assessing resilience and adaptation of climate smart agriculture practices in van ho district son la province viet nam

In order to tackle these challenges and ensure food security in the face of climate change, the implementation of Climate-smart agriculture practices CSA is suggested.. Furthermore, the

INTRODUCTION

Research rationale

The escalating repercussions of climate change are becoming increasingly evident through persistent alterations in climate characteristics such as temperature and precipitation It is undeniably the case that since the 1950s, episodes of severe heat have become more common and more intense in most terrestrial regions (IPCC, 2021) This occurrence is linked to both natural phenomena and human endeavors, as established by scientific studies carried out during the 20th century The implications of climate change have profoundly affected human life and diverse natural systems, with future predictions suggesting even more disastrous outcomes that could risk food security and the survival of whole ecosystems Over time, human actions have significantly magnified the effects of climate change, causing countless disturbances to agricultural pursuits

Moreover, the substantial contribution of agriculture to climate change is broadly recognized This is observable through activities such as deforestation, slash-and-burn methods, tillage processes, overuse of fertilizers, and animal farming, specifically ruminant enteric fermentation and methane release from rice cultivation These agricultural actions are among the leading instigators of climate change in South Asia, particularly in Vietnam (FME, 2014)

The northwest region of Vietnam, situated in the hilly northwestern part of the nation, is under threat from climate change, with soil erosion and flooding being the primary visible effects These outcomes are a product of changing rainfall distribution, temperature, relative humidity, wind, frost, and other factors that plague the entire region Furthermore, the prevalence of pests and diseases, reduced crop productivity, diminished yields, inefficient resource use, crop loss, economic hardship, poverty, and the waning resilience of production systems are some of the key drivers of climate change's impact on agriculture in Vietnam The uncertainty surrounding the range, character, and consequences of climate change may perpetuate its continuance, affecting farmers' planning and investment strategies The region is also witnessing the detrimental consequences of climate change, including disruptions to economies, livelihoods, and the ecosystems that sustain life (Nwajiuba et al., 2011)

Therefore, it is vital to underline the pressing need to tackle climate change in the region through a combination of mitigation efforts and adaptive practices

In order to secure farmers' livelihoods, as well as food and nutritional safety, it is essential to implement strategies that can effectively mitigate the negative effects of climate change The term 'adaptation' is used to describe any measure or plan put into action to alleviate the adverse outcomes of climate change (Lazkano, 2016) Depending on their individual perceptions and personal cost-benefit analyses, farmers adopt a range of strategies to tackle the challenges presented by climate change Although farmers in the North Western zone of Vietnam have adopted commendable practices such as improved crop and livestock management and sustainable resource usage, the improvements in productivity and resilience have been relatively minor Hence, there is an immediate call for promoting the adoption of climate-resilient and eco-friendly practices, including climate-smart agricultural technologies, across the region

Climate-smart agricultural (CSA) approaches generally incorporate innovative local practices, technologies, and services suitable for a particular location, highlighting that CSA is context-specific (Campbell, et al., 2015) The adoption of climate-smart agricultural strategies, technologies, and services can significantly enhance crop yields, improve resource-use efficiency, increase profits and net income, strengthen resilience, secure food supplies, and reduce or capture carbon both above and below the ground However, the level of adoption of these practices and technologies hinges on the policy and institutional frameworks within a specific country Therefore, addressing climate change challenges effectively demands the creation of systematic strategies for adaptation, mitigation, and food security (Sapkota, et al., 2015) The fifth and sixth assessment reports from the IPCC provide a framework to facilitate wise decisions and incorporate adaptation, mitigation, development, and equity more effectively, by assessing climate-related information critical for decision-making, risk evaluation, adaptation, mitigation, climate-resilient development paths, and sustainable development However, prioritizing CSA practices and technologies necessitates efficient and productive involvement from relevant stakeholders in the agricultural sector (FMARD, 2021) Son La Province has ample potential to bolster large-scale agricultural production via increased investment in agriculture and the wider use of tested and validated adaptation practices and technologies Prioritizing climate-smart agricultural production methods and technologies tends to enhance farm yields, improve agricultural productivity, increase farmers' resilience, secure food supply, mitigate the negative impacts of climate change, elevate farm income, and reduce carbon emissions Furthermore, prioritizing these practices and technologies boosts the capabilities of farming households, diversification opportunities, technical skills, and overall agricultural transformation while promoting national food security, environmental conservation, ecosystem resilience, and greenhouse gas mitigations (Abid et al., 2015)

However, the evaluation of prioritized climate-smart agricultural practices and technologies in Son La Province has not previously been thoroughly documented or reported, making this study a pioneering investigation Furthermore, the selection of Son La Province for this study is motivated by its immense potential to enhance agricultural production in Northwestern Vietnam.

Research’s objectives

The primary goal of this study was to evaluate the prioritized Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) methods and technologies utilized by the farmers in Van Ho District, Son La Province, Vietnam

The particular aims were as follows:

1 Identify the crops and cropping calendar in the studied area

2 Map climate variability and its impacts on agriculture

5 Assessing the adaptation of climate smart agricultural practices

6 Define the organizations related to CSA scale-up

7 Identify the challenges to scale-up climate smart agricultural production practices;

Research questions and hypotheses

The study aims to address the following queries:

(1) What are the main crops in Van Ho district?

(2) What does the cropping schedule look like in Van Ho District?

(3) What are the potential climate-smart agricultural methods in Van Ho District?

(4) Which organizations are involved in amplifying Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) practices?

(5) What obstacles exist in expanding climate-smart agricultural production practices?

Limitations

While this research aims to provide a comprehensive assessment of climate-smart agriculture (CSA) practices in Van Ho district, several limitations should be acknowledged:

- Geographical Limitation: This research focuses specifically on the Van

Ho District in Son La Province, Vietnam Although this provides a detailed local perspective, the findings might not be applicable or generalizable to other regions with different climate, socio-economic, or cultural contexts

- Data Collection Limitations: This research relies on farmer surveys, especially interviews about the farming practices, and climate calendar data for its primary data Therefore, there would be the limitation in the data about the agro-forest and aquaculture information Besides, there may be limitations with self-reported data, including recall bias or misreporting Further, the availability, accuracy, and completeness of climate data and farming records could also limit the study

- Temporal Limitation: The study captures a snapshot in time and may not reflect future changes in climate patterns, farming practices, or socio-economic elements that may impact the robustness and adaptation of Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) practices in the area

- Measurement Limitations: Resilience and adaptation are complex constructs and their assessment may be influenced by the chosen indicators or measurement tools The study may not capture all aspects of these constructs

- Cultural and Social Factors: Farmers' decisions to adopt certain practices can be influenced by a variety of social, cultural, or personal factors, which may not be fully captured in this research

In spite of these limitations, this study will provide valuable insights into the current state of CSA practices in Van Ho District, their resilience and adaptability, and their impact on local communities These findings will be useful for policymakers, agricultural stakeholders, and farmers in the region and beyond.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Definition

Climate change refers to the long-term alteration of the climate, characterized by noticeable changes in average conditions, variability, and frequency of specific climate properties According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2007), these alterations endure for substantial durations, usually stretching across numerous decades or even longer Climate change includes modifications in temperature, shifts in rainfall patterns, increases in sea levels, and intensification of weather extremes

Conversely, climate variability refers to changes in the mean state and statistical attributes of the climate on Earth It includes aspects such as standard deviations and incidences of extreme weather conditions Climate variability manifests over different temporal and spatial scales, exceeding individual meteorological incidents It emerges from inherent natural processes within the climate system, known as internal variability, as well as fluctuations in external factors, whether naturally occurring or human-driven, referred to as external variability (IPCC, 2001)

In summary, climate change refers to persistent shifts in climatic features, while climate variability includes disparities in climate attributes over various time and spatial scopes Both climate change and climate variability can be attributed to a mix of inherent processes within the climate system and external factors, which may be either natural or a result of human activities

2.1.2 Adopting, managing, and adapting to climate change

Within the scope of agricultural techniques, 'adoption' is commonly understood as the approval and consistent execution of specific methods within a certain area Kessler (2006) defines adoption as a decision-making process, wherein a technology is considered adopted only when it is regularly used in farmers' operations and fully integrated into their agricultural practices De Graaff et al (2008) further segment the process of adoption into three stages: approval, actual application, and sustained usage

When addressing climate change and variability, the terms coping and adaptation are often used interchangeably, although they refer to different timeframes Managing strategies are short-term, location-specific actions and adjustments aimed at addressing specific hazards within existing structures, as explained by Ashton (2002) and Ashraf and Routray (2013) On the other hand, adaptation, as defined by IPCC (2014), involves the process of adjusting to current or anticipated climate conditions and their long-term effects UNDP (2005) defines adaptation as the augmentation, creation, and execution of strategies to mitigate, handle, and leverage the outcomes of climatic events In this scenario, adjustment refers to modifications made by individuals, families, communities, governments, or non-governmental organizations in their resource management approaches to address climate change and minimize its effects, as articulated by Smit and Pilifosova (2003) and the IPCC (2011)

Mitigation, according to IPCC (2001), refers to the process of reducing greenhouse gas emissions resulting from human activities, including emissions from fossil fuels and deforestation The goal of mitigation is to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations at a safe level

In summary, adoption in agricultural technologies refers to the acceptance and continuous practice of practices within a specific area Coping strategies are short-term actions to address specific hazards, while adaptation involves adjusting to long-term climate conditions Mitigation aims to diminish human- induced greenhouse gas emissions

2.1.3 Resilience and Vulnerabilities in the Face of Climate Change

The total effect of a disturbance is determined not solely by its severity, but also by the system's susceptibility to that particular kind of disruption Vulnerability denotes a system's tendency or propensity to be adversely impacted by a specific shock, including climate change (IPCC, 2012; Grist, 2015) This includes a range of elements, like the system's propensity to suffer damage, and the absence of abilities to manage and adapt (Grist, 2015)

Resilience, as defined by Turner et al (2003), refers to the extent to which an affected system is able to recover or bounce back from a disturbance The effects of climate change call for alterations and responses to both the physical and societal circumstances that contribute to exposure to climate-associated risks Such responses can manifest as independent actions, or be encouraged through deliberate initiatives by public and private organizations, as well as via personal and institutional mechanisms

Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) can be defined as an approach that seeks to enhance the resilience, productivity, and sustainability of agricultural systems in the face of climate change It encompasses a range of practices, technologies, and policies that promote adaptation to climate impacts, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and enhance food security and livelihoods (FAO, 2013) CSA aims to achieve three key objectives: (1) increasing agricultural productivity and incomes, (2) building adaptive capacity and resilience of farming systems, and (3) reducing greenhouse gas emissions and enhancing carbon sequestration (Lipper et al., 2014)

CSA is typically based on three interconnected pillars: (1) climate change adaptation, (2) climate change mitigation, and (3) sustainable intensification (FAO, 2013)

Climate change adaptation within the CSA framework refers to the implementation of strategies and practices that enable agricultural systems to adjust and respond to climate-related risks and vulnerabilities This includes the development and adoption of resilient crop varieties, agroforestry, water management techniques, and diversification of livelihoods to enhance farmers' ability to cope with changing climate conditions (Lipper et al., 2014)

CSA recognizes the importance of reducing greenhouse gas emissions from agricultural activities to mitigate climate change This involves adopting practices that contribute to emission reductions, such as improving nutrient management, optimizing water and energy use, and promoting agroecological approaches that enhance carbon sequestration in soils and biomass (FAO, 2013)

Sustainable intensification is a core principle of CSA, aiming to increase agricultural productivity while minimizing negative environmental impacts It emphasizes the use of innovative and resource-efficient technologies, precision farming, integrated pest management, and soil conservation practices to enhance productivity and minimize the ecological footprint of agriculture (Lipper et al., 2014)

The successful implementation of CSA requires an integrated and multi- stakeholder approach It involves collaboration between farmers, researchers, policymakers, civil society organizations, and the private sector Key elements include capacity building, knowledge sharing, access to finance and markets, and supportive policies and governance structures that incentivize CSA adoption (FAO, 2013)

Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) provides a comprehensive framework for addressing the complex challenges posed by climate change to global food systems It encompasses a range of practices and strategies that promote adaptation, mitigation, and sustainable intensification in agriculture By enhancing the resilience, productivity, and sustainability of farming systems, CSA holds immense potential for achieving food security, reducing greenhouse gas emissions, and improving the livelihoods of smallholder farmers Implementing CSA requires collaborative efforts and supportive policies to scale up its adoption and contribute to a more climate-resilient and sustainable agricultural future.

Impacts of climate change on agriculture in Vietnam

2.2.1 Impact of increase in average temperature

Rising temperature will influence food production, reducing productivity by direct effects on the crop growth process The IPCC’s assessment report on the impact of climate change on food crops chows that in tropical regions, an increase in average temperatures will adversely affect productivity through pollination periods (10 o C for wheat and maize 20 o C for rice) Temperatures surpassing 30 o C can cause irreversible physical harm to plants, and when they exceed 37 o C, even stored seeds can be damaged (FAO, 2020) The nature of this damage is contingent on factors such as the temperature level, its duration, and the speed at which it rises, or the plants' ability to adapt (Wahid et al., 2007) Additionally, the plant species and the phase of plant growth also influence the extent of the damage

Climate change reverses the structure of crops: increased temperature changes the development period of crops and the flowering time, thereby reducing the ability to crop rotation and increase crops, especially winter crops and subtropical plants such as peach plums, apricots, etc As climatic conditions evolve, it's anticipated that instances when temperatures surpass critical limits for crops like maize, rice, and wheat will become more common (Gourdji et al., 2013)

Elevated temperatures can result in droughts and insufficient water supply for agricultural produce An increase in temperature to 10oC would augment the need for crop irrigation by 10%, surpassing the existing irrigation infrastructure's capacity to supply water (IPCC, 2007)

High temperature leads to drought and a shortage of water for crops If the temperature rises by 10oC, the demand for watering crops will increase by 10% overwhelming the watering capability of the current irrigation structure (IPCC, 2007)

Rising temperatures may lead to an escalation in the population of pest insects Studies indicate that heightened temperatures can significantly influence the survival, development, geographic distribution, and population density of insects This influence can be direct, affecting insect physiology and growth, or indirect, altering the physiology or viability of the host organisms The effect of temperature can vary depending on the development approach of a specific insect species (Bale et al., 2002) Furthermore, certain pest species, like thrips, may experience changes in gender ratios due to temperature fluctuations, which could potentially influence their reproductive rates (Lewis, 1997)

Nonetheless, an elevation in temperature might also lead to a decrease in the population of pest insects Certain insects have a specific affiliation with certain host crops If rising temperatures prompt farmers to cease growing these host crops, the population of insect pests specific to those crops might decrease

Environmental factors that affect pest insects can similarly influence their insect predators and parasites, as well as the disease organisms that infect these pests This could result in an escalated assault on insect populations

2.2.2 Impact of increase in sea level

As the sea level escalates, the available planting area diminishes, and the fertility of farmland suffers due to salinization This condition could lead to a scarcity of farmable land, posing a significant threat to food security In Vietnam, according to the forecast of IPCC (2007), if the sea level rises by 1m, it can adversely affect 12% of the area and 10% of population, causing floods of 5000km2 in the Red

River Delta, 15,000-20,000 km2 in Mekong Delta This means losing 300,000- 500,000 hectares in the Red River, 1.5-2 million hectare in the Mekong Delta, and hundreds of thousand of hectares in the central coast It is estimated that Vietnam will lose a lot of agricultural lands affecting adversely on national food security (Tran The Duong, 2011)

2.2.3 Impact of drought and saltwater intrusion

Drought and salinity cause a shortage of freshwater for agriculture, thereby reducing the cultivated area, reducing productivity and output of crops which are mainly food crops Water shortage and drought adversely affected the area of industrial crops in the Central Highlands and Southeast part with a total area of 15,823ha and 28,000ha, respectively (Bao Han, 2016)

Statistic of the Department of Agricultural Economics showed that by the end of May 2016, damage to rice reached 249,944ha, crops 18,960ha, fruit trees 30,522ha, industrial crops 149,704ha, etc… It is estimated that drought and saltwater intrusion caused a loss of about VND 15,183 billion (Bach Duong, 2016)

Drought causes saltwater intrusion to widely affect the field, making the soil salinized and unable to use

2.2.4 Impacts of storms and floods

The escalation in frequency of severe weather phenomena has a detrimental effect on agricultural yield Storms and floods will make it difficult to arrange suitable planting time, crop structure, thereby changing crop structure

The embankment structures of the northern Red River and the southern Mekong

River frequently face hazards, leading to flooding that impacts millions of hectares of cultivable land and disrupts the lives of millions of inhabitants According to Assoc Prof Dr Nguyen Van Viet, Project Management Unit of Capacity Building for Climate Change Project, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (CBCC-MARD), the overall data shows that storms have caused flooding in food crops, mainly rice, in the central provinces Annually, on average, 120 thousand hectares of rice here are flooded of which over 3.6 thousand hectare are lost and 70,000 hectares are affected.

Farmers’ perception on climate change and variability

Farmers' perceptions of climate change are crucial as they directly influence decision-making processes and adaptation strategies In Vietnam, a country heavily reliant on agriculture and exposed to significant climate change impacts, understanding these perceptions is especially important

Vietnam experiences climate change marked by rising temperatures, erratic precipitation patterns, the encroachment of sea levels, and a heightened occurrence of extreme weather phenomena These changes present a substantial hazard to agriculture, thereby endangering food security and the means of subsistence, particularly in rural regions

Studies have shown that many Vietnamese farmers have indeed noticed these changes in climate For example, in the Mekong Delta, farmers have reported shifts in the timing and amount of rainfall, prolonged periods of high temperatures, and increased incidence of extreme weather events such as floods and storms (Vu & Le, 2020)

Moreover, these perceptions significantly influence their decision-making and farming practices For instance, in response to perceived changes in rainfall patterns, farmers may alter their planting and harvesting schedules Those who perceive a higher risk of drought may choose to diversify their crops or adopt drought-resistant varietie

Many farmers have already begun to adapt their farming practices in response to these perceived changes This includes adjusting planting and harvesting dates, adopting new crop varieties, changing water and soil management practices, and diversifying income sources (Pham et al., 2017) However, the extent to which farmers are able to adapt effectively is often limited by factors such as lack of access to resources, inadequate institutional support, and the high costs associated with some adaptation measures

Farmers' understanding of the causes of climate change and its long-term impacts varies widely While some farmers understand that these changes are largely due to human activities, others attribute them to natural cycles or divine intervention This range of perceptions can impact the acceptance and adoption of scientifically recommended adaptation and mitigation strategies

Effective policies and initiatives for supporting climate-smart agriculture in Vietnam should therefore take farmers' perceptions into account This could include designing farmer-focused extension services that combine local knowledge with scientific findings, providing economic incentives for adopting climate-smart practices, and improving access to resources and institutional support for adaptation

Farmer perception on Adaptation strategies

In order to formulate effective policies to address the challenges of climate change for farmers, it is crucial to gain insights into the local farmers' perception of climate change, their potential adaptation measures, and the factors influencing their ability to adapt Farmers in developing countries employ diverse adaptation strategies to mitigate the impact of climate change These strategies encompass various approaches, such as altering crop varieties, adjusting planting dates, implementing mixed crop and livestock production, reducing livestock numbers, engaging in temporary migration or animal relocation, modifying livestock diets, implementing soil and water management techniques, tree planting, transitioning from livestock to crop production, changing animal breeds, cultivating short-season crops, and adopting irrigation or water harvesting methods These strategies contribute to enhancing social resilience in the face of climate change (Bradshaw et al., 2004)

Vietnamese farmers, particularly in areas like the Mekong Delta, have been at the frontline of experiencing and responding to climate change They have been implementing a variety of adaptation strategies to cope with the changing climate, and their perceptions towards these strategies vary widely

Studies conducted in the region show that farmers have adopted strategies such as changing crop varieties, shifting planting dates, diversifying crops, and investing in irrigation infrastructure (Nguyen et al., 2018) Farmers' perception of the effectiveness of these strategies often depends on their personal experiences, local conditions, and the availability of resources

However, some challenges persist Despite acknowledging the need for adaptation strategies, many farmers in Vietnam face significant barriers in implementing them These barriers include limited access to financial resources, lack of information and training, and inadequate support from government policies (Tran et al., 2018)

Furthermore, some farmers are resistant to adopting new strategies due to a lack of understanding of the benefits, fear of change, or skepticism about their effectiveness Therefore, it is crucial that these perceptions are addressed through education and communication efforts, demonstrating the benefits of adaptation strategies through practical examples and case studies

It is crucial to recognize that farmers' perceptions of adaptation strategies are shaped by their comprehension of climate change Consequently, increasing awareness about the causes and consequences of climate change can play a significant role in enhancing the adoption of effective adaptation strategies.

Adoption of Climate smart agriculture (CSA) as Adaptation strategies

The phenomenon of global warming and subsequent climate change directly affects crucial resources such as climate, land, water, and biodiversity, thereby exerting a significant impact on agriculture, aquaculture, and livestock farming Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) emerges as an adaptation strategy to address the adverse consequences of climate change on the sustainability of these sectors

In order to adapt to climate change, ensure food security, and promote sustainable agriculture, the government of Vietnam has implemented various initiatives and strategies These include the "National Target Programme to Respond to Climate Change and Rising Sea Level" and the "Green Growth Strategy in 2011-2020, with a vision to 2050." Additionally, efforts have been made to develop organic farming practices and promote safe agriculture in collaboration with international organizations

The development of green agriculture and sustainable agricultural practices in Vietnam focuses on the implementation of specific technologies These technologies aim to prevent soil erosion, protect soil and soil moisture, assess farming feasibility, and employ terrace field methods for sloping terrains to increase vegetation coverage Other approaches include adopting active irrigation through reservoir construction and employing more efficient methods such as spraying and drip irrigation Furthermore, comprehensive processes for fertilization, nutrition management, and wastewater treatment are designed to ensure environmentally-friendly agricultural practices

In Vietnam, the development of climate-smart agriculture has gained significant advantages due to the attention and support from agricultural authorities and increased investment from international funds focusing on environmental protection and climate change adaptation Vietnamese companies have opportunities to participate in planned agricultural development and access soft loans or non-refundable aids for environmentally friendly agricultural practices through various projects funded by organizations like the UK Aid, Australian Aid, World Bank, and Asian Development Bank These projects are coordinated by the Ministry of Planning and Investment, with initiatives such as the Vietnam Business Challenge Fund (VBCF) and Vietnam Inclusive Innovation Project (VIIP)

However, the development of climate-smart agriculture in Vietnam faces numerous challenges It requires a comprehensive legal framework, synchronized technological advancements, enhanced risk management and forecasting systems, as well as strengthened international cooperation Encouraging private sector participation through public-private partnerships (PPP) is crucial to expand economic opportunities and ensure efficient agricultural production The collaboration between authorities, scientists, enterprises, and farmers through PPP models needs to be further expanded in the agricultural sector However, there are obstacles, including an unfavorable environment for private sector engagement, the need for substantial investment capital with slow capital recovery and profitability, and the lack of synchronized and reliable contracts with farmers

Moreover, Vietnam faces challenges in catching up with advanced countries in terms of farming scientific and technical advancements, and the process of technology transfer from foreign countries is costly As one of the largest rice exporters globally, the impacts of climate change on food production in Vietnam not only affect the country but also have implications for food security in the region and the world As the global population continues to rise, estimated to reach 8.2 billion in 2025 and nearly 9.6 billion in 2050 (United Nations, 2013), food security becomes increasingly complex while agricultural production worldwide is being affected by climate change Vietnam should seize every opportunity to promote green and adaptive agricultural practices and support small and medium-sized enterprises to participate in global value chains that prioritize sustainable development.

Factors constraining Farmers Choice of Adaptation Strategies

Understanding how farmers perceive climate change and the factors that shape their adaptive behavior is valuable for research on adaptation (Mertz et al., 2009; Weber, 2010) Several studies conducted by Waithaka et al (2007), Diale (2011), and Sanga et al (2013) indicate that various factors influence farmers' ability to adapt to Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) practices These factors encompass the availability and accessibility of resources such as land, labor, and financial capital, the characteristics of the biophysical environment, the perceived benefits in comparison to alternative practices (Campbell et al., 2012), the skills and information farmers possess, their capacity to cope with challenges that may arise during or after adopting the practices, and the compatibility of new technologies with local social and cultural practices (Hassan et al., 2008; Temesgen Tadesse et al., 2009)

Vietnamese farmers perceive climate change primarily through the lens of their direct experiences, such as changes in rainfall patterns, increased frequency of extreme weather events, and subsequent shifts in crop yields These experiences have gradually shaped their understanding of climate change and influenced their response strategies (Pham et al., 2017)

Vietnamese farmers have been dealing with the impacts of climate change first hand, leading to a series of responses and adaptation measures that are perceived differently across the farming community These measures include diversifying crops, shifting planting dates, investing in irrigation systems, or using climate- resilient crop varieties (Nguyen et al., 2018)

Climate-smart agriculture, which refers to an approach that increases agricultural productivity and incomes, helps adapt and build resilience to climate change and reduces greenhouse gas emissions, has also started to gain traction

However, the uptake of these strategies varies significantly across different regions, dictated by farmers' perceptions While some farmers have readily adopted CSA practices, understanding their benefits, others are yet to perceive these practices as advantageous due to factors such as the associated costs, lack of understanding, and limited access to needed resources (Hoang et al., 2016)

One interesting study conducted in the northern highlands of Vietnam showed that farmers have a positive perception towards CSA practices such as planting shade trees in coffee plantations and diversifying crops However, these practices were perceived as being less favourable for farmers with smaller landholdings due to the perceived reduction in short-term productivity (Berg et al., 2019)

The research emphasizes the necessity of considering farmers' perceptions and realities when implementing CSA practices and other adaptation strategies It is also crucial to provide farmers with accurate information about the potential benefits of these strategies, along with technical and financial support to implement them.

RESEARCH CONTENT AND METHODOLOGY

Description of the Study Area

Van Ho, the study area for this research, as shown in figure 1, is a new district within Son

La province, northwest Vietnam (Fig 1)

Van Ho district was formed in 2013 through the implementation of Resolution No 72/NQ-

CP issued on 10/6/2013 by the Government It was established by taking a portion of the area and population from Moc Chau district The district is situated in the southeastern part of Son La province, within the northwest region of Vietnam It covers a natural land area of approximately 97,984 hectares Van Ho is located on the arterial traffic route of the Northwest - National Highway 6, 140 km from the center of the province, 170 km from Hanoi along National Road 6

Figure 1 Map of Van Ho district, within Son La province, Vietnam

The average altitude is 820 m above sea level The East borders Mai Chau district, Hoa Binh province The South borders with two districts of Muong Lat and Quan Hoa, Thanh Hoa province and borders Sop Bau district, Hua Phan province, Lao PDR The West borders Moc Chau district The North borders Da Bac district, Hoa Binh province The district has bên divided into 14 communes: Chieng Khoa, Chieng Xuan, Chieng Yen, Lien Hoa, Long Luong, Muong Men, Muong Te, Quang Minh, Song Khua, Suoi Bang, Tan Xuan, To Mua, Van Ho and Xuan Nha

Van Ho district is located in the tropical monsoon climate, cold and dry winters for some communes along the Da River and humid for communes along National Highway 6 and upland villages The average air temperature/year is about 18.50C, the average rainfall/year is about 1,560 mm The average humidity of the air is 85%

Van Ho district is divided into two climate zones:

-Cold and cool climate area includes communes along NH6 and border highland communes such as Van Ho, Long Luong, To Mua and some highland villages… The climate is suitable for growing crops and livestock temperate regions such as agricultural crops, industrial plants, fruit trees, vegetables in temperate zones; raising cattle, especially dairy cows, beef cattle and developing eco-tourism

- The hot and humid climate zone includes communes along the Da River, which is favorable for the development of food crops such as rice, maize, annual industrial crops (soybean, cotton), and the development of large livestock for meat and livestock rearing caged fish in the river

However, in recent years, the weather has become more severe such as dry weather, hoarfrost, whirlwind and hail occurring many times a year, causing great loss of production and affecting people's lives

The total number of households in Van Ho district in 2021 is 15,235 households with 64,661 members, including 6 ethnic groups living together, the ethnic structure is as follows:

Table 1 Demography information of Van Ho District

The study was conducted in 3 commune of Van Ho District as:

- Van Ho commune: There are 5 ethnic groups living in solidarity Of which the Thai ethnic group accounted for 0.48%, the Mong ethnic group accounted for 57%, the Kinh ethnic group accounted for 14.8%, the Dao ethnic group accounted for 13.4%, the Muong ethnic group accounted for 14.35%

- Chieng Yen commune: There are 5 ethnic groups living in solidarity In which the Thai ethnic group accounted for 48.228%, the Mong ethnic group accounted for 0.102%, the Dao ethnic group accounted for 28.14%, the Kinh ethnic group 6.24%, the Muong ethnic group accounted for 17 % 29%

- Song Khua commune: There are 5 ethnic groups living in solidarity In which the Thai ethnic group accounted for 31.05%, the Dao ethnic group accounted for 0.07%, the Kinh ethnic group accounted for 4.56%, the Muong ethnic group accounted for 64.32%.

Data Collection and Procedure

The Climate Smart Agriculture Rapid Appraisal (CSA-RA), as utilized in this study (Mwongera, 2017), employed a comprehensive approach known as mixed methods It drew from both Rapid Rural Appraisals (RRA) and Participatory Rural Appraisals (PRA) and embraced a participatory bottom-up approach The CSA-RA incorporated PRA techniques to engage community members in participatory exercises conducted in focus groups These exercises empowered stakeholders to assess and express their perceptions on topics such as the status of natural resources, the impact of climate change on agricultural systems and livelihoods, and gender-specific farm management practices (Chambers, 1994)

The primary purpose of the cropping calendar is dual-fold Firstly, it serves as a tool to recognize primary crops, the sequence of crops, and the timing of related agricultural activities Secondly, it functions as a means to discern the distribution of labor among genders and the variations in resource access and control between men, women, and children This holds significance in evaluating aspects such as the labor demands of diverse management approaches and the potential influence of gender-specific time allocation on their adoption

Venn diagrams find application in charting the rural organizations employed by farmers Participants assess and rank each organization's significance, while also visually depicting connections among various organizations These connections could range from no interactions to moderate linkages and substantial collaboration This exercise bears significance in recognizing requirements for capacity enhancement, pivotal influencers shaping households' agricultural approaches, and for expanding Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) initiatives

The climate calendar serves the purpose of recognizing both usual and irregular weather patterns, encompassing instances of extreme wetness and dryness It aids in pinpointing periods of specific challenges and susceptibilities, while also delving into farmers' perspectives on the comprehensive effects of climate fluctuations on agricultural output Working in gender-divided small groups, participants initially engage in conversations about a typical year, determining months of rainfall and drought Across the top of a sheet, the months are listed (commencing with the first month acknowledged in the region/participants' context) Wet months are indicated with strips of blue paper, and dry months with red paper Subsequently, participants are prompted to identify an anomalously wet year The procedure of discerning rainy and dry months is replicated for this year Likewise, participants undertake this process for an extraordinarily dry year This process facilitates an analysis of the consequences of standard and extreme conditions, as well as the strategies farmers have employed to navigate such variations in precipitation

Transect walks are carried out with the aim of recognizing the prominent features of the community, including landmarks, soil composition, vegetation distribution, socio-economic markers, agricultural methodologies, biodiversity, and available resources The pathway taken during these walks is chosen at random within the designated research area These walks encompass visits to farms selected in a random manner, fostering conversations with the farmers Such transect walks furnish a foundation for verifying the data acquired from one-on-one interviews and/or collective deliberations

Semi-structured interviews were used for both key informant interviews, covering various modules related to farming systems, local organizations and their roles, gender dynamics, household characteristics, agriculture practices, land tenure, climate risks, agricultural production challenges, market access, credit access, input use, pest and diseases, and seed supply Each interview typically lasts around 1 hour

Key informant interviews are conducted individually with individuals who possess knowledge about agriculture and/or climate in the region This includes authorities and agricultual staff at the district and communes, village heads, farmer organizations and core farmers of villages Totally, there were 20 people were joined in the interviews

Farmer focus group discussion were held in each site, where the PRA and RRA tools were applied Invitations were sent through local farmer organizations and local leaders with specific targets to be representative of the local population (i.e., with respect to gender, age, income, agriculture enterprise, ethnic groups, and agro-ecological zones) It is ideal to maximize farmer participation and be inclusive of different social groups During the workshop, small focus groups were be formed based on gender, age, and/or other groupings that may impact responses The focus group size was 10-12 participants Total 6 groups were conducted in each commune, with total of participants in 3 communes 180 people.

Method of Data Analysis

The collected data underwent meticulous coding in IBM SPSS Statistical software version

20 Descriptive statistics, coefficient of variation, hierarchical regression, ANOVA Means, and multi-linear regression were employed for data analysis Farmers' comprehension of climate change was examined using descriptive statistics and compared using the inter-rater method In most statistical analyses, the composite score was utilized as it provides greater reliability compared to analyzing individual items.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Cropping calendar

The table 2 presents the cropping calendar for different communes (VH, SK, and CY) in the Van Ho District The main crops in Van Ho are Rice, Maize, Cassava, vegetable (Cabbage, , Katuk,), Beans, Pumpkin/Gourd, Chayote, Taro, Potato, Orange/Mandarin, Tea, Peach,

Phrynium parviflorum, and Boehmeria nivea

Table 2 Crop calendar in Van Ho District

Commune 1 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

SK, CY Rice (spring) Rice (Autumn)

Beans, Vegetable (Cabbage, Brassica oleracea)

CY, VH, SK Pumkin/Gour

VH, SK, CY Orange/Mandanrin harvest

VH, SK, CY Tea harvesting weeding, pruning, fertilizing

Peach (selling tree after 5 year growing)

SK Boehmeria nivea (harvesting every 45 days)

Rice and Maize are the main staple food crops, and both crops are grown in all communes

1 VH: Van Ho commune, SK: Song Khua commune, CY: Chien Yen Commune

Rice and maize are the predominant crops in three communes The total area dedicated to rice production ranges from 120 to 130 hectares per commune, while maize occupies an area of 600 to 800 hectares per commune However, due to the high altitude of Van Ho, this commune often experiences cold spells and frost during winter and spring As a result, rice cultivation in Van Ho is limited to a single season, which runs from May to September In contrast, Song Khua and Chieng Yen are able to grow rice in two seasons per year Van Ho's cold climate is advantageous for vegetable cultivation, enabling intensive cultivation throughout the year Conversely, in Song Khua and Chieng Yen, only a few households grow vegetables during the autumn-winter season

In terms of fruit crops, pumpkins/gourds, chayote, and oranges/mandarins are the primary fruits that generate income for households Pumpkins/gourds are cultivated in CY, VH, and

SK in June Chayote is harvested in VH in May and replanted in October In Van Ho, growing peaches and selling the entire tree before the Lunar New Year also provides a substantial income for households Moreover, Song Khua commune has started exploring a new direction by converting ineffective annual crops to Boehmeria nivea These plants are resilient to extreme weather, require minimal inputs, and are collected at the farm by a company Similarly, Phrynium parviflorum is planted and fertilized in CY in March, with harvest taking place in December, providing an income of 3-5 million VND per year for households with minimal labor and input costs

The data reflects a well-diversified cropping system that ensures year-round agricultural productivity The cropping practices differ between the communes, suggesting different environmental, soil, and climate conditions, as well as local preferences and market demand

The data also points to potential value-adding opportunities, like the selling of peach trees after five years in VH, which suggests a combination of short-term and long-term income strategies

Given this information, future research could focus on understanding the drivers behind these cropping decisions, assessing the productivity and profitability of these systems, and exploring how they can be optimized for sustainable agricultural intensification It would also be beneficial to examine how these practices impact soil health, water use, and local ecosystems over time.

Climate Calendar

Analyzing the provided climate calendar for the Van Ho District, which includes the communes of VH, SK, and CY, reveals crucial information about the district's seasonal weather patterns, including variations in temperature, rainfall, and notable weather events This information plays a pivotal role in agricultural planning and decision-making, as different crops require different climatic conditions for optimal growth

Table 3 Climate calendar and climate change (CC) recorded in the last 10 years in Van Ho

Jan Feb Mar Ap r Ma y Ju n Ju l Aug Sep Oc t Nov Dec

VH Extreme cold, frost Hot and rain Dry, cold

Hot, sudden rain Heavy rain Dry, cold, mist

CY Cold, frost Hot and rain Dry, cold, mist

The cold lasts until April and the winter get colder, sometimes it drops below 5 degrees, but the frost is reduced Hail (2020)

Day temperature difference increase (day is hotter and night is cooler)

Temperature gets higher and sooner Stronger wind, more rain and flood (e.g 2007)

Colder, more mist and longer rains In

2013, 2021, 2022, cold spells damaged young rice, vegetables, and lead to the death of livestock

The common climate in Van Ho district is often characterized by cold weather, with occurrences of frost from January to March , a hot, rainy summer (April to September) and dry, cold and misty time from Octobet to December

The common climate in Van Ho district is often characterized by cold weather, with occurrences of frost from January to March , a hot, rainy summer (April to September) and dry, cold and misty time from Octobet to December

This climate calendar has significant changes in the last 10 years in in the Van Ho District For instance, the cold in SK was said to last longer until April, with temperatures sometimes falling below 5 degrees VH has noted increasing frost since 2018 SK also notes the occurrence of acid rain since 2010 In CY, the onset of drought has been recorded in the recent past (2020, 2021)

In summer time (May - June), the weather tends to be hotter and rainy, with increasing high temperatures in SK in past years (2016, 2019) and increasing day-night temperature differences Drought and temperature increase are concerns in CY, accompanied by stronger winds and more frequent flooding Hailstorms were reported in VH and SK in 2020

During the monsoon (July - October), the climate change has also been observed with heavy rain, andincreasing occurrences of flooding, as recorded in 2007 and 2017 in SK and CY Meanwhile, VH reports earlier onset of mist during this period

Winter (November - December) was recorded with extreme cold spells and frost in SK (as noted in 2013) and CY Cold spells have reportedly damaged young rice, vegetables, and led to livestock deaths in CY in the years 2013, 2021, 2022

Generally, the climate calendar shows signs of change and variability over the years, with reports of increasing frost, higher temperatures, increased rainfall and flooding, and occurrences of extreme weather events like drought and hailstorms This suggests the possible influence of climate change, and it could have serious implications for agriculture in the district

Given these considerations, there is a need for continued monitoring and recording of weather patterns and climatic conditions in the district The use of climate-resilient crop varieties, water management strategies, and climate-smart farming practices will also be crucial in ensuring sustainable agricultural productivity in the face of changing climate conditions Furthermore, agricultural insurance schemes could provide a safety net for farmers against extreme weather events and associated crop losses.

Impacts of climate change on agricultural production

The table 4 shows the participatory ranking of perceived impacts of extreme weather events on cropping systems in Van Ho, Chieng Yen, and Song Khua communes

Table 4 Participatory ranking of impacts of extreme weather events on cropping systems

Other resource being impacted Rice Annual crops

Axit rain 2 (young rice died)

2 (land slide, lost of land for cultivation)

2 (land slide, lost of land for cultivation)

Cold 2 (young rice 1 0 0 1 2 died) Increasing temperatur e

2 (Many pests and diseases, scab, leaf burn, leaf yellowing, yield reduction, potato, maize leaf burn About 30% affected)

1 1 2 (Grapefruit orange yield is not high, fruit drop, bad code;

Avocado is wormed and falls off)

(Ranking from 0-2, 0: no impact, 1: less impact, 2: extremely impacted)

It can be observed several patterns and trends as following:

- This extreme weather event had a significant impact on rice crops, causing the death of young rice plants (ranked 2)

- Other crops like maize, cassava, and vegetables were also affected to a lesser extent (ranked 1)

- Boehmeria nivea (a local crop) was moderately affected (ranked 1)

- Tea and fruit crops were minimally affected (ranked 1)

- This event had a considerable impact on rice crops, including the loss of cultivated land due to deposition and erosion (ranked 2)

- Other crops, such as maize, cassava, and vegetables, were also affected, although to a lesser degree (ranked 2)

- Boehmeria nivea was significantly impacted (ranked 2)

- Tea and fruit crops were not affected (ranked 0)

- Cold weather resulted in the death of young rice plants (ranked 2)

- Other crops experienced relatively lower impacts, with maize and vegetables ranked 1 and fruit crops ranked 1

- Boehmeria nivea and tea crops were not affected (ranked 0)

- Rising temperatures had a substantial impact on rice crops, leading to a 50% decrease in productivity (ranked 2)

- Other crops, particularly maize and cassava, experienced a significant increase in pests and diseases, leaf burning, yellowing, and reduced productivity (ranked 2)

- Tea crops were moderately affected (ranked 1)

- Fruit crops, including grapefruit and oranges, had reduced productivity and poor quality (ranked 2)

- Livestock faced disease outbreaks (ranked 2)

- Frost and hail had similar impacts on the crops, with rice, maize, cassava, vegetables, and fruit crops all ranked 2

- Tea crops were moderately affected (ranked 1)

- Livestock was minimally impacted (ranked 1)

Overall, the data suggests that extreme weather events have significant and varied impacts on cropping systems in the studied communes Rice crops were consistently affected by multiple weather events, leading to the death of young plants or reduced productivity Other crops such as maize, cassava, vegetables, and fruit crops also experienced adverse effects, although to a lesser extent

Temperature-related events, such as increasing temperatures, cold, frost, and hail, showed notable impacts on different crops Rising temperatures resulted in reduced rice productivity and increased pest and disease incidence in various crops Cold, frost, and hail affected multiple crops uniformly, leading to damage and decreased yields Compared to annual crops, perennial crops like Boehmeria nivea, tea and fruits are more resilient to climate change

The findings highlight the vulnerability of the cropping systems in Van Ho, Chieng Yen, and Song Khua communes to extreme weather events Farmers and policymakers should consider implementing adaptation strategies such as diversifying crops, promoting resilient varieties, diversifying crops, and integrating annual and perennial crops can contribute to adapt and mitigate the impacts of these events and ensure food security in the region Additionally, further research and investment in climate-resilient agriculture practices would be beneficial for these communities.

Potential CSA practices in Van Ho District

4.4.1 The current CSA practices in Van Ho District

Farmers were perceived positively and executing various CSA technologies including water reserving, Irrigation system (dripping/sprinkling), SRI (System of Rice Intensification), Mulching, Greenhouse/nethouse, Agroforestry, Soil improvement, Integrated pest management (IPM), and Crop varieties

Figure 2 Percentage of farmers currently using climate smart agriculture practices among surveyed households (n = 200) in Chieng Yen, Song Khua, Van Ho Communes The figure presents the percentages of farmers who are aware of and currently using prioritized climate-smart agriculture (CSA) practices in three communes: Chieng Yen, Song Khua, and Van Ho

The adoption of water reserving practices seems relatively low across all three communes It indicates that there is room for improvement in raising awareness and encouraging farmers to implement water reserving techniques to enhance their water management capabilities The low adoption of modern irrigation systems in all three communes suggests that farmers may still rely on traditional irrigation methods There is a need to promote the benefits of efficient irrigation systems and provide support for their implementation to improve water usage and crop productivity

SRI shows higher adoption rates compared to the previous practices However, there is still potential for increased awareness and implementation, especially in Van Ho commune, where the adoption rate is relatively low

Mulching has relatively higher levels of awareness and adoption, particularly in Chieng Yen

Chiềng Yên Song Khủa Vân Hồ commune However, there is still room to increase the adoption rate, especially in Song Khua and Van Ho communes

The low adoption rate of greenhouse/nethouse practices across all three communes indicates the need for interventions and support to promote the establishment of protected cultivation systems for improved crop production and climate resilience

Agroforestry practices show moderate levels of awareness and adoption, indicating that some farmers recognize the benefits of integrating trees into their farming systems However, there is still potential to increase awareness and expand agroforestry adoption further

The adoption of soil improvement practices is relatively consistent across the communes Efforts can be made to raise awareness and encourage more farmers to implement these practices for enhanced soil health and productivity

The adoption of IPM practices is relatively low in all three communes Promoting the use of integrated pest management techniques could contribute to reducing pesticide use and improving pest control in a sustainable manner

The adoption of improved crop varieties is relatively low across all communes There is an opportunity to promote the use of climate-resilient and high-yielding crop varieties to enhance agricultural productivity and resilience

In summary, the analysis of the data reveals varying levels of awareness and adoption of prioritized climate-smart agriculture practices among surveyed households in Chieng Yen, Song Khua, and Van Ho communes The findings suggest the need for targeted interventions, including awareness campaigns, capacity building, and access to resources, to encourage the adoption of CSA practices and enhance climate resilience in the agricultural sector

On the other hands, relating to the potential of these CSA practices, The table 5 shows various CSA practices as take advantage of rainwater, changing rice farming methods, Plant cover crops / use agricultural by-products to cover the ground to limit transpiration, Net house/roof system, etc and their potential benefits in Van Ho district The practices range from water-efficient techniques, changes in rice farming methods, ground cover utilization, to advanced irrigation systems While some practices have shown effectiveness and ease of application, others face challenges such as high investment costs, limited adoption, and the need for government support, which can hinder the widespread adoption of these practices Overcoming these challenges would be crucial for successfully scaling up climate-smart agricultural practices in the district

Table 5 The potential and challenges of CSA practices in Van Ho District

CSA practices Solution Location Livelihood improvement Adaptatio n Mititgation

Solutions to take advantage of rainwater (eg:

Using rainwater for irrigation/raisi ng shrimp, fish )

Dig holes, strips of plastic tarpaulin to collect water / build a rainwater tank (3m2) or collect water into a tank to ensure water for irrigation on the fields

Phụ Mẫu (Chiềng Yên), Hang Trùng 2, Suối Lìn (Vân Hồ), Ta Lac (Song Khủa)

Make better use of water and crops (regular irrigation) Social efficiency: Reduce labor for women and men

Increase crop productivity (eg: green thorns, rice, upland maize by about 20%); increase the number of productions

5 Effective and easy to apply

Build a dam to store water in the field

High captial Need support from government Build temporary dams with bamboo and soil in streams

Dig a pond to raise fish and store water (home garden)

Require large land and high capital investment

Advanced rice farming SRI (water-saving transplanting method to save space, wide and narrow row planting), combined with dry- dry rice farming, straight rice transplanting to limit water loss )

2016, 80% applied, Only a few households in

Co Suc and Ta Lac are still transplanting with traditional methods), Chieng Yen

Save seedling, fertilizer (1000m2 is 4.5 kg, traditional 10kg), easy to care, higher yield, more tillering, more uniform cotton, less pests - Save water, easy to fertilize

Reduce labor force, reduce the use of chemical drugs, improve health

Reduce water, methan and carbon emission

Requiring active rrigation system which is not suitable in some areas Vân

Hồ still apply conventional method due to limited land and cultivating in one season only

In a dry place with little water, people will poke holes and sow directly

As effective as conventional rice planting

3 Change the perception and habit

Plant cover crops / use agricultural by-products to cover the ground to limit transpiration

Use sawdust, rice husks, peanut stalks, hemp leaves to cover the soil

Chieng Yen, Van Ho, Song Khua

- Higher productivity, less money to buy fertilizer Drought, storm reduce soil erosion, increase soil porposity

5 Effective and easy to apply

Nylon cover Van Ho High efficiency with less effort Drought reduce water 2 no one has done it before so they have not dared to do it; The farm is not concentrated so it has not been done yet, the investment costs are high

Hang Trung (Van Ho) (trồng rau, nấm và dâu tây), Phu Mau (Chieng Yen)

High efficiency with less effort

Drought, storm, hail, wind reduce water 1

Difficult to apply because there are few people, small plots, little land, mainly hilly land, large investment costs

Van Ho, Phu Mau (Chieng Yen)

Co Ba drip irrigation of oranges, helping to increase production, sweeter citrus, reduce labor, and save water

Investment costs are large, production is small, so farmers do not want to invest

Investment costs are large, production is small, so farmers do not want to invest

Crop rotation, intercropping planting soybeans, green beans intercropped with CAQ

Chieng Yen, Song Khua, Van Ho, Song Khua

Higher economic efficiency, diversify revenue sources

Reduce impacts of climate change

Increase biomass, increase soil protection

Perceptions of farmers that intercropping can influence of the intercropping CAQ and maize, tea, pumpkin to reduce erosion and crop biodiversity productivity of the main crops

(intercropping forestry and fruit trees) planting pine to protect the top of the change, to keep water, at the foot to plant corn, if the area is too poor, plant peaches;

Higher economic efficiency, diversify revenue sources

Reduce water use and soil erosion

Intercropping is difficult to harvest, has not yet developed into a commodity product, so people have not paid attention Poplars under cycads, fat + bamboo shoots + bananas + corn + vegetables: slightly sloping land (4-5 years)

The areas of hills and mountains cannot be used to protect the land

Planting oranges along contour lines, terraced fields

Chieng Yen, Van Ho, Song Khua

Not yet trained about this practice

(Use devices to measure soil nutrients and plant nutrients)

Not yet based solely on observation and experience

Van Ho (Yes, but only as a model for training) fertilize nitrogen

Using manure from raising cows, chickens and pigs./

Composting river fish + corn + soybeans to make fertilizer

Increased output and better quality

Healthy plants, better weather resistance and pest control

Reduce chemical fertilizers, limit soil degradation

Intercropping with legume crops, etc.)

Chieng Yen, Van Ho, Song Khua

Increased output and better quality Reduce fertilizer costs

Healthy plants, better weather resistance and pest control

Reduce chemical fertilizers, limit land degradation, reduce emissions

Not many households apply it because it is laborious, mainly using straw to leave the field Some households grow peanuts, black beans interspersed with maize, but few Mainly for family Use biological products instead of chemical drugs

Increased output and better quality Reduce fertilizer costs

Healthy plants, better weather resistance and pest control

Reduce chemical breakdown, limit depression land degradation, emission reduction

Smart carbon solutions to help reduce greenhouse gas

Switching from conventional farming to organic farming

Product price is 2-3 times higher than traditional production, reducing the cost of chemical fertilizers

Healthy plants, better weather resistance and pest

Reduce chemical fertilizers, limit land degradation, reduce

The organic fertilizer has not been composted, so it is not enough High technical requirements emissions control emissions

Maize is converted to forest trees and grass for livestock;

Inefficient short- day plants to grow green thorns

Creating jobs for households and improving the economy, improving the economic status of women

The tree adapts well to harsh climates, without having to take care of it

4 Change the perception and habit

Reduce the use of chemicals

(IPM- eg use of natural enemies )

Organizational mapping

As shown in the figure, organizations range from government, non-government, private business and service companies Typically, 70% of the organizations are governmental

The organizational mapping helps to identify key organizations to reach the maximum number of people (or to help scale-out programs) For example, village heads and commune leaders were identified as the particularly well connected organization by the farmers Thus, targeting such an organization can directly contribute in multi-stakeholder collaboration with several other actors/organizations

Figure 3: Organization mapping and linkages as detailed by farmer

(Red circles denote those ranked as of high importance, green circles of medium and low importance, the related rate depends on the distance from the center to those, the longer the distance is, the lower the importance is)

4.6 Challenges to scale-up climate smart agricultural production practices

The data provided represents the challenges faced in scaling up Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) practices in Van Ho district As listed and evaluated by farmers, there are total 11 main challenges that need to be taken in consideration as following:

Figure 4: Challenges for CSA scale up

- Capital: The challenge of limited capital (51.72%) suggests that farmers may lack the financial resources needed to invest in CSA practices This could include the costs associated with adopting new technologies, purchasing equipment, or implementing infrastructure improvements Access to affordable financing options and financial support programs could help address this challenge

- Road: The lack of adequate roads (50.00%) indicates that transportation infrastructure may be a barrier to scaling up CSA practices Poor road conditions or limited connectivity can hinder the movement of agricultural inputs, produce, and resources Improving road infrastructure and transportation networks can enhance market access and facilitate the adoption and dissemination of CSA practices

- Market: The challenge of accessing markets (55.17%) suggests that farmers may face difficulties in finding suitable buyers or obtaining fair prices for their CSA products Developing market linkages, strengthening value chains, and promoting market-oriented approaches can help address this challenge Providing market information, supporting

Captital Road Market Education Lack of information

Lack of time Afraid of risk Lack of technology

Challenges for CSA scale up collective marketing initiatives, and fostering partnerships between farmers and buyers can enhance market opportunities for CSA products

- Education: The lack of education (39.66%) highlights the importance of knowledge and awareness in promoting CSA practices Farmers may require information on climate-smart techniques, their benefits, and the potential risks associated with their adoption Investing in farmer education and extension services can empower farmers with the necessary skills and knowledge to implement CSA practices effectively

- Lack of Information: The challenge of limited information (39.66%) indicates that farmers may not have access to relevant and up-to-date information on CSA practices Strengthening information dissemination mechanisms, such as training programs, demonstration plots, and farmer-to-farmer knowledge sharing, can help overcome this challenge

- Not Interested: The low level of interest (3.45%) in CSA practices suggests a lack of awareness or understanding of the benefits associated with climate-smart approaches Awareness campaigns, capacity-building initiatives, and showcasing successful case studies can help generate interest and motivate farmers to adopt CSA practices

- Lack of Time: The constraint of limited time (6.90%) may indicate that farmers perceive the adoption of CSA practices as time-consuming or requiring additional labor Promoting efficient and time-saving techniques, providing incentives for adoption, and integrating CSA practices into existing farming systems can help address this challenge

- Afraid of Risk: The fear of risk (12.07%) implies that farmers may perceive

CSA practices as uncertain or potentially risky Enhancing risk management strategies, providing insurance schemes, and demonstrating the benefits of climate resilience and risk reduction associated with CSA practices can help alleviate these concerns

- Lack of Technology: The challenge of limited access to technology (3.45%) suggests that farmers may lack access to appropriate and affordable agricultural technologies for implementing CSA practices Supporting research and development efforts, facilitating technology transfer, and promoting the availability of climate-smart technologies can help overcome this challenge

- Lack of Consultancy: The limited availability of consultancy services (29.31%) indicates a lack of professional advice and guidance for farmers in adopting CSA practices Strengthening extension services, providing technical assistance, and promoting collaboration between researchers, extension agents, and farmers can help address this challenge

- Policy: The presence of policy-related challenges (6.90%) implies that the existing policy framework may not adequately support or incentivize the adoption and scaling up of CSA practices Aligning agricultural policies with climate objectives, providing policy incentives, and integrating climate change considerations into agricultural planning can help overcome this challenge

The analysis of the challenges to scaling up CSA practices in Van Ho district reveals a range of barriers related to capital, infrastructure, markets, education, information, attitudes, time, risk perception, technology, consultancy, and policy Addressing these challenges requires a multi-faceted approach involving financial support, infrastructure development, market facilitation, knowledge dissemination, awareness campaigns, capacity building, and supportive policies

By overcoming these barriers, the scaling up of CSA practices can contribute to enhancing the resilience, sustainability, and productivity of agriculture in Van

Ho district, Son La Province ultimately leading to improved livelihoods for farmers and increased food security.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMENDATION

Based on the evidence gathered, it can be inferred that a significant number of farmers in the research area have witnessed alterations in crucial climate-related variables, such as precipitation and temperature., and have personally experienced the consequences of climate change over time This includes the occurrence of prolonged dry periods and decreased rainfall, which have become more frequent across different agro-ecological zones within the district These observations are consistent with historical meteorological records pertaining to temperature and precipitation

The majority of the surveyed households acknowledged the effectiveness of Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) practices as strategies to adapt to climate variability and mitigate its adverse impacts Integrated crop-livestock systems and soil and water conservation practices were particularly prevalent among the various CSA technologies adopted in Van Ho District, Son La Province

However, despite the existence of diverse CSA practices in the study area, a significant number of sampled households faced limitations that prevented them from fully implementing these practices Constraints such as water scarcity, financial limitations, recurring drought, and lack of access to information, among others, hindered the optimal utilization of CSA technologies

In summary, the study highlights the farmers' perception of climate change, the adoption of CSA practices as adaptation strategies, and the challenges faced in fully implementing these practices Addressing the constraints and providing support in terms of water availability, financial resources, and information access are crucial for promoting the effective implementation of CSA and enhancing climate resilience in the agricultural sector

Based on the findings of the current study, the following recommendations are proposed to improve agricultural production, productivity, and quality while reducing the risks associated with climate change:

- The government's adaptation strategies and policy decisions should be informed by the local farmers' perception of climate variability and their knowledge of existing Climate- smart agriculture (CSA) practices Consideration should also be given to socio-economic and environmental factors to ensure effective implementation

- It is crucial to prioritize the strengthening of rainwater harvesting technologies, both through runoff and roof catchment systems, as well as the introduction of small-scale irrigation facilities that rely on groundwater sources These measures will help mitigate the impacts of climate change in the study area

- Integration of climate smart agriculture into the national education program is recommended to raise awareness and promote sustainable and agro-ecologically appropriate CSA strategies

- To enhance the skills and knowledge of extension workers and local farmers, it is essential to strengthen their capacity through diverse methods of extension service delivery Training programs should prioritize educating participants about the impacts of climate change and the advantages associated with adopting climate-smart agriculture practices for adaptation purposes

- Government institutions should intensify their efforts to deliver precise and timely weather forecasts to farmers in the local language It is crucial to address the concerns expressed by some farmers regarding their lack of trust in the accuracy of weather forecasts they receive

By ensuring improved access to reliable weather information, farmers will be empowered to make informed decisions regarding the optimal utilization of seasonal rainfall and maximize their crop yields

- Enhancing market accessibility for rural farmers to sell their agricultural products and purchase household inputs is essential Additionally, encouraging local farmers to sell livestock during dry periods can help alleviate the economic impacts of climate variability

In conclusion, implementing these recommendations will contribute to improving agricultural resilience, supporting farmers in adapting to climate change, and promoting sustainable agricultural practices in the study area

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APPENDIX Appendix 1: Household interview (transect walks)

Appendix 3: Focus group discussion (FGD)