeping documents of various length including manuals, handbooks, principles etc.) A detailed description of the data is provided in Chapter 3.
As previously mentioned, the study of terminology has undergone a cognitive shift in recent years, with Frame-based Terminology (Faber et al., 2005; Faber et al., 2006; Faber et al., 2007, Faber, 2012, 2015) being the latest approach The main focus of Frame-based Terminology is on: (1) conceptual organization; (2) the multidimensional nature of terminological units; and (3) extracting semantic and syntactic information from multilingual corpora This approach uses "frames," which are cognitive structures based on experience, to provide the background knowledge for language words and how they are used in discourse (Faber and Lopez, 2012, p 23) The key advantage of Frame-based Terminology 1s that it explicitly describes the semantic and syntactic behavior of specialized language units, including the description of conceptual relations and the term's combinatorial potential (Faber, 2009, p 123).
It is believed that frame-based resources enhance access to domain knowledge in a conceptualized way since embedding concepts in a knowledge structure activates associative information in semantic memory and promotes context availability As a result, it is obvious that Frame-based Terminology is one suitable approach that contributes to building a terminological knowledge base in which domain knowledge can be accessed conceptually and semantic and syntactic information can be activated Therefore, this is applicable to the main aim of the study Since Frame-based Terminology is chosen for this study, its research methods include both qualitative and quantitative ones in which semantic analysis, thematic analysis, corpus analysis, focus group interview, and survey questionnaire are employed Further description of the research methods is given in Chapter 3.
Theoretically, the thesis attempts to consolidate theoretical premises of Terminology in general, and the Cognitive shift in Terminology and Specialized Translation in particular, in which Frame-based Terminology is the highlight. Furthermore, the thesis reaffirms the relevance of cross-linguistics and cognitive linguistics to terminological research as well as translation studies.
Methodologically, the study contributes to justifying the possibility of combining definition analysis and corpus analysis in studying and managing peacekeeping terminology with the support of technological advances including Sketch Engine, a German-developed online tool for corpus building and analyzing. This combined method was employed to ensure the adequacy of data collected and the reliability of research findings.
Practically, the findings and final products of the study provide Vietnamese peacekeepers in particular and terminologists in general a new approach to terminology management, from which terms are better organized, classified and utilized This, therefore, is believed to boost the overall productivity at work and the consistency among peacekeepers.
The thesis consists of five main chapters:
Chapter One — Introduction of the study - briefly presents the statement of the problem, the aim and questions of the research, the scope, the methods, the contributions and the organization of the study.
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Cognitive-based terminology theorIes
Over the last 10 years, linguistics theory seems to be in the process of experiencing a cognitive shift (Evans and Green, 2006), which is more focused on meaning and the conceptual network underlying language Cognitive-based Terminology theories, although sharing the similarity with previous theories that concentrate on terms in texts and discourse, incorporate principles from Cognitive Linguistics and Psychology when describing concepts and category structure The most representative contributions within this framework are Sociocognitive Terminology Theory (Temmerman, 1997, 2000, 2006) and Frame-based Terminology (Faber, Marquez Linares, and Vega Expósito, 2005; Faber et al., 2006, 2007; Faber and León Arauz, 2010; Faber, 2011) In the following paragraphs, the author provides detailed discussion of Sociocognitive Terminology Theory.
+ Sociocognitive Terminology Theory Temmerman (1997, 2000) proposed the Sociocognitive Terminology Theory (STT) in response to the inadequacies of the GTT The STT stems from sociocognitive principles and is based on findings generated from the analysis of Life Sciences examples (Temmerman, 1997, 1998a, 1998b, 2000a, 2000b) Within this approach, Terminology's cognitive potential is emphasized in specialized language domains, and terminological variation is considered in relation to verbal, situational, and cognitive contexts in discourse across various communication environments (Temmerman, Kerremans, and Vandervoort, 2005).
The STT aligns with Socioterminology by Gaudin and Cabrés Communicative Theory of Terminology in that it is descriptive rather than prescriptive and focuses on analyzing terms However, unlike the other two approaches, STT does not explore the syntactic behavior of terms to a significant extent The main difference of STT from other theories lies in its emphasis on conceptual organization and category structure
17 from the perspective of Cognitive Linguistics Concepts in the GTT are generally organized based on the conceptual relations of type_of and part_of, whereas sociocognitive theories are proved to have prototype structure and conceptual representations initially take the form of cognitive models What also differentiates STT from others is that it is the first and only approach to truly take the historical and diachronic dimension of terms into consideration.
The STT includes the use of idealized cognitive models to represent relationships between units of understanding These idealized cognitive models are based on the concept proposed by Cognitive Linguistics (Lakoff, 1987) Lakoff (1987, pp 9-28) describes idealized cognitive models as customary conceptual representations of how we perceive and organize reality These models are not objectively present in nature but are created by humans They are idealized because they are theoretical and do not represent specific instances of experience They are cognitive as they are constructed in the mind, and they are models because they endeavor to represent reality.
This model of categorization in Sociocognitive Terminology is based on Rosch’s (1978) Prototype Theory which highlights that various categories are in short of necessary and sufficient conditions for membership Instead, they are classified according to their similarity to an ideal member or prototype, which best represents the category.
The STT presumes that categories are the best way to describe units of understanding, as many of them do not have clear boundaries, and hence cannot be precisely defined Temmerman (2000a, p 225) notes that each category exists within cognitive models Therefore, contrary to the GTT's meaning approach, the STT emphasizes an understanding approach through categorization.
Additionally, while the GTT declared that terminographic definition should be intentional and dictate the position of the concept in the conceptual system, Temmerman and Kerremans (2003) argue that definitions of units of understanding
18 are dynamic and influenced by various parameters, such as the type of unit, knowledge level of the sender and receiver, and the termbase user's profile.
The STT acknowledges the existence of synonymy, polysemy, and figurative language in specialized texts, similar to other approaches Research on Life Sciences (Temmerman,1997, 1998a, 1998b) indicates that while some concepts have clear boundaries, most of them have a prototype structure that includes synonymy, polysemy, and figurative language, which played a crucial role in their naming history (Temmerman, 1997, p 88).
Furthermore, in contrast to the GTT's narrow synchronic approach, the STT advocates for the diachronic study of language As Temmerman (2000a, p 230) argues, analyzing the history of categories is crucial to understanding categorization and naming as it demonstrates that scientific naming is rarely arbitrary, and categorization is a process that takes place over time.
According to Faber (2009), the STT's focus on terms and concepts from a diachronic perspective is among its most valuable contributions In recent years, the STT has integrated ontological analysis approaches and guidelines (Fernandez, Gómez-Pérez and Jurista, 1997; Stabb and Studer, 2009), resulting in a combination of Terminology and ontologies called termontography (Temmerman and Kerremans, 2003; Kerremans, Temmerman, and Tummers, 2003) Temmerman and Kerremans (2003) describe termontography as a multidisciplinary approach that combines theories and methods for multilingual terminological analysis with methods and guidelines for ontological analysis.
Gruber's definition of ontology (1993, p 908) is widely accepted, in which he specifies it as "a formal, explicit specification of a shared conceptualization." The word
"formal" implies that the ontology should be automatically executable; "explicit" means that all ontology elements should have well-defined definitions; and "shared" indicates that the ontology should reflect the collective knowledge of a group of individuals Gruber (1993, p 199) suggests that "conceptualization" is an abstract and simplified view of the
19 world that we want to represent for a specific purpose, and every knowledge base or system is dedicated to some conceptualization, whether explicitly or implicitly The concept of conceptualization forms the foundation for the idea of a knowledge base Although the terms "database" and "knowledge base" are often treated as distinct types of computational representation systems, there are differences between the two Databases organize data to enhance their retrieval, storage, and updating, while a knowledge base does this and also represents knowledge As a result, both are linked to the concept of ontology.
I Meyer, Bowker, and Eck (1992, p 159) suggest that term banks would be more useful to a wider range of individuals, and even to machines, if they included a richer and more organized conceptual component than they currently have This implies that when databases evolve into knowledge bases, the information they contain is improved since they incorporate not only traditional is_a and type_of relationships but also non- hierarchical ones, allowing for the representation of the multi-dimensionality of concepts Boguraev and Pustejovsky (1996, p 9) provide a definition of a lexical knowledge base that could potentially be extended to specialized knowledge:
[ ] the term “lexical knowledge base” [ ] [refers] to a large-scale repository of lexical information, which incorporates more than just static descriptions of words by means of cluster of properties and associated values A lexical knowledge base would state: constraint on word behavior, dependence of word interpretation on context, and distribution of linguistic generalizations It is essentially a dynamic object, as it incorporates, in addition to its information types, the ability to perform inference over them and thus induce word meaning in context.
Frame-based Terminology as a primary theoretical foundation for the study 22 1 Frames and specialized language
Faber (2009, 2011, 2012) introduced an innovative cognitive approach to Terminology called Frame-based Terminology (FBT) The FBT shares several principles with the CTT and the STT, such as acknowledging the continuum between words and terms and the importance of analyzing specialized knowledge elements in authentic texts The FBT blends specific features of Corpus Linguistics, the Lexical Grammar Model (Faber and Mairal, 1999), and Frame Semantics (Fillmore,
1976, 1982, 1985; Fillmore and Atkins, 1992) to organize specialized domains and create visual representations that go beyond language.
Unlike the STT, in which knowledge is organized in idealized cognitive models based on prototypes, the FBT organizes knowledge in frames, the notion defined as
“a schematisation of experience (a knowledge structure), which is represented at the conceptual level and held in long-term memory and which relates elements and entities associated with a particular culturally embedded scene, situation, or event from human experience” (Evans and Green, 2007, p 85) In the words of Faber (2009, p 123), frames are known as “a type of cognitive structure devise based on experience that provides the background knowledge and motivation for the existence of words in a language as well as the way those words are used in discourse However, frames have the advantage of making explicit both the potential semantic and syntactic behavior of specialized language units This necessarily includes a description of conceptual relation as well as a term’s combinatorial potential.”
The FBT method has three primary areas of emphasis Firstly, it focuses on conceptual organization, which is reliant on frames or events Secondly, it accounts for the multidimensional aspect of terminological units by taking into consideration both hierarchical and non-hierarchical relationships Lastly, it extracts semantic and syntactic data from multilingual corpora and dictionaries The FBT makes use of frame-like representations that were originally developed by Fillmore (1985, pp 222—254; 2006, pp. 373-400; Fillmore et al., 2003, pp 298-332) These representations have been modified
22 and adapted to structure specialized knowledge units and their roles in specialized subject domains by incorporating both language-specific and non-language-specific details. Frames are extracted from corpus texts in different languages using knowledge patterns that encode semantic relations (Meyer, 2001; Marshman, 2002) This information is then used to structure categories, create concept frames and to characterize general processes and actions When frames are defined as an action or process with participants, this creates a predicative frame that connects two semantic categories Despite the use of corpus data, it is believed that the resulting frames encode conceptual knowledge that surpasses the specifics of language Hence, the FBT aims to discern how linguistic structures activate or spark frame knowledge.
A frame in the FBT approach is a representation that combines different methods of generalizing semantics for a category or a group of categories On the other hand, a template serves as a representational pattern for individual members of the same category This means that frames act as extensive representations connecting categories through semantic relations As a result, they serve as a foundation for selecting diverse linguistic, cultural, and graphical contexts that are rich in knowledge.
Frame is a cognitive structure tool that relies on experience and provides essential background knowledge and motivation for the existence and usage of words in a language However, frames have an added benefit in that they provide a clear understanding not only of the possible semantic but also the syntactic function of specialized language units This is achieved by outlining conceptual relationships and describing a term's potential for combination with other terms
The broadest interpretation of the notion frame appears in Evan’s (2009) Theory of Lexical Concepts and Cognitive Models and in Barsalou (2003) As mentioned above, frame is defined by Evans (2007, p 85) as “a schematisation of experience (a knowledge structure), which is represented at the conceptual level and held in long-term memory and which relates elements and entities associated with a
23 particular culturally embedded scene, situation, or event from human experience. Frames include different sorts of knowledge including attributes, and relations between attributes” In the words of Fillmore and Atkins (1992, pp 76-77),
A word’s meaning can be understood only with reference to a structured background of experience, beliefs, or practices, constituting a kind of conceptual prerequisite for understanding the meaning [ ] Within such an approach, words and word senses are not related to each other directly [ ] but only by way of their links to common background frames and indications of the manner in which their meanings highlight particular elements of such frames.
Over the past ten years, studies on general language and specialized language have started to share overlapping in perspective, which has been shown via the tendency of lexicographers and lexical semanticists taking a more conceptual approach towards dictionary structure and of terminographers focusing more on conceptual description or definitions of terminological units.
One bright example of this shift in lexicography is Frame Semantics, a semantic theory initiated by Fillmore based on the ‘frame’ construct (Fillmore, 1982, 1985; Fillmore and Atkins, 1992) A fundamental definition of the theory can be found in Fillmore’s quotation:
The frame idea is this: there are certain schemata or frameworks of concepts or terms which link together as a system, which impose structure or coherence on some aspects of human experience (Fillmore, 1975, p 123)
What this means is that knowledge is always structured in chunks or networks. Humans have access to a large variety of frames that they can use to grasp the meaning of different situations they encounter Speakers use frames to conceptualize their ideas, express their thoughts, and understand messages that they receive. Frames are connected with linguistic options like individual words, a group of words, a syntactic structure, or even intonation patterns The sources of frames are
24 diverse: some originate from innate abilities of our perceptual system, while others come from observing the world, or from cultural or social factors Fillmore identifies two types of frames in his studies:
Interaction frames that include frames like “saluting frame,” which incorporates information such as the correct usage of phrases like “Good morning, Sir/Mam” - it's only to be said once, before noon and with the expectation of a response.
Terminology managemen
planning It is, therefore, necessary to offer a brief discussion about language planning. Coined by Haugen (1966), the term language planning refers to measures that are taken by official agencies to influence, usually to motivate the use of one or more languages in a specific speech community Cooper (1989, p 45) defines language planning as:
“deliberate efforts to influence the behaviors of others with respect to the acquisition, structure (corpus) or functional allocation (status) of their language codes.” The definition of language planning by Cooper (1989) is identified to be appropriate for this study as it is concerned with a deliberate effort to facilitate the acquisition of peacekeeping terms with respect to conceptual contents rather than the authoritative allocation of resource In other words, language planning can be carried out not only by authorities but also by other concerning people A new direction in the theorization on language planning is evident in work by Jernudd (1993, 1997) who proposed the construct of language management,
52 which has the grassroot or bottom up orientation, which employs data from the way individuals cope or fail to cope with communication challenges With the management framework, only problems that are present in discourse receive attention (Antia, 2000).
Terminology management as described by Wright & Budin (2001) is any deliberate manipulation of terminological information, which includes practical terminology management being conducted by numerous engineers, biologists, chemists, and social scientists for the purpose of achieving precise and unambiguous language in the form of both the concepts and the corresponding terms; the systematic recording of such information and its presentation as dictionaries, terminology collections, and terminology databases; the ad hoc retrieval of such information with an aim to facilitating translation and interpreting, and text production as a function of technical communication, and information management.
Faber (2012) explains that terminology management can be descriptive, prescriptive, or normative Descriptive terminology management involves documenting how terms are used, whereas prescriptive terminology management documents preferred usage, and normative terminology management documents terms used in standard work or governmental regulation Prescriptive and normative management are often seen as the same type because they strive for consistency through standardization Terminology standardization is typically carried out in institutional or corporate settings, such as the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, where communication can be hindered by ambiguity and variation In contrast, descriptive terminology management helps users, such as translators, make informed choices but does not dictate their choices (Wright and Budin, 1997) It is designed to support learning (Riggs and Budin, 1997), and it recognizes and accounts for diversity and cross-cultural variations, as demonstrated through the analysis of terms in vivo (Dubuc and Lauriston, 1997) in tools such as EcoLexicon.
The primary difference between descriptive and prescriptive terminology management is their objectives Descriptive management aims to document the richness
53 of language, while prescriptive management aims to ensure uniformity However, an integrated approach could benefit both perspectives by recognizing the significance of consistency for descriptive terminology and taking context into account for prescriptive terminology Standardization processes do not always achieve their aims because they can evolve separately from real language use if they do not consider actual language practices (Guespin and Laroussi, 1989) Moreover, effective communication requires more than just standardization Dynamic access to subject-field knowledge is also crucial, which prescriptive and normative approaches often overlook in favor of consistency. However, standardization-driven resources can still be conceptually organized, as seen in WIPO's multilingual terminology portal, while maintaining their normative aim.
While previous studies lie in the scope of prescriptive Terminology focusing on term standardization, this doctoral thesis identifies itself as descriptive since it has pedagogical and practical purposes, taking the best advantages of the researcher as an English linguist with previous experience in teaching, interpreting, and translating military and peacekeeping documents.
Bilingual Terminology Management Terms refer to single words or multi-word expressions associated with a specific field or domain Bilingual terminologies play a crucial role as valuable resources, offering numerous advantages not only for human cross-lingual communication but also for addressing challenges related to natural language processing For instance, bilingual terminology significantly enhances the quality of machine translation by enabling more accurate and contextually relevant translations of terms (Ar can, Turchi, Tonelli, and Buitelaar, 2014) Additionally, bilingual terminology can help tackle the problem of language mixing in documents, which complicates text processing and comprehension (Gu, Hassan, and Sarkar, 2019) In military texts, the use of English terms within Vietnamese content is increasingly common, such as the interchangeability of "sơ tan ý tế" and
"Medevac" "mệnh lệnh" and "commana" and so on Bilingual term resources offer
54 valuable support in managing this issue and serve as essential tools for cross- language information retrieval.
Bilingual terminology management refers to the practice of systematically organizing and standardizing terminology in two languages This process is particularly important in fields such as translation, localization, and technical writing, where accuracy and consistency of terminology are crucial This process consists of the following key components:
Terminology Management: This involves the systematic collection, organization, and standardization of terms used in a specific subject area or industry It ensures that consistent and accurate terminology is used across documents, projects, or translations.
Bilingual Aspect: In the context of bilingual terminology management, the focus is On managing terminology in two languages This is especially relevant for translation projects, where maintaining consistency between the source and target languages is essential.
Terminology Database: Often, bilingual terminology is stored in a database or a specialized tool This database contains pairs of terms in the source language and their equivalent translations in the target language This helps translators, writers, and other stakeholders maintain consistency and accuracy throughout the translation or content creation process.
Localization: Bilingual terminology management is particularly relevant in the localization of content When adapting products, software, or content for different linguistic and cultural contexts, it is crucial to use consistent and accurate terminology in both the source and target languages.
Quality and Efficiency: Effective bilingual terminology management contributes to the overall quality and efficiency of translation and localization processes It helps reduce the risk of errors, enhances clarity, and streamlines communication across language barriers.
In summary, bilingual terminology management is a systematic approach to handling and standardizing terms in two languages, ensuring accuracy and
55 consistency in translation and localization efforts In this study, the word bilingual is understood and referred to as the subtask of generating Vietnamese translations for English military peacekeeping terminology in the proposed knowledge structures. This task involves extracting Vietnamese equivalents in correspondent peacekeeping texts when available and proposing Vietnamese equivalents of English peacekeeping terms in the glossary However, as mentioned earlier, since military peacekeeping is a quite nascent field, the number of documents and texts translated or written into Vietnamese is still limited, making it difficult to extract Therefore, within the scope of this study, the word bilingual mainly refers to the provision of Vietnamese equivalents of English peacekeeping terms based on the author’s understanding of the contexts, semantic relations and conceptual categories.
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Talmy (2000) discusses the human conceptual system's second part, which provides a detailed, content-rich representation of an individual scene or concepts based on semantic relations In the past, term-bases primarily used generic-specific and part- whole conceptual relations, with less focus on ontological relations However, non- taxonomic relations between concepts are crucial in the definition process but remain poorly researched, and there is no consensus on the most suitable type of relation for conceptual representation Rogers (2004, p 218) The type, nature, and power of an entity generally dictate its semantic relations, and the top-level distinctiveness of a concept has a significant impact on its core inventory of relations.
Faber (2012) argues that a greater array of conceptual relations than traditional generic-specific and part-whole ones can provide terminological knowledge bases with greater coherence and dynamism In the peacekeeping knowledge base, each concept is associated with others through a set of conceptual relations, including some domain- specific ones This set of conceptual relations has made the knowledge in the term-base more coherent and dynamic In terms of semantic relations, as shown in Table 2.4, the inventory of semantic relations consists of 13 types as highlighted by Faber (2012).
1 type_of a term is a subclass 2 part_of a term is a part of of its parent a concept
3 phase_of a type of part_of relation, | 4 made_of links objects to the material but applied to a process that they are made of
5 takes_place_in describes the context of events that have spatial, temporal dimensions
6 located_at relevant when the site of an object is an essential feature for its description conceptual entity because of an event initiated by another
7 attribute_of useful for concepts | 8 has_function | made for a specific function or described by specialized done with a specific purpose. adjectives Domain-specific sub-types: measures, studies, represents
9 affects encodes the changes | 10 effected_by | only used for instruments experienced by one that participate in an event or which are used to create a new entity
11 delimited_by connected to the part_of relation, mainly geographic entities
12 result_of relevant to events that are derived from other events and to entities that are created by other events
13 causes links entities and event, is the inverse of result_of
From the definitions of terms mission and mission assignment in Figure 2.7, it is inferred that mission is defined as a task or a duty (genus), which makes category membership explicit From the analysis of differentiae, the roles participating in a military event (agent, action, patient, result) and the semantic relations can be extracted, according to which the domain can be structured.
Definitions of terms (DOD 2021) mission — 1 The task (agent/type_of), together with the purpose, that clearly indicates (action/has_function) the action (patient/part_of) to be taken and the reason therefore (JP 3-0) 2 In common usage, especially when applied to lower military units, a duty (agent/type_of) assigned to an individual or unit; a task 3.
The dispatching (agent/type_of) of one or more aircraft to accomplish one particular task (objective/result_of) (JP 3-30)
57 mission assignment — The vehicle (agent/type_of) used (action/used_during) by the Department of Homeland Security/Emergency Preparedness and
Response/Federal Emergency Management Agency to support
(action/has_function) federal operations (patient/affects) in a declared Stafford Act major disaster or emergency declaration that orders immediate, short-term emergency response assistance when an applicable state or local government is overwhelmed by the event and lacks the capability to perform, or contract for, the necessary work (JP 3-28)
Each conceptual relation has its corresponding inverse relation, such as superordinate_of type_of, result_of causes, and part_of has_part The diagram below demonstrates the potential combinations of concept and relation types Concepts are divided into three groups: entities, events, and properties, with entities consisting of both physical and mental objects Events may be either processes or states, and properties are characteristics.
Specialized areas, such as peacekeeping, are characterized by a high level of multidimensionality (Rogers, 2004), leading to the accumulation of activated relations by concepts This accumulation is closely associated with the semantic roles that the concepts can assume.
Combinatorial potential of concept types and relation types (Faber, 2012) concept types
Combination of qualia structure and conceptual relations Specialized knowledge representation in the peacekeeping domain involves linking concepts to their qualia roles and an inventory of conceptual relations Figure 2.8 demonstrates how these relations correlate with the role of each concept type, unveiling the macrostructure and microstructure of all concepts Qualia are useful in specialized language and can be applied to each concept based on its nature, allowing for a specific combinatorial potential and the activation of a set of relations, as depicted in Figure 2.9 Their application provides a model through which contextualized conceptual systems can be systematically described, allowing for the categorization of prototypical conceptual information or templates for conceptual description This approach is relevant for both definition creation and natural descriptions of specialized concepts.
Combination of the concept typology and conceptual relations with qualia roles. (Pustejovsky, 2001)
Fe Constitutive roles) ————*í PART_OF ằ Artifactual (Telic role) ———— — SAN Hae
Complex (Agentive role) ———————ằ (HiAS_ PATIENT
Natural (Formal and [ — „ớ PART ỉFE —,
Complex (Agentive role) —————————ằ{ HAS_PATIENT
> Complex (Agentive role) = — HAS_PATIENT, os ~ *(RESOLTIOR
> Artifactual (Telic role) —— be Complex (Agentive role)
One fundamental principle of terminology and terminography is represented via the connection between term and definition As in the words of Rey (1979):
[ | the words definition and term are linked by a common characteristic: etymologically they both indicate the fixation of a limit, of an end and its results At the conceptual level, for a word to deserve the status of a term, it must, as an element of a whole terminological system, be distinguishable from any other such word, i.e., from other terms The only way of formalizing this system of reciprocal distinctions is by means of the operation known as “definition”.
The dissimilarity between terminological definitions and terminographic definitions is that the latter aims to describe concepts that already exist in a pre- existing system, whereas the former originates new concepts.
A terminology is made up of all the terms belonging to a specific field and represents an actual definitional system, reflecting the coordinated structure of a distinct domain Terms are organized into a structured system that mirrors their conceptual organization Defining terminologies, whether it be terminological or terminographical, necessitates a conceptual analysis Both terminologists and terminographers view defining as the act of describing, defining and distinguishing concepts Sager (1983) asserts that their definitions establish classifications, hierarchies, and structures.
Over time, terminographical definitions were associated with intensional definitions, where definitions were simply lifted from various dictionaries, termbases or knowledge resources, without considering their internal structure and coherence. Nonetheless, definitions serve as mini-knowledge-representations, and thus, the organization of information encoded in definitions should align with their perceptual salience However, it is equally important to consider the definitions of other related
60 concepts within the same category (Faber, 2002) As such, terminographical definitions have garnered increased attention from researchers.
Strehlow (1993), also asserts that using definition statements alone to represent concepts is not sufficient for certain specialized terms He highlights that the representation of a definition structure mirrors a conceptual representation and thus, reveals elements such as genus (referring to the domain or higher-level category to which the concept belongs), species (pertaining to sub-domains), differentiae (describing essential characteristics that distinguish the concept from others within the same category), and accident (portraying non-prototypical characteristics of the concept).
Martin (1998, p 191) similarly emphasizes that frames, which are representations of knowledge based on clichés and organized in the format of slot- fillers, can be utilized as templates for definitions to present conceptual structure consistently and with greater elasticity Faber and Tercedor (2001) also regard definitions as mini-representations of knowledge that necessitate a definitional frame or template for each category Temmerman (2000) suggests creating a definitional model for describing units of understanding He distinguishes traditional concepts from units of understanding, defining the latter as concepts that exhibit a prototypical structure based on intra-categorical and Inter- categorical information Once a concept is logically or ontologically classified, its explanation follows an intensional definition In contrast, templates for prototypical structures activate broader conceptual frameworks in the form of frames Frames or definitional templates explicitly represent the prototypical structure of the conceptual description of an entity, while frame components may be expressed in terms of qualia.
Qualia roles proposed by Pustejovsky can be combined with frames since they provide a structured way to organize various types of information in definitions. These roles bear similarities to ontological structures because they contain
61 information that is typically considered extra-linguistic This characteristic allows them to serve as label slots in definitional templates or frames, explicitly presenting how extra-linguistic knowledge is integrated into a lexical entry.
Previous related stud1es . - che 75 2.8 Summary of Chapter TWO . c che 82
This section aims at highlighting research gaps by reviewing a number of works done both domestically and internationally on terminology management including those employing on FBT approaches.
Regarding general terminological studies, the first terminological work in Vietnam was conducted by Han (1942) The work “Scientific Vocabulary” or
“Vocabulaire Scientifique” is composed of 6,000 terms describing concepts of natural sciences based on the source language of French According to the research findings, Vietnamese terms are formed by three different ways: terminologizing conventional language, borrowing from Chinese and transcribing sounds from Anglo European languages “Vocabulaire Scientifique” is the first Vietnamese-French contrastive dictionary of natural sciences It was based on General Terminology Theory, which pertains “concepts and categories have clear cut boundaries” and the “one-two-one correspondence between terms and concepts.” Terminological definitions were also intentionally based on the part_of and type_of conceptual relations.
In recent times, there have been notable studies in the field of terminology. Minh's (2005) research delves into English and Vietnamese medical terminology and proposes methods for developing medical English for Specific Purposes textbooks and dictionaries, and standardizing medical terms The report presents a list of roots, prefixes, suffixes, and linking elements in medical terms in English and offers
75 recommendations for transferring English terms to Vietnamese while maintaining their systematic and international attributes.
Huyen (2013) conducts a study investigating Civil Engineering terms with the purpose of terminology standardization, examining the structural and denominalization characteristics of Vietnamese civil engineering terms denoting concepts and objects in various CE specialized dictionaries The results include the number of components of terms and show that the denominalization characteristics of Civil Engineering terms include both simple and complex syntactic relationships.
30 characteristics of Civil Engineering terms are identified, forming the basis for denominalization, with 12 typical characteristics such as functions, qualities, objects, forms, and materials.
In her doctoral thesis, Loan (2015) analyzes Intellectual Property Laws terminology from three perspectives, namely structural components, term formation models, and formation mechanism of English Intellectual Property Laws terms The study investigates structural models of terms in 10 Intellectual Property Laws fields and concludes that terms comprise different interconnected components. Additionally, it determines that each term element has its own meanings and denotes one or more properties of the concept it describes Terms are viewed as discrete units that are closely connected to the ontology of the specialized field.
In another research, Hong (2015) studies nomenclature characteristics of police terms in Chinese from meaning perspective The study used a sample of 500 police terms selected randomly out of 5074 term units from the “Standardized Dictionary of
Police Terms”, covering nine different domains The author discussed the different nomenclature bases and methods for police term formation, comprising 15 different bases, such as Characteristics, Material, Purpose, Time, Quantity, Functions, Shape, Devices, Causes, Color, Scope, Location, Method, Degree, and Motivation The number of terms formed based on each nomenclature basis is counted, and the author concludes that denominalization reflects the cognitive nature of police terms.
Thiet's (2018) study investigates typical characteristics of English Telecommunications terminology from structural and semantic perspectives, aiming to recommend English-Vietnamese term translation methods and improve English for Specific Purposes teaching and learning at the Telecommunication Academy. The data for the study includes 3,788 English and Vietnamese Telecommunications terms from dictionaries, textbooks, and documents collected from various sources. The study used descriptive methods, direct compositional analysis, statistical analysis, categorization, and comparative and contrastive translation analysis to identify the structural and semantic models of English Telecommunications terms by analyzing their structural characteristics, number of components, grammatical relationships, and word class characteristics.
The doctoral thesis of Tuyen (2022) explores Transport Construction Engineering terminology using a language planning-oriented approach based on lexical relations in lexical semantics The study aims at optimizing term resources’ usefulness to English-speaking students studying a specific specialized subject in Transport Construction Engineering The research found that there were 6,737 lexical relations in the Paradigmatic group, which make up 3/4 of the total 8,246 relations These Paradigmatic Lexical Relations are divided into four main groups, each with several sub-types: Meronymy (Partitive), Substitutive, Typical category for Actants, and Typical Nouns for Adverbials The second category of Syntagmatic Lexical Relations consists of 1,509 example relations out of the total number of 8,246 relations, categorized into three groups: Nominal collocations, Verbal collocations, and Prepositional collocations The example relations were analyzed from a meaning perspective to identify the multi-relationships of the term systems The investigation of students’ opinions revealed that they expect to acquire both content and linguistic knowledge, but the semasiologically organized terms provided to them are often treated as separate units without term relations Students welcomed the new
77 onnomasiologically term products of an individual specialized event, which presented both paradigmatic and syntagmatic LRs.
With respect to FBT-based terminological studies, EcoLexicon (Faber, 2012) is a practical and notable one, contributing to producing in the environmental knowledge base of EcoLexicon (http://ecolexicon.ugr.es) EcoLexicon presents the conceptual structure of the specialized domain of the Environment using a visual thesaurus that configures environmental concepts in semantic networks The interface languages of EcoLexicon are English and Spanish, even though it is available in six different languages, because they are thought to be familiar and understood by most users EcoLexicon caters to the needs of various user types, including students, translators, and specialists.
It is notable that in EcoLexicon searches can be done by concepts or by terms, and can be constrained to a specific contextual domain (i.e climatology, ecology, meteorology, oceanography, zoology etc.)
User interface of EcoLexicon — Entry for ESTUARY
+ Definition || History | Search results | A-Z | Path | Search concordances
| Categories hierarchy o Food interval og
Y Agent (A) ằ Natural Agent (A.1) Tidal ourrent ằ Artificial Agent (A.2)
Y Patient (C.1) Salt-wedge estuary Estuarine oceanography v P ằ Coast feature (C.1.1.1)
Material (C.1.1.3) Layering Ỳ kK Partially mixed estuary Artificial Patient (C.1.2) ằ Result of natural process (C.2)
Attributes / measurement of (D.1) ằ Representation of (D.2) Simulation / prediction of (D.3)
> instruments / procedures of description of (D.5)
Figure 2.12 illustrates a conceptual network that connects the searched concept to all other relevant concepts The left side of the screen displays modules such as Agent, Process, Patient, and Description etc to provide linguistic, graphical, and conceptual information about the concept in question.
EcoLexicon presents conceptual information in three different ways Firstly, the semantic network for each concept is provided Secondly, a link to the conceptual category allows users to access the ontology classes related to the searched concept. For example, Figure 2.12 shows that ESTUARY can be conceptualized as a type of OUTFALL or an ENTITY influencing CURRENT.
EcoLexicon employs a set of conceptual relations to link concepts to each other. These relations are either hierarchical (is_a, type_of, part_of) or non-hierarchical (made_of, phase_of, delimited_by, located_at, and attribute_of), and are highlighted by different knowledge patterns The conceptual relations and their corresponding knowledge patterns in EcoLexicon are presented in a table below.
Knowledge patterns and their conceptual relations (León and Reimerink, 2010, p 20)
Conceptual relation Knowledge pattern is_a Such as, range from, include part_of Include, consist of, formed by/of made_of Consist of, built of/from, constructed of, formed of/by/from located_at Form in/at/on, found in/at/on, take place at/in, located at/in result_of Caused by, leading to, derived from, formed when/by/from has_function Designed for/to, built to/for, purpose is to, used to/for effected_by Carried out with, by using
According to the information extracted from the Definition module, A HURRICANE is defined as: tropical cyclone [type_of] with sustained winds of 118 kms per hour or greater [attribute_of], in the North Atlantic Ocean, Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, and in the eastern North Pacific Ocean [has_location], and
79 which is called ‘typhoon’ [type_of], in the western Pacific and ‘cyclone’
[type_of], in the Indian Ocean.
In addition to the relations described in the previous definition, EcoLexicon provides additional information about the concept of HURRICANE For instance, a hurricane occurs during the HURRICANE SEASON and can cause various phenomena such as TORRENTIAL RAIN, STORM SURGE, FLOODING, LANDSLIDE, or TORNADO The EYE, EYEWALL, and RAINBANDS are components of a hurricane (part_of), and it is categorized as a LOW ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE AREA, with its intensity measured by the SAFFIR- SIMPSON HURRICANE SCALE.
Building bilingual peacekeeping knowledge structures based on 154
From all of the entries in the glossary, a first set was selected and queried in the corpus based on the multiword terms that contained a common head In this way, conceptual gaps in the glossary were easily identified and new concepts were rapidly accommodated in the conceptual structure derived from the glossary For example, there are terms that contain EVACUATION as their head such as AEROMEDICAL EVACUATION Nevertheless, not all of the compounds reflected in the corpus were included in the glossary, including CASUALTY EVACUATION, IN-MISSION EVACUATION, OUT-OF-MISSION EVACUATION and EVACUATION FACILITIES In addition, based on the concordances of EVACUATION (Figure 4.12), which can be re-utilized as contexts in the knowledge base, numerous other types of information can be extracted For instance, such information as the locations (SEAPORTS, RIVERS, THEATERS
OF OPERATION) where EVACUATION is conducted were also available in the corpus or transport means (HELICOPTERS or MILITARY VEHICLES) which are employed This is true as regards to other frames.
In addition, apart from definitions and corpus information, language structure of compound terms can also be used to extract important information about semantic relations It also is the head of many multi-word expressions (MWEs), which are a
154 frequent way to condense and concentrate domain-specific knowledge (Sager et al.,
1980; Stekauer et al., 2012; Fernández-Domínguez, 2016).
From the data collected from the analysis of terms’ definitions and corpus analysis, the researcher then constructed bilingual knowledge structures of terms and events Unlike the terminological resources of EcoLexicon (Faber, 2012) or MiliMarco (Faber and Araúz, 2019), of which representations are in 3D and interactive form (as described in Chapter Two), the terminological resource of this study was represented in a basic 2D form due to scarcity of technological and financial resources.
In addition, within the scope of this study as well as due to the limitations of time and efforts, for this study only, the bilingual knowledge structures of 05 typical events of the peacekeeping domain were built including:
As can be seen from these figures, each knowledge structure consists of a head word, supported by a network of semantic relations (green lines) connecting it to other terms (either single words or multiwords) The knowledge structures also include Vietnamese equivalents (red color).
Take the knowledge structure of OPERATION (Figure 4.40) as an example. The head term is OPERATION, which are connected to other terms via four semantic relations: type_of, consists_of, attribute_of and takes_place_in.
The type_of relation shows that there are 6 types of operation found in the data sources These include: peace operation, combat operation, counter-terrorism operation, casualty evacuation operation, surveillance operation, and medical operation Peace
155 operation itself is composed of peace enforcement operation, peacekeeping operation, peacebuilding operation and peacemaking operation, whereas medical operation consists of surgical operation and medical evacuation operation The takes_place_in relation reveals that operation can be conducted in rural or urban areas It can also be implemented on air.
It can be seen from the consists_of relation that operation involves tactical action and military mission, which exists in various forms including strategic mission, operational mission, tactical mission, service mission, training and administrative mission.
The attribute_of relation illustrates various features of an operation To be more specific, operation should have one common purpose and one unifying theme It is normally a high-risk one and sometime sensitive Also, it can be conducted by joint forces. 4.3.3 Vietnamese translational equivalents of English military peacekeeping terms
As discussed in the previous paragraphs, based on the analysis of terms definitions and the corpus, more information is available to an event or a knowledge structure While all 1441 terms which were collected by peacekeepers were listed in the glossary with the accompany of their Vietnamese equivalents, the author then translated all newly identified terms into Vietnamese In this study, only the terms related to the five aforementioned knowledge structures were taken into consideration. Table 4.34
Suggested Vietnamese translations of terms in EVACUATION knowledge structure
Glossary terms Vietnamese Newly identified Vietnamese equivalents terms equivalents
1 | Evacuation Sự rút lui, sự sơ tán | Landing zones Điểm đáp thương bình, sự tan cư
2 | Non-combatant Sự di tan người không | Evacuation routes Tuyén đường sơ tan evacuation trực tiếp tham gia chiến đấu
3 | Aeromedical Sự sơ tán y té bằng | Airfields Sân bay evacuation đường không
4 | Casualty Su tan, vận chuyén Evacuation facilities | Co sở vật chất sơ evacuation thuong binh va bénh binh tán
5 | Evacuee Người được sơ tán Land-medical Sơ tán y tế bằng evacuation đường bộ
6 In-mission (tactical) | Sơ tan chién thuật evacuation
7 Out-of-mission So tan chién lược
9 Humanitarian Nhân viên nhân đạo workers
12 Health services Trung tâm y té
13 Theater of operation Chién truong
Suggested Vietnamese translations of terms in ASSAULT knowledge structure
Glossary terms Vietnamese Newly identified Vietnamese equivalents terms equivalents
1 | Air assault Tan cong bang duong | Armed assault Tan cong vii trang không
2 | Airbourn operation Chién dich trén không | Physical assault Tan công vật lý
3 | Assault echelon Đội hình tấn công Psychological assault Tan công tâm lý
4 Sexual assault Tấn công tình dục
5 Life-threatening De doa cuộc song
6 Body injury Chan thương cơ thé
7 Amphibious Chiến dịch đồ bộ operation
8 Short attack Tan công chớp nhoáng
9 Violent attack Tan công bao luc
10 Well-ordered attack | Tấn công gọn
Suggested Vietnamese translations of terms in OPERATION knowledge structure
Glossary terms Vietnamese Newly identified Vietnamese equivalents terms equivalents
1 | Peace operation Chién dich hoa binh Counter-terrorism Chién dich chong operation khủng bố
2 | Peacekeeping Chiến dịch gin giữ hoa | Casualty evacuation | Chiến dich sơ tán operation binh operation thuong vong
3 | Peacebuilding Chién dich kién tao | Surveillance Chiến dịch trinh sát operation hòa bình operation
4 | Military mission Nhiệm vụ quân sự Medical operation Chién dich y té
5 | Combat operation Chién dich chién dau Surgical operation Chiến dịch phẩu thuật
6 | Peacemaking Chiến dịch xây dựng | Medical evacuation | Chiến dich sơ tán y operation hòa bình operation té
7 | Peace enforcement | Chiến dich thực thi | Rural operation Chién dich nong operation hoa binh thon
8 Urban operation Chién dich thanh thi
9 Air operation Chiến dich trên không
11 Strategic military | Nhiệm vu quân sự action cấp chiến lược
12 Operational military | Nhiệm vụ quân sự action cấp chiến dịch
13 Tactical military | Nhiệm vụ quân sự action cấp chiến thuật
14 Service military | Nhiệm vu quân sự action quân bình chúng/ dich vụ
15 Training military | Nhiệm vụ quân sự action huấn luyện
16 Administrative Nhiệm vụ quân sự military action hanh chinh
17 Common purpose Mục ấích chung
18 Unifying theme Chu dé thong nhất
19 High-risk Rui ro cao
21 Joint Binh chung hợp thanh
Suggested Vietnamese translations of terms in MINE knowledge structure
Glossary terms Vietnamese Newly identified Vietnamese equivalents terms equivalents
1 | Mine action Hanh động bom min Military mine action | Hanh động bom min quan su
2 | Mine warfare Chiến tranh bom min | Civilian mine action | Hanh động bom min dân sự
3 | Minefield Bai min Mine action | Trung tâm diéu phối coordination center | hành động bom min
4 | Mine hunting Ra bom min Mine action plans Kéhoach hành động bơm mìn
5 Midium-term mine | Kế hoạch hành động action plans bom mìn trung hạn
6 Long-term mine | Kế hoạch hành động action plans bơm mìn dài hạn
7 Mine clearance Phá bom mìn
8 Explosive device Vật liệu nổ
Suggested Vietnamese translations of terms in SEARCH AND RESCUE knowledge structure
Glossary terms Vietnamese Newly identified Vietnamese equivalents terms equivalents
(already included) (suggested) Distressed person | Nguoi gặp nan Reaction force Luc lượng phán ứng Search and rescue Cứu hộ cứu nạn Survivor search and rescue
Tìm kiêm, cứu nạn người còn sông sót
3 |Search and rescue | Điểm cứu hộ cứu nạn | Firefighting search | Tim kiếm, cứu nạn point and rescue hoa hoan
4 | Search and rescue | Vàng cứu hộ cứu nạn | Explosion search and | Tim kiếm, cứu nạn region rescue sau vu nổ
7 Surface craft Tàu mat nước
8 Specialized Dung cụ cứu hộ equipment chuyén dung
9 Specialized rescue | Đội cứu hộ team
10 Prvide aids Cung cap viện trợ
11 Medical care Chăm sóc y tế
14 Shelter Nơi ăn ở (tạm thời)
18 Coast guard Cảnh sát biển
19 Civil aviation Hàng không dân sự
The translation of terms was conducted mainly based on the author’s previous knowledge of the domain and the contexts in which the terms appeared As a result, it is of great necessity for the translations to be validated by users including peacekeeping experts and peacekeepers performing missions both at home and abroad For this to be done, term translations were imported into the knowledge structures, which was subsequently delivered to users A questionnaire and a focus group interview was administered afterwards among a population of users to generate their viewpoints and evaluation of the proposed products, which is to be further discussed in the following paragraphs.
Bilingual knowledge structure of EVACUATION helicopters trực thông evacuation routes evacuation facilities various transport means tuyến đường sơ tan cơ sở vat chốt sơ tan phương tiện sơ ton P ủ lục military vehicles xe quan sy air fields q sôn boy prevent illness or injury clearance (mies) hhas_function aero-medical evacuation so tan y tế bằng đường không patients medical evacuation seaports bệnh nhôn cỏng biển lond-medicol evacuation so tan y tế bằng đường bộ, humanitarian workers casualty evacuation rivers nhôn viên nhôn deo
6 S ton fhương vong sông ngồi
7 non-combatants in-mission (tactical) evacuation health services người không trục tiếp chiến đấu so tan chiến thuột trung tôm y tế out-of-mission (strategic) evacuation theater of operation sơ tan chiến lược chiến trường
Summary of Chapter FOUT . c<<s<<s+ 177
In summary, in this chapter, the main findings of the study have been presented in details First of all, data in the terminological definitions and corpus was analyzed to extract fundamental semantic relations The findings revealed that there were a total of
22 fundamental semantic relations were identified, among which type_of, has_function and attribute_of were the three most popular ones, ranking first, second and third Other
19 relations included involves, effected_by, part_of, takes_place_in, affects, takes_place_before/during/after, conducted by, located_at, result_of, causes, for_reason_of, excludes, subordinate_to, coordinates, and phase_of, delimited_by and method_of With respect to the conceptual categorization of terms, all concepts were classified into five categories namely ENTITY, ACTION, SITUATION, MEASUREMENT and ATTRIBUTE ENTITY was the biggest group of all, consisting more than a thousand terms It was followed by ACTION as the second largest, ATTRIBUTE, MEASURE and SITUATION Each of these five categories were also sub-divided into various smaller groups The findings above were then utilized to construct knowledge structures of five sample events in the peacekeeping domain.
To validate the study results, a focus group interview and a survey questionnaire were employed, the outcomes of which highlighted the acknowledgement of the semantic relations as well as the conceptual categories The results also underlined a positive evaluation of the proposed knowledge structures Beside welcoming the knowledge structures as a supportive source of terms and knowledge, all participants and respondents valued the addition of Vietnamese equivalents, which, from their perspective, facilitated the process of task performance and knowledge acquisition.
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION This chapter reviews the researcher’s journey by providing the summary of the study, drawing out implications, and pointing out the contributions of the study to the field The limitations during the course of the study will also be acknowledged. Moreover, recommendations will finally be proposed to draw out potential directions for future research.
The last five years have witnessed endless efforts as well as time devotion of the novel researcher to the completion of this scientific project The current research project was strongly grounded on the practical issues that have existed for some time in the implementation of tasks at the VNDPO Its main aim was to manage military peacekeeping terminology in a way that allows users to access a wider variety of linguistic and conceptual information In other words, its main task involves transforming an alphabetically arranged list of terms into a bilingual terminological knowledge base In order to achieve this aim, the researcher sought to find answers to the following research questions: “/ What are fundamental semantic relations of English military peacekeeping terminology based on the Frame-based Terminology management approach”, “2 How can English military peacekeeping terms be conceptually categorized based on their semantic relations?” and “3 What bilingual knowledge structures can be generated based on the semantic relations and conceptual categories of English military peacekeeping terms?”
In line with the philosophical view of pragmatism, this study employed a mixed research method which consisted of a variety of techniques and data collection instruments including semantic analysis, thematic analysis, corpus analysis, a survey questionnaire and interviews The primary source of data consisted of the glossary of
1441 terms and their definitions Meanwhile, the corpus compiled with a huge collection of authentic texts was the secondary source of data The analysis of the data sources yielded the following key findings in relation to the research questions.
5.1.1 Fundamental semantic relations of English military peacekeeping terminology
In order to extract semantic relations from the data base, first of all, semantic analysis was employed with terminological definitions taken from 02 military dictionaries namely DOD Dictionary (edition 2021) and AAP-06 (edition 2021) In addition to this, the comprehensive analysis of the corpus was conducted with the main focus laid on term concordances The results revealed that 22 fundamental relations were identified with the total number of 19,502 relations, of which 3,475 relations were taken from the definitional analysis and 16,027 relations were taken from the corpus analysis These relations were type_of, has_function, attribute_of, involves, effected_by, part_of, takes_place_in, affects, takes_place_before/during/after, conducted_by, located_at, result_of, causes, for_reason_of, excludes, subordinate_to, coordinates, phase_of, delimited_by and method_of Among these semantic relations, three most popular ones were type_of, has_function and attribute_of, taking the first, second and third place with 3,930, 3,724 and 3,677 instances in turn With the total number of occurrences ranging from 101 to
994, the middle group included 17 relations including involves, effected_by, part_of, takes_place_in, affects, takes_place_before/during/after, conducted_by, located_at, result_of, causes, for_reason_of, excludes, subordinate_to, coordinates, and phase_of Delimited_by and method_of were identified as the two least frequently appeared relations with the frequency of only 78 and 54 respectively.
5.1.2 Conceptual categories of English military peacekeeping terminology
1441 concepts in the data base were categorized by the method of thematic analysis More specifically, the terminographic definitions of all terms were analyzed, in which the superordinate term (GENUS) in each definition was first used as a guideline for assigning each concept a general category Following that, semantic relations extracted from the definitions’ DIFFERENTIAE were utilized to relate categories in a general frame-like structure and concepts in semantic networks.
All terms were classified into five main categories: ENTITY, ACTION, SITUATION, MEASUREMENT and ATTRIBUTE While ENTITY consisted of two sub-categories, ACTION was divided into 19 sub-categories SITUATION, MEASUREMENT and ATTRIBUTE were also categorized into three, six and five correspondingly sub-groups Among these categories, ENTITY was the biggest, containing more than one thousand concepts This was followed by ACTION with some 200 member concepts ATTRIBUTE, MEASUREMENT and SITUATION came next with the total number of concepts being 78,55, and 53 respectively.
5.1.3 Bilingual knowledge structures of peacekeeping events
As already discussed in the previous chapter of the study, more terms were identified by via the analysis of term definitions and corpus concordances These terms were noted and utilized to build knowledge structures Within the limitation of the study, knowledge structures of only five event were constructed including EVALUATION, ASSAULT, OPERATION, MINE and SEARCH AND RESCUE.
In addition, Vietnamese equivalents of all newly-identified terms were provided and integrated into the terminological resource The proposed knowledge structures contribute to providing additional event-related information to users The provision of Vietnamese translations of terms was evaluated as a favourable assistance for peacekeepers who are not confident with using English Consequently, users, being able to approach the proposed terminological resource, can access wider domain- related knowledge, equipping them what it takes to better perform their assigned tasks. 5.2 Contributions of the study
This section discusses the contribution of the study with regard to three aspects including theory, practice and methodology.
This study adds more empirical evidence to the applicability of cognitive- based terminology theories in general and Frame-based Terminology in particular into terminology management Although this study is not the first terminology
180 research that employs cognitive-based terminology theories as its theoretical premises, it is its application of Frame-based Terminology and cross-linguistics that makes it the first in Vietnam.
While Frame-based Terminology was actually applied to identify semantic relations and conceptual categories of military peacekeeping terms, the thesis’ cross- linguistic nature was boldly represented through the introduction of Vietnamese equivalents in the proposed knowledge structures.