Môn lý thuyết tổng hợp chuyên ngành ngôn ngữ Anh của Trường Đại học Mở Hà Nội là một môn học quan trọng dành cho sinh viên chuyên ngành ngôn ngữ Anh. Môn học này cung cấp một cái nhìn tổng quát và sâu rộng về các khía cạnh lý thuyết và ứng dụng của ngôn ngữ Anh, bao gồm cả các lý thuyết ngôn ngữ học và các phương pháp giảng dạy tiếng Anh. Các nội dung chính của môn học bao gồm: Ngôn ngữ học lý thuyết: Ngữ âm học (Phonetics) và Âm vị học (Phonology): Nghiên cứu về các âm thanh trong tiếng Anh và cách chúng được tổ chức và sử dụng. Ngữ pháp học (Syntax): Nghiên cứu về cấu trúc câu và các quy tắc ngữ pháp của tiếng Anh. Ngữ nghĩa học (Semantics): Nghiên cứu về ý nghĩa của từ và câu trong ngôn ngữ. Ngữ dụng học (Pragmatics): Nghiên cứu về cách ngôn ngữ được sử dụng trong các ngữ cảnh xã hội khác nhau. Ngôn ngữ học ứng dụng: Phương pháp giảng dạy tiếng Anh (TESOL): Các kỹ thuật và phương pháp hiệu quả để dạy và học tiếng Anh như một ngôn ngữ thứ hai. Dịch thuật (Translation and Interpretation): Các kỹ năng và lý thuyết dịch thuật giữa tiếng Anh và tiếng Việt. Phân tích diễn ngôn (Discourse Analysis): Nghiên cứu về cách các đoạn văn và hội thoại được cấu trúc và hiểu. Văn hóa và văn học Anh: Tìm hiểu về các tác phẩm văn học kinh điển của Anh và Mỹ, cũng như văn hóa, lịch sử, và xã hội của các nước nói tiếng Anh. Kỹ năng ngôn ngữ: Phát triển kỹ năng nghe, nói, đọc, viết bằng tiếng Anh thông qua các bài tập và hoạt động thực hành. Mục tiêu của môn học: Cung cấp cho sinh viên nền tảng kiến thức vững chắc về lý thuyết ngôn ngữ học và các kỹ năng ngôn ngữ cần thiết. Trang bị cho sinh viên các kỹ năng phân tích và nghiên cứu ngôn ngữ. Nâng cao khả năng giảng dạy tiếng Anh và dịch thuật. Mở rộng hiểu biết về văn hóa và văn học Anh. Phương pháp giảng dạy: Bài giảng lý thuyết kết hợp với thảo luận nhóm và các bài tập thực hành. Sử dụng các tài liệu tham khảo hiện đại và cập nhật. Đánh giá qua các bài kiểm tra, bài tập, và bài thuyết trình. Thông qua môn học này, sinh viên sẽ được trang bị kiến thức toàn diện về ngôn ngữ Anh, giúp họ tự tin và sẵn sàng cho các công việc liên quan đến ngôn ngữ và giáo dục trong tương lai.
Trang 1ĐỀ CƯƠNG: LÝ THUYẾT TỔNG HỢP - EHOU
1 What are the structures of basic Noun Phrase and the complex Noun Phrase?
• Structures of Basic Noun Phrase and Complex Noun Phrase
➢ Basic Noun Phrase (NP)
A basic noun phrase consists of a closed system pre-modifier and a head noun The pre-modifier includes determiners like articles (a, an, the), possessive pronouns (my, his, her), demonstratives (this, that, these, those), quantifiers (some, any, all, every), and numerals Here are some examples:
The table
All these people
Some books
➢ Complex Noun Phrase (NP)
A complex noun phrase includes open-class modifiers and a head noun The modifiers can appear either before (pre-modifiers) or after (post-modifiers) the head noun The structure is as follows:
Pre-modifiers + Head Noun + post-modifiers
Pre-modifiers can be:
1 Adjectives:
Example: A difficult question
2 Nouns:
Example: School children
3 Adverbs (rarely used):
Example: Quite a problem
Post-modifiers can be:
Trang 22 Clauses:
➢ Relative clauses:
Example: Students who are learning English
➢ Non-finite clauses:
Example: Students learning English
The complexity in noun phrases adds specificity and detail, making communication more precise The use of pre- and post-modifiers allows speakers and writers to provide additional information about the noun, enhancing the descriptive quality of the language
2 What are the syntactical functions of English Noun Phrases?
The syntactical functions of English noun phrases are detailed in the provided lecture
as follows:
1 Subject: Noun phrases can function as the subject of a sentence, indicating
who or what performs the action or is described by the verb
o Example: "The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog."
2 Object: They can also function as objects, either direct or indirect, of a verb
o Direct Object Example: "She wrote a letter."
o Indirect Object Example: "She gave her friend a gift."
3 Complement: Noun phrases can serve as complements, providing additional
information about the subject or object This can include subject complements and object complements
o Subject Complement Example: "He is a teacher."
o Object Complement Example: "They elected him president."
4 Modifier: As modifiers, noun phrases can give more information about another
noun within a noun phrase
o Example: "The book cover is red."
5 Prepositional Complement: When following a preposition, noun phrases act
as the complement in prepositional phrases
o Example: "She sat on the chair."
6 Appositive: Noun phrases can act as appositives, renaming or providing
additional information about a noun next to them
o Example: "My brother, a skilled guitarist, played at the concert."
Trang 3These functions highlight the versatility and essential role of noun phrases in sentence structure and meaning construction in English grammar
3 What are the grammatical categories of English verbs?
The Grammatical Categories of English Verbs
The grammatical categories of English verbs are essential for understanding how verbs function within sentences Based on the provided lecture, here are the detailed grammatical categories of English verbs:
1 Tense
Tense indicates the time of the action or state described by the verb English primarily distinguishes between the present and past tenses:
• Present Tense: Used for actions or states happening now or generally true
• Past Tense: Used for actions or states that occurred in the past
• Perfect Aspect: Indicates that an action was completed at some point before
another action or time (e.g., "She has written the letter")
• Progressive Aspect: Indicates an ongoing action (e.g., "She is writing now")
• Perfect Progressive Aspect: Indicates an ongoing action that was completed at
some point before another action or time (e.g., "She has been writing for an hour")
3 Voice
Voice shows the relationship between the subject and the verb English verbs have two voices:
Trang 4• Active Voice: The subject performs the action (e.g., "The chef cooks the
meal")
• Passive Voice: The action is performed on the subject (e.g., "The meal is
cooked by the chef")
• Imperative Mood: Used for commands or requests (e.g., "Write the letter")
• Subjunctive Mood: Used for hypothetical or non-real actions or states (e.g., "I
suggest that she write the letter")
5 Verb Forms
There are five primary forms of verbs in English, each serving different grammatical functions:
• Base Form: Used for the present tense (except third person singular),
imperative sentences, and subjunctive mood (e.g., "do," "write")
• -s Form: Used for the third person singular present tense (e.g., "does,"
• -ed Participle: Used for the perfect aspect, passive voice, and participle
clauses (e.g., "done," "written")
6 Regular and Irregular Verbs
• Regular Verbs: Follow a standard pattern in their past and past participle
forms (e.g., "work" -> "worked")
Trang 5• Irregular Verbs: Have unique forms that do not follow a standard pattern
(e.g., "go" -> "went" -> "gone")
Notes:
• There are various devices in English to denote future time (e.g., "will/shall + verb," "be going to + verb," present progressive, etc.)
• Some non-finite forms (like the base form or -ing participle) are used in
specific grammatical structures beyond their primary functions
By understanding these categories, one can accurately conjugate verbs and construct grammatically correct sentences in English
4 What are the finite and non-finite Verb Phrases?
Finite and Non-finite Verb Phrases
Finite Verb Phrases
A finite verb phrase is a verb phrase that contains a verb which is limited by
subject-verb agreement and tense In simpler terms, a finite subject-verb phrase must have a subject-verb that agrees with the subject in person and number, and it indicates a specific time frame (past, present, or future)
Types of Finite Verb Phrases:
1 Simple Finite Verb Phrase:
o Consists of a single lexical verb
o The form is based on subject-verb concord to show simple tenses
(present or past)
o Example: "He comes" (simple present tense, third person, singular)
2 Complex Finite Verb Phrase:
o Consists of an auxiliary verb and a lexical verb
o The form is based on subject-verb concord to show tense, aspect, and/or voice
o Example: "He has come" (present perfect)
Trang 6Non-finite Verb Phrases
A non-finite verb phrase contains a verb that does not show tense and does not agree
with the subject in person or number Non-finite verbs include the base form
(infinitive), the present participle (-ing form), and the past participle (-ed form)
Types of Non-finite Verb Phrases:
1 Simple Non-finite Verb Phrase:
o Consists of a single non-finite verb
o Forms: to-infinitive, bare infinitive, -ing participle, -ed participle
o Example: "to do", "doing", "done"
2 Complex Non-finite Verb Phrase:
o May express aspect or voice categories
o Example: "to have done", "having done"
Syntactic Functions of Verb Phrases
Finite Verb Phrases:
• Function as predicates in sentences
• Example: "We have been learning English."
Non-finite Verb Phrases:
• Can take various syntactic functions and are often referred to as non-finite clauses
• Example functions:
o Adverbial (A): "We come here to learn English."
o Subject (S): "To learn/learning is not easy."
o Object (O): "We want to learn."
o Subject Complement (Cs): "Our duty is to learn/learning."
o Object Complement (Co): "We want our English to be practically
useful."
o Adjective Complement (Cadj): "Our English is sure to be better."
Trang 7o Prepositional Complement (Cprep): "We can learn a lot from making
mistakes."
o Appositive (App): "Our task, to master English, is rather challenging."
o Modifier: "Look at the sitting man; he is looking attentively at the
people sitting outside."
This detailed explanation outlines the structures and functions of finite and non-finite verb phrases based on the provided lecture material
5 What are the realizations of the complementation of each type of verb?
The realizations of the complementation of each type of verb in English are detailed based on the type of verb These include nontransitive, ditransitive, complex-
transitive, and intransitive verbs, among others Here is a detailed explanation based
on the provided lecture:
1 Nontransitive Verbs: These verbs take one direct object
o Example: "She reads a book."
o Complementation: Direct Object (DO) - "a book"
2 Ditransitive Verbs: These verbs take two objects – a direct object and an
indirect object
o Example: "He gave her a gift."
o Complementation: Indirect Object (IO) - "her", Direct Object (DO) - "a
gift"
3 Complex-Transitive Verbs: These verbs take a direct object and an object
complement
o Example: "They elected him president."
o Complementation: Direct Object (DO) - "him", Object Complement
(OC) - "president"
4 Intransitive Verbs: These verbs do not take any object
o Example: "She sleeps."
o Complementation: None, as there is no object involved
5 Intensive Verbs: These verbs link the subject to a subject complement
o Example: "She is a teacher."
o Complementation: Subject Complement (SC) - "a teacher"
Trang 86 Prepositional Verbs: These verbs are followed by a prepositional phrase
o Example: "He looks after the kids."
o Complementation: Prepositional Phrase (PP) - "after the kids"
7 Phrasal Verbs: These verbs consist of a verb and a particle
o Example: "She gave up smoking."
o Complementation: Particle (P) - "up", Direct Object (DO) - "smoking"
Each type of verb has specific patterns for how it can be complemented, and
understanding these patterns is crucial for mastering English grammar
6 What are the syntactical functions of English adjectives and adverbs?
The syntactical functions of English adjectives and adverbs, as detailed in the
provided lecture material, are as follows:
Adjective Phrases
1 Structure:
• An adjective phrase is a phrase with an adjective as the head (e.g., "very
happy") or as the sole realization (e.g., "happy") For convenience, adjective phrases are often simply referred to as adjectives
• Adjectives may be modified by adverb phrases (e.g., "very happy")
2 Syntactic Functions:
• Modifier: An adjective can function as a modifier of a noun (e.g., "good
students" or "students good at English")
• Subject Complement (Cs): An adjective can act as a subject complement,
describing the subject of the sentence (e.g., "My students are very dynamic")
• Object Complement (Co): An adjective can serve as an object complement,
providing more information about the object (e.g., "Foreign languages will make us more dynamic")
• Head Noun (rare): Occasionally, adjectives can function as the head of a noun
phrase (e.g., "The rich are helping the poor")
Adverb Phrases
Trang 91 Structure:
• An adverb phrase is a phrase with an adverb as the head (e.g., "far more
easily") or as the sole realization (e.g., "easily") Like adjective phrases, adverb phrases are often referred to simply as adverbs
• An adverb may be modified by another adverb (e.g., "far more")
2 Syntactic Functions:
• Adjunct (A): An adverb can function as an adjunct, providing additional
information about the action or state described by the verb (e.g., "We are here")
• Modifier of Adjective: An adverb can modify an adjective, providing more
information about the quality described by the adjective (e.g., "very good")
• Modifier of Adverb: An adverb can modify another adverb, adding detail to
the manner or degree of the action or state (e.g., "rather more difficult")
• Modifier of Determiner: An adverb can modify a determiner, giving more
information about quantity or extent (e.g., "about ten people")
• Modifier of Noun Phrase: An adverb can modify a noun phrase, providing
more detail about the noun (e.g., "such a big family")
• Modifier of Preposition: An adverb can modify a preposition, giving more
information about the relationship expressed by the preposition (e.g., "right through the wall")
• Prepositional Complement: An adverb can function as the complement of a
preposition (e.g., "since then")
7 What are the syntactical functions of prepositional phrases?
Syntactical Functions of Prepositional Phrases
Based on the provided lecture, prepositional phrases can serve several syntactical functions within a sentence:
1 Adverbial Function (A):
o Prepositional phrases can function as adverbials, providing information about time, place, manner, cause, and purpose For example, in the
Trang 10sentence "We live in Hanoi," the prepositional phrase "in Hanoi"
indicates the place where the action happens
2 Post-modifier in a Noun Phrase (NP):
o They can act as post-modifiers within a noun phrase, giving more
information about the noun For instance, in "Students in our faculty will win," the prepositional phrase "in our faculty" modifies the noun
"students" by specifying which students are being referred to
3 Adjective Complement:
o Prepositional phrases can function as complements to adjectives,
providing necessary information to complete the meaning of the adjective An example from the text is "We are proud of our success," where "of our success" complements the adjective "proud"
In summary, prepositional phrases can function in various syntactical roles such as adverbials, post-modifiers in noun phrases, and adjective complements Each of these functions helps to clarify and expand upon the elements within a sentence, providing additional context and detail
8 What is the classification of clauses in terms of usage, structures and semantics?
The classification of clauses in terms of usage, structures, and semantics is detailed in the lecture notes provided Here is a comprehensive explanation:
Classification of Clauses
1 Based on Usage
o Superordinate/Main/Independent Clause: This refers to the entire
sentence, which can stand alone and express a complete thought
o Subordinate/Dependent Clauses: These clauses cannot stand alone and
function as elements within the superordinate clause They may serve as subjects, objects, complements, or adverbials within the main clause Indicators of subordination include:
▪ Formal Indicators: Subordinators such as "because" "if,"
"since," "that," "when," "while" etc
Trang 11▪ Compound Subordinators: Phrases like "so that," "in order
that," "as if," etc
▪ Correlatives: Phrases like "so that," "such that," "no
sooner than," etc
▪ Wh-Words: Pronouns (who, which, that) and adverbs (where,
when, how, why)
▪ Absence of Subordinator: Often seen in non-finite clauses
acting as subjects, objects, or complements
2 Based on Structure
o Finite Clauses: These contain a subject-verb (S-V) construction with
subject-verb concord For example, "He is a student."
o Non-Finite Clauses: These often lack an explicit subject and are usually
related to the subject of the main clause They include:
▪ To-Infinitive Clauses: "To read books is fun."
▪ Bare Infinitive Clauses: "She made me go."
▪ -ing Participle Clauses: "Walking in the park, she felt at peace."
▪ -ed Participle Clauses: "Given the circumstances, he acted
reasonably."
3 Based on Semantics
o Nominal Clauses: Function as subjects, objects, or complements in the
sentence They can be:
▪ Finite Nominal Clauses: Introduced by "that," "wh-words," or
"if/whether."
▪ Non-Finite Nominal Clauses: Include "to-infinitive," "-ing"
clauses
o Adverbial Clauses: Modify the verb in the main clause and function as
adjuncts or disjuncts They can be:
▪ Finite Adverbial Clauses: Introduced by subordinators like
"because," "if," "while" etc
▪ Non-Finite Adverbial Clauses: Often starting with
"to-infinitive," "-ing," or "-ed."
▪ Verbless Clauses: Using an adjective or adverb without a verb
Trang 12o Relative Clauses: Modify nouns and function as post-modifiers in noun
phrases They are typically finite clauses introduced by relative pronouns like "who," "which," or "that."
o Comment Clauses: Express the speaker's attitude towards the content
of the main clause They can be finite or non-finite (e.g., "to be honest,"
"generally speaking")
This classification helps in understanding how different types of clauses function and relate to each other within sentences
1, What are the semantic functions of sentence elements?
The semantic functions of sentence elements are essential in understanding how
different parts of a sentence contribute to the meaning and structure of the sentence The semantic functions of the main sentence elements are as follows:
1 The Subject (S):
o Realization: The subject can be realized by a Noun Phrase (NP), Verb
Phrase (VP), or a Nominal Clause (either finite or non-finite)
o Semantic Role: It typically acts as the 'doer' or the entity performing the
action or being described The subject is an obligatory element in a sentence and determines the form of the verb according to the grammatical principle of subject-verb concord in finite clauses
o Position: The subject usually appears in the initial position of a sentence
(e.g., "We were sitting here"), but can also appear in medial (e.g., "Here
we were sitting") or final positions (e.g., "At the door stood a man")
o Types: The subject may be both semantic and syntactic (e.g., "My
students are here"), syntactic only, or semantic only (e.g., "It is your task
to master English grammar" - "It" is the syntactic subject, "to master English grammar" is the semantic subject)
2 The Verb Element (Finite Verb):
o Realization: The verb element is realized by a Verb Phrase (VP), which
can be either simple or complex
Trang 13o Semantic Role: It often indicates an action or a state and is an
obligatory element in a sentence Each type of verb requires a specific type of complementation
o Concord Principles: There are three principles of subject-verb concord:
a Grammatical concord: Based on grammatical rules (e.g., "We go,"
"He goes") b Notional principle: Based on meaning (e.g., "My family
is big" - "Family" as a single unit; "My family are very happy to see you" - "Family" as individual members) c Principle of proximity: The form of the verb depends on the subject element nearest to it (e.g.,
"Neither students nor the teacher is there")
3 The Object (O):
o Realization: The object can be realized by a Noun Phrase (NP), Verb
Phrase (VP), or a Nominal Clause
o Semantic Role: It typically functions as the affected element in a
sentence There are two types of objects:
▪ Direct Object (Od): The 'product' or the entity directly affected by the action
▪ Indirect Object (Oi): The 'receiver' or the entity indirectly affected by the action
4 The Adverbial (A):
o Realization: The adverbial element can be realized by an Adverb
Phrase, Prepositional Phrase, or an Adverbial Clause
o Semantic Role: It often modifies the verb element (Adjunct) or the
whole sentence (Disjunct & Conjunct) Adverbials can be:
▪ Adjuncts: E.g., "He went there yesterday."
▪ Disjuncts: E.g., "Frankly, I don't like his manner."
▪ Conjuncts: E.g., "On the contrary, he's a man of few words."
5 The Complement (C):
o Realization: Complements can be realized by a Noun Phrase (NP),
Adjective Phrase (AdjP), or a clause
o Semantic Role: Complements provide additional information about the
subject or the object They are obligatory elements that complete the meaning of the sentence There are two types of complements:
Trang 14▪ Subject Complement (Cs): Provides information about the subject (e.g., "She is a teacher")
▪ Object Complement (Co): Provides information about the object (e.g., "They elected him president")
These elements work together to form the structure and convey the meaning of
o Realization: By NP (Noun Phrase), VP (Verb Phrase), or Nominal
clause (either finite or non-finite)
o Roles: An obligatory element, often as the 'doer', determining the
V-form according to the grammatical principle of S-V concord in finite clauses
o Position: Initial, medial, and final positions
o Types: Can be both semantic and syntactic, syntactic only, or semantic
only
2 The Verb Element (Finite Verb)
o Realization: By VP (either simple or complex)
o Roles: An obligatory element often indicates action or state Each type
of verb requires a certain type of complementation
o S-V Concord Principles: a Grammatical concord: Conforms to
grammar rules b Notional principle: Based on meaning c Proximity
principle: The form of the verb depends on the element of the subject
which is nearer
3 The Object (O)
o Realization: By NP, VP, or Nominal clause
Trang 15o Roles: An obligatory element, often as an affected element (Od =
'product', Oi = 'receiver')
4 The Adverbial (A)
o Realization: By Adverb Phrase, Prepositional Phrase, or Adverbial
clause
o Roles: Often optional, modifying the V-element (Adjunct) or the whole
sentence (Disjunct & Conjunct)
5 The Complement (C)
o Realization: By NP, VP, Adj.P, or clause
o Roles: An obligatory element, completing the S, O, Adj, and Prep both
semantically and syntactically
o Note: The complement is different from the modifier, which is an
optional component within a phrase
Classification Based on Communicative Functions
1 Statements/Declarative Sentences: E.g., "We are having lovely weather."
2 Interrogative Sentences: E.g., "Are you having lovely weather?"
3 Exclamatory Sentences: E.g., "What lovely weather we are having!"
4 Imperative Sentences: E.g., "Enjoy it!"
Classification Based on Structure
1 Simple Sentence: One independent clause
2 Compound Sentence: More than one independent clause combined by
coordination
3 Complex Sentence: More than one clause combined by subordination
Ellipsis and Apposition
• Ellipsis: Used to avoid repetition and focus on new material It can apply to
any sentence element but can lead to ambiguity
• Apposition: Appositive is the item that is in the same position and performs
the same syntactic function as the other items in the clause
Trang 16These elements and their functions form the foundation for understanding and
analyzing sentence structure and syntax in English
3, What are the kinds of adverbs in English?
In the provided lecture text, adverbs in English are classified into three main
categories based on their roles in sentences:
1 Adjuncts: These adverbs modify the verb element and provide additional
information about time, place, manner, frequency, degree, and reason They are often optional in sentences
o Example:
▪ He went there yesterday (Adjunct of time)
▪ He walked quickly (Adjunct of manner)
2 Disjuncts: These adverbs express the speaker's attitude towards the content of
the sentence or their manner of speaking They typically comment on the entire sentence rather than just the verb
o Example:
▪ Frankly, I don't like his manner (Disjunct expressing attitude)
▪ Generally speaking, he is honest (Disjunct expressing manner of speaking)
3 Conjuncts: These adverbs function to connect sentences or clauses, indicating
the relationship between them such as addition, contrast, cause, effect, or
sequence
o Example:
▪ On the contrary, he's a man of few words (Conjunct expressing contrast)
▪ Consequently, he missed the bus (Conjunct expressing result)
Each type of adverb serves a specific syntactical function and enhances the clarity and meaning of the sentences they appear in
4, What are the kinds of sentences structurally?
Sentences in English are classified into three main types:
Trang 171 Simple Sentence: A simple sentence consists of a single independent clause It
contains a subject and a predicate and expresses a complete thought For
example:
o "The baby cried."
o "She saw an accident."
2 Compound Sentence: A compound sentence contains two or more
independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction (such as "and," "but,"
or "or") or a punctuation mark like a semicolon Each clause in a compound sentence can stand alone as a complete sentence For example:
o "He works hard, and I want him to have a rest."
o "She studied hard, but she didn't pass the exam."
3 Complex Sentence: A complex sentence consists of one independent clause
and at least one dependent (or subordinate) clause The dependent clause is introduced by subordinating conjunctions such as "because" "although," or
"when," and it cannot stand alone as a complete sentence For example:
o "Because he works hard, I want him to have a rest."
o "Although she studied hard, she didn't pass the exam."
Additionally, complex sentences can use different devices of subordination, including:
• Subordinators: Words like "when," "while" "because," "although," etc
• Non-finite clauses: Clauses that use non-finite verbs, such as "Learning
English, we know better about our mother language."
• Inversion: Reversing the order of the subject and auxiliary verb, as in "Had I
been there, I’d have given them a helping hand."
These structures enable sentences to convey a wide range of relationships between ideas, from simple statements to more nuanced connections
5, What are communicative classifications of sentences?
Communicative Classifications of Sentences
According to the lecture text, sentences can be classified communicatively into four main types:
Trang 181 Declarative Sentences: These are used to make statements or provide
information They are the most common type of sentence and end with a period
o Example: "She is reading a book."
2 Imperative Sentences: These are used to give commands, requests, or
instructions They often have an implied subject ("you") and can end with a period or an exclamation mark
o Example: "Close the door."
3 Interrogative Sentences: These are used to ask questions They typically
begin with a question word (who, what, where, when, why, how) or an auxiliary verb and end with a question mark
o Example: "Are you coming to the party?"
4 Exclamatory Sentences: These are used to express strong emotions or
feelings They end with an exclamation mark
o Example: "What a beautiful day!"
These classifications help in understanding the purpose and function of sentences in communication, providing clarity and precision in language use
6, What are the syntactical functions of finite and non-finite nominal clauses?
The syntactical functions of finite and non-finite nominal clauses based on the provided lecture text are as follows:
Syntactical Functions of Finite Nominal Clauses
A finite clause is one that contains a subject and a finite verb It can perform several syntactical functions in a sentence:
1 Subject of a Sentence
o Example: "What she said was surprising."
2 Direct Object of a Sentence
o Example: "I know that she is right."
3 Complement of a Sentence
o Example: "The problem is that she left early."
4 Indirect Object of a Sentence
Trang 19o Example: "I gave whoever was present a chance to speak."
5 Adjunct of a Sentence
o Example: "Although he was tired, he kept working."
6 Prepositional Complement of a Sentence
o Example: "He is interested in what you said."
Syntactical Functions of Non-Finite Nominal Clauses
A non-finite clause is one that contains a non-tensed verb form (e.g., infinitive,
participle, or gerund) Non-finite clauses do not express tense or the subject doing the action They can serve various syntactical functions:
o Example: "She was eager to start the new job."
These functions illustrate the versatility and importance of both finite and non-finite nominal clauses in constructing meaningful and complex sentences
1, What is the difference between a morpheme and a word?
A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language It cannot be divided further without losing or altering its meaning There are two types of morphemes: root
morphemes and affixational morphemes
1 Root Morpheme:
Trang 20o Free Morphemes: These can stand alone as words (e.g., "heart" in
"hearty" or "read" in "readable")
o Bound Morphemes: These cannot stand alone and typically appear in
combination with other morphemes (e.g., "-clude" in "include,"
"conclude," and "exclude")
2 Affixational Morphemes: These are attached to root morphemes to modify
their meaning or create new words They are divided into:
o Grammatical Morphemes (Inflectional): Modify a word’s tense,
number, aspect, mood, etc., without creating a new word (e.g., "-s" in
"teachers," "-ed" in "worked," "-ing" in "working")
o Derivational Morphemes: Create new words by adding prefixes,
suffixes, or infixes, changing both the lexical and grammatical category
of the base word (e.g., "un-" in "unhappy," "-ness" in "happiness")
A word, on the other hand, can be simple, derived, or compound:
• Simple Words: Consist of a single root morpheme (e.g., "girl," "teach")
• Derived Words: Consist of a root and one or more derivational morphemes
(e.g., "teacher," "modernization")
• Compound Words: Consist of at least two root morphemes, with or without
derivational morphemes (e.g., "blackboard," "classroom," "mother-in-law")
2, What are the different ways of forming English words?
In the provided text, the different ways of forming English words are described as follows:
1 Affixation: The formation of new words using prefixes and suffixes
o Prefixation: Adding a prefix to the root of a word, mainly modifying
the lexical meaning without changing the part of speech Examples:
"happy" (adj) becomes "unhappy" (adj), "do" (v) becomes "redo" (v)
o Suffixation: Adding a suffix to the root, which changes the word both
lexically and grammatically, often changing the part of speech
Examples: "beautiful" (adj) becomes "beautifully" (adv), "modern" (adj) becomes "modernize" (v)
Trang 212 Compounding/Word Composition: Creating new words by joining two or
more words to form a compound word, which consists of at least two stems Examples: "classroom", "timetable", "bedroom", "schoolgirl", "passer-by"
3 Shortening: A productive method of word formation, especially in colloquial
speech and advertisements, which includes abbreviation and blending
o Abbreviation:
▪ Acronyms: Words built from the initials of several words
Examples: "USSR" (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics), "UN" (United Nations)
▪ Clipping: Reducing a word by cutting off parts of it
▪ Initial Clipping: Clipping the first part Examples:
"phone" (telephone), "cute" (acute)
▪ Final Clipping: Clipping the last part Examples: "doc"
(doctor), "prof" (professor)
▪ Initio-Final Clipping: Clipping both the first and last
parts Examples: "frig" (refrigerator), "flu" (influenza)
▪ Medial Clipping: Clipping the middle part of the word
o Blending: Merging parts of words into one new word Examples:
"breathalyzer" (breath + analyzer), "broasted" (broiled + roasted)
4 Conversion (Functional Change/Zero Derivation): Forming a new word in a
different part of speech without adding any element Examples: "chair" (n) becomes "to chair" (v), "milk" (n) becomes "to milk" (v)
5 Sound Imitation: Forming words by imitating sounds produced by actions or
things Examples include animal sounds like "crow", "cuckoo"; sounds made
by animals like "howl", "quack"; movement of water sounds like "flush",
"splash"; and actions made by humans like "giggle", "chatter"
6 Back Derivation (Back Formation): Building new words by subtracting a real
or supposed affix from existing words Examples: "to beg" from "beggar", "to burgle" from "burglar"
7 Sound and Stress Interchange:
o Sound Interchange: Changing the root vowel or consonant of the old
word to form a new word Examples: "food" (n) becomes "feed" (v),
"speak" (v) becomes "speech" (n)
Trang 22o Stress Interchange: Changing the stress position in the word to form a
new word Examples: "export" (n) becomes "to export" (v), "conduct" (n) becomes "to conduct" (v)
These methods illustrate the rich variety of ways new words can be generated in the English language
3, What are the types of word meaning?
There are several types of word meanings explained Here is a detailed summary:
1 Lexical Meaning and Grammatical Meaning:
o Lexical Meaning: This refers to the realization of concepts or emotions
It is further divided into:
▪ Denotational Meaning (Denotation): This component expresses
the conceptual content of a word, pointing out things or concepts For example, the words "father," "dad," and "daddy" share the same denotational meaning but have different connotations
▪ Connotational Meaning (Connotation): This component
indicates how things or concepts are denoted, conveying the speaker's attitude, emotions, etc For example, "father" might denote the same concept as "dad," but "dad" carries a more informal, affectionate connotation
2 Direct Meaning and Indirect Meaning:
o Direct Meaning: This meaning directly denotes something without the
need for comparison or context It is also known as literal meaning For instance, "head" as part of the body
o Indirect Meaning: This meaning indirectly denotes something,
requiring comparison or context for understanding It is also called figurative or transferred meaning For instance, "head" can mean
"leader," which is an indirect meaning
3 Motivation of English Words:
o Morphologic Motivation: This involves the direct relationship between
the morphologic structure of a word and its meaning For example,
Trang 23"employer" (a person that employs others) and "employee" (a person who works for somebody)
o Phonetic Motivation: This involves a direct relationship between the
phonetic structure of a word and its meaning, often seen in onomatopoeic words like "quack," "moo," "giggle," etc
o Semantic Motivation: This involves the relationship between direct and
indirect meanings, co-existing literal and figurative meanings based on metaphor For example, "the foot of the mountain" or "the neck of a bottle."
4 Homonymy and Polysemy:
o Homonyms: Words that are identical in pronunciation and/or spelling
but have different meanings and are not semantically related
Homonyms are further classified into:
▪ Full/Perfect Homonyms: Words identical in both pronunciation
and spelling and belong to the same part of speech, like "seal" (an animal) and "seal" (a design stamped on paper)
▪ Partial Homonyms: Words that are homonymous only in some
forms of their paradigms, like "to found" (establish) and "to find" (discover)
o Polysemy: A single word having multiple meanings that are
semantically related For example, "head" can mean both a part of the body and a leader
These types of meanings help in understanding the complex nature of word usage and the way meanings are conveyed in different contexts
4, What is the motivation of English words?
The motivation of English words is a concept that explores the relationship between the structure and meaning of words, as well as the relationship between their direct and indirect meanings This concept can be divided into three main types of
motivation: morphological, phonetic, and semantic
1 Morphological Motivation: Morphological motivation refers to the direct
relationship between the morphological structure of a word and its meaning
Trang 24This involves understanding how the morphemes (the smallest units of
meaning) within a word contribute to its overall meaning For instance, the word "employer" consists of the morpheme’s "employ" and "-er," where
"employ" means to hire someone and "-er" denotes a person who performs an action Therefore, an "employer" is someone who hires others Similarly,
"employee" combines "employ" with "-ee," indicating a person who is
employed by someone
2 Phonetic Motivation: Phonetic motivation is based on the direct relationship
between the phonetic structure of a word and its meaning This type of
motivation highlights the similarity between the sound form of a word and the sound produced by the object or action it denotes Examples of phonetically motivated words include onomatopoeic words such as "quack" (the sound a duck makes), "moo" (the sound a cow makes), and "bang" (the sound of an explosion)
3 Semantic Motivation: Semantic motivation involves the relationship between
the direct and indirect meanings of a word It refers to the coexistence of literal and figurative meanings based on metaphorical extensions For example, in the phrase "the foot of the mountain," the word "foot" has a direct meaning related
to a part of the body, but in this context, it is used metaphorically to denote the base of the mountain Similarly, "the neck of a bottle" uses "neck" in a
figurative sense to describe the narrow part of the bottle
Understanding these types of motivations helps in grasping how words evolve and how their meanings are constructed and perceived in different contexts
5, What are the differences between homonymy and polysemy?
Differences between Homonymy and Polysemy
Homonymy and polysemy are linguistic phenomena that describe the relationship
between words and their meanings Although they may seem similar, they have
distinct differences which are important to understand
Homonymy
Trang 25Homonyms are words that are identical in pronunciation and/or spelling but have different meanings and are not semantically related They can be classified into
several types based on form and meaning:
o Words that belong to different parts of speech
o Example: "work" (noun) vs "work" (verb)
Trang 26Polysemy refers to a single word having multiple related meanings Unlike
homonyms, the meanings of a polysemous word are connected by a common semantic thread The meanings can be direct or derived:
1 Direct/Primary Meaning:
o The initial and most literal meaning of the word
o Example: "head" (part of the body)
2 Secondary/Derived Meanings:
o Additional meanings that have evolved from the primary meaning
o Example: "head" can also mean the leader of a group, the top of a page,
or the foam on top of a beer
There are two common patterns of polysemic structure:
o Homonymy: No semantic relationship between the different meanings
They are essentially different words that happen to look or sound the same
o Polysemy: Meanings are semantically related, sharing a core idea
2 Form and Pronunciation:
o Homonymy: Can involve identical spelling (homographs) or
pronunciation (homophones), or both
Trang 27o Polysemy: Involves a single word with multiple related meanings,
usually with the same spelling and pronunciation
3 Usage in Language:
o Homonymy: Words often require context to disambiguate their meaning
due to their lack of semantic connection
o Polysemy: The related meanings often provide contextual clues, making
it easier to infer the intended meaning
Understanding these differences is crucial for linguistic analysis and for learning languages, as it affects comprehension and communication
6, What is the change and development of meaning?
The change and development of meaning in English words can be attributed to several factors and follow distinct patterns The process involves shifts in both denotation (the direct, literal meaning of a word) and connotation (the associated or emotional
meaning) Here's an in-depth look at these changes:
1 Causes of Semantic Change:
o Extra-linguistic Causes: These are changes influenced by social,
political, economic, cultural, scientific, and technological developments For example, words related to technology (like "mouse" or "web") have gained new meanings due to advancements in the field
o Linguistic Causes: These include factors within the language system
itself
▪ Ellipsis: Occurs when a phrase is shortened, and its meaning is
transferred to the remaining word For example, "to propose marriage" can be shortened to "to propose"
• Discrimination of Synonyms: When borrowed words cause
native words to change their meaning to avoid redundancy For instance, the word "deer" once meant any animal but now refers specifically to a particular type of animal
▪ Attraction of Synonyms: When a word gains a new meaning,
and its synonyms adopt this meaning too For instance, "catch"
Trang 28meaning "to understand" also influenced its synonyms like
"grasp" and "get" to acquire the same meaning
▪ Psychological Reasons: These are driven by social taboos and
the use of euphemisms to avoid uncomfortable topics For example, "restroom" is used instead of "toilet," and "passed away" instead of "died"
2 Types of Semantic Change:
• Denotational Changes:
o Extension (Generalization): When a word's meaning broadens For
example, "ready" originally meant "prepared for a ride" but now means
"prepared for anything"
o Narrowing (Specialization): When a word's meaning becomes more
specific For example, "meat" once meant any food but now specifically means animal flesh
• Connotational Changes:
o Degradation (Deterioration): When a word takes on a more negative
meaning For example, "knave" used to mean "boy" or "servant" but now means "rogue"
o Narrowing (Specialization): When a word's meaning becomes more
specific For example, "meat" once meant any food but now specifically means animal flesh
• Connotational Changes:
o Degradation (Deterioration): When a word takes on a more negative
meaning For example, "knave" used to mean "boy" or "servant" but now means "rogue"
o Elevation: When a word gains a more positive meaning For example,
"minister" once meant "servant" but now means the head of a state
department
3 Figures of Speech:
Trang 29• Words often change meaning through figurative language such as metaphors, metonymy, hyperbole, litotes, irony, and euphemisms This semantic shift from literal to figurative meaning enriches the language and reflects cultural and social changes For instance, "foot" in "the foot of the mountain" is a metaphor
In conclusion, the change and development of meaning in words are complex
processes influenced by both external societal factors and internal linguistic dynamics Understanding these changes provides insight into the evolving nature of language and its adaptability to new contexts and usages
1, What is the sentence meaning?
The concept of sentence meaning, as described in the lecture, encompasses several dimensions of meaning that can be derived from a sentence based on the principle of compositionality Here are the main aspects of sentence meaning:
1 Structural Meaning
Structural meaning refers to the meaning that emerges from the specific arrangement
of words and phrases within a sentence It relies on syntactic rules and the
grammatical structure of the sentence For example, the sentence "The cat sat on the mat" has a different structural meaning from "On the mat sat the cat" despite
containing the same words
2 Representational Meaning
Representational meaning can be further divided into:
• Experiential Function: This function focuses on communicating ideas by
referring to people, objects, events, qualities, actions, and circumstances For instance, the sentence "Bill Gates gave me books to read after each session" represents various elements like the subject (Bill Gates), the action (gave), the object (books), and the context (after each session)
• Logical Function: This function relates ideas to each other, either equally
(coordination) or hierarchically (subordination) For example, "I came, I saw,
Trang 30and I conquered" demonstrates coordination, while "I came early so that I could meet her" shows subordination
3 Interpersonal Meaning
Interpersonal meaning deals with the social function of language, such as:
• Establishing and Maintaining Social Relations: This is often seen in phatic
expressions like "Good morning" or "Have a nice day," which serve to
maintain social bonds rather than convey substantial information
• Influencing Behavior and Getting Things Done: This is the instrumental
function, as in "Can you get me some water, please?"
• Expressing Speaker’s Feelings, Attitudes, and Opinions: For example, "You
must be feeling hungry" or "What she said might be right."
4 Textual Function
The textual function involves creating coherence and cohesion in texts, making them understandable and logical to the reader or listener This function helps in structuring discourse effectively
Proposition
A proposition is a core element of sentence meaning in a declarative sentence,
describing a situation involving persons or things For example, "There are lions in Africa" states a factual proposition, while "Hanoi is uninhabited by human beings" is
a false proposition since it does not correspond to reality
Understanding these dimensions of sentence meaning helps in analyzing and
interpreting sentences comprehensively, considering both their structure and the
various functions they serve in communication
2, What is the semantic structure of the sentence?
The semantic structure of a sentence consists of several layers of meaning, each
contributing to the overall interpretation of the sentence Based on the lecture text, here is a detailed explanation of the semantic structure of the sentence:
Trang 311 Representational Meaning:
o Proposition: This refers to the core meaning of the sentence, which
conveys the essential information or the state of affairs described by the sentence It includes the elements such as the subject, predicate, and objects which form the basis of the message
o Thematic Meaning: This involves the thematic roles assigned to
different elements in the sentence, such as agent, patient, experiencer, etc It explains who is doing what to whom in the context of the sentence
2 Utterance Meaning:
o Components of a Speech Act: This includes the illocutionary force of
the sentence, which is the speaker's intention behind uttering the sentence, such as asserting, questioning, commanding, or expressing a wish
o Indirect Speech Acts: Sometimes, the literal meaning of a sentence
differs from its intended meaning For example, "Can you pass the salt?"
is literally a question about the listener's ability, but it is commonly understood as a request
o Presupposition: These are the assumptions or beliefs implied by the
sentence that are taken for granted by the speaker and expected to be accepted by the listener For example, "John's brother is tall"
presupposes that John has a brother
o Implicatures: These are the additional meanings conveyed by the
sentence that are not explicitly stated but inferred by the listener based
on context and conversational principles For example, if someone says,
"It's getting late," it might imply that it is time to leave
In summary, the semantic structure of a sentence encompasses both the explicit
propositional content and the implicit pragmatic aspects that together convey the full meaning of the sentence
3, What is the representational meaning?
Representational meaning, as discussed in the provided text, can be understood
through its two primary functions: experiential and logical
Trang 321 Experiential Function: This function is about communicating ideas by
expressing the content elements of an utterance It involves referring to people, objects, states of affairs, events, qualities, places, actions, and circumstances For example, the sentence "Bill Gates gave me books to read after each
session" can be broken down into its experiential components: speaker, actions (give, read), past tense (gave), object (books), actor (Bill Gates), time (after each session), and recipient (me) Each of these components represents a part
of the experiential meaning by identifying the elements involved in the action described
2 Logical Function: This function relates ideas to each other either on an equal
basis (coordination) or a subordinate basis (subordination) For instance, in the sentence "I came, I saw, and I conquered," the ideas are related equally through coordination In another example, "I came early so that I could meet her," the ideas are related through subordination, with one idea being dependent on the other
The representational meaning thus encapsulates the way language is used to describe and relate various elements and ideas within a sentence, providing a logical and
structured representation of real-world experiences and logical relationships
This understanding of representational meaning aligns with how sentences convey complex information through the interplay of experiential and logical functions,
forming a crucial part of semantic analysis in linguistics
4, What are the components of a speech act?
The components of a speech act as outlined in the provided lecture text are as follows:
1 Locutionary Act: This is the act of producing a meaningful utterance It
involves the actual performance of an utterance and can be broken down into three types:
o Phonetic Act: Producing sounds that constitute the utterance
o Phatic Act: Producing words or morphemes, essentially forming a
grammatically coherent sentence
Trang 33o Rhetic Act: Using words in a certain way to convey meaning, such as
referring to objects or states of affairs
2 Illocutionary Act: This is the act performed by the speaker via the
communicative force of the utterance It involves the speaker's intention and the function of the utterance, such as asserting, questioning, commanding, or promising The illocutionary act is the core of the speech act theory because it
is concerned with what is being done when something is said
3 Perlocutionary Act: This is the effect or the outcome of the utterance on the
listener It involves the changes brought about by the utterance in terms of the listener's feelings, thoughts, or actions The perlocutionary act focuses on the consequences of the speech act on the audience
These components together form the complete structure of a speech act, integrating the act of saying something (locutionary), the act intended by the speaker
(illocutionary), and the resultant effect on the listener (perlocutionary)
5, What are the structural features of set expressions?
Set expressions, also known as fixed expressions, idioms, or phraseological units, have distinct structural features that differentiate them from free word groups or combinations Based on the lecture text provided, the structural features of set
expressions can be described as follows:
1 Stability of Lexical Components:
o Set expressions are characterized by the fixed nature of their lexical components Unlike free word groups where words can be freely substituted, the components of set expressions remain constant
o Example: "red-tape" (bureaucratic methods) as opposed to "red
flower/pen/car/flag/tape" (free word group)
2 Grammatical Structure:
o The grammatical structure of set expressions is stable They exist as ready-made units in the language and are reproduced in speech without alteration
o Example: "to show the white feather" (to show fear) is a set expression, whereas "to show one's anger/great courage" is a free word group
Trang 343 Existence as Ready-Made Units:
o Set expressions are stored in the mental lexicon as single units and are used as such in communication They are not generated spontaneously but are retrieved from memory as whole expressions
o Example: Phrases like "to pull someone's leg" (to tease someone) or "to break the ice" (to overcome formality) are used as complete units
4 Phraseological Units Classification:
o Set expressions can be categorized based on their idiomatic nature into:
▪ Phraseological Fusions: Completely idiomatic, where the
meaning of the whole has no connection with the meanings of its components
▪ Example: "to beat about the bush" (to avoid the main point)
▪ Phraseological Unities: Partially idiomatic, where the meaning
of the whole can be perceived as the figurative meaning of the components
▪ Example: "to fish in troubled waters" (to take advantage of
a chaotic situation)
▪ Phraseological Combinations: Non-idiomatic, where one
component is used in its direct meaning and the other metaphorically
▪ Example: "to meet the requirements"
5 Figures of Speech:
o Set expressions often involve various figures of speech such as
metaphor, metonymy, alliteration, and contrast
o Examples:
▪ Metaphor: "a pack of lies" (a series of lies)
▪ Alliteration: "now or never" (urgency)
▪ Contrast: "sooner or later" (eventuality)
▪ Simile: "as good as gold" (very good)
In summary, the structural features of set expressions include the stability of their lexical components, fixed grammatical structure, existence as ready-made units, and
Trang 35the use of various figures of speech These features make set expressions a unique and essential part of language, distinct from freely generated word groups
6, What are the semantic features of set expressions?
1 Idiomatic Nature: The meaning of a set expression is not simply the sum of
the meanings of its components Set expressions can be completely or partially idiomatic For example:
o Completely idiomatic: "to pull someone's leg" (to tease someone)
o Partially idiomatic: "to break the ice" (to overcome formality or reserve
in conversation)
2 Fixed Units: Set expressions exist in language and are reproduced in speech as
ready-made units, unlike free word groups which are created anew in speech each time
3 Phraseological Classifications:
o Phraseological Fusions: Completely idiomatic set expressions where
the meaning of the whole has no connection with the meanings of its components (e.g., "to be in high feather" means to be in good spirits)
o Phraseological Unities: Partially idiomatic set expressions where the
meaning of the whole can be perceived as the figurative meaning of the components (e.g., "to fish in troubled waters")
o Phraseological Combinations: Non-idiomatic word combinations
where one component is used in its direct meaning while the other is used metaphorically and is restricted in its combinability (e.g., "to do one's duty")
4 Figurative Language: Set expressions often contain figures of speech such as
metaphor, metonymy, alliteration, contrast, and polysemy Examples include:
o Metaphor: "a pack of lies" (a series of lies)
o Alliteration and Contrast: "now or never"
o Simile: "as old as the hills"
These semantic features illustrate how set expressions in English convey meanings that go beyond the literal meanings of their individual components, often involving idiomatic and figurative language
Trang 361, What are the features of the English vowels?
The features of English vowels, as detailed in the provided lecture text, can be
categorized based on several aspects:
1 Height of the Tongue:
o High or Close Vowels: These are produced with the tongue positioned
as high as possible in the oral cavity, narrowing the passage for airflow Examples include /ɪ/, /i:/, /u/, and /u:/
o Mid or Mid-open Vowels: Here, the tongue is lowered to a
mid-position in the oral cavity Examples include /ɒ/, /ʌ/, /ə:/, and /ɜ:/
o Low or Open Vowels: These vowels are produced with the tongue
positioned as low as possible, creating a large space for the airflow Examples include /e/, /ɔ:/, /æ/, and /ɑ:/
2 Advancement of the Tongue:
o Front Vowels: The tongue is placed far forward in the oral cavity
towards the hard palate Examples include /i:/, /i/, /e/, and /æ/
o Central or Mixed Vowels: The tongue is retracted to the middle
position in the oral cavity Examples include /ʌ/, /ɜ:/, and /ə/
o Back Vowels: The tongue is retracted as far back as possible, shaping
the front part of the oral cavity Examples include /ɒ/, /ɔ:/, /ʊ/, /u:/, and /ɑ:/
3 Shape of the Lips:
o Rounded Vowels: The lips shape into a circle or tube Examples include
/ɒ/, /ɔ:/, /ʊ/, and /u:/
o Spread Vowels: The corners of the lips move away from each other
Examples include /ɜ:/, /e/, /i:/, /ɪ/, and /æ/
o Neutral Vowels: The position of the lips is neither noticeably rounded
nor spread Examples include /ʌ/, /ə/, and /ɑ:/
4 Tenseness and Length:
o Tense Vowels: These are relatively higher and more marginal
o Lax Vowels: These are shorter, lower, and slightly more centralized
o Of the 12 pure vowels in English, five are long (indicated by a length mark of two vertical dots) and seven are short
5 Diphthongs and Triphthongs:
Trang 37o Diphthongs: Vowels in which two vowel qualities are perceived, with
the articulators moving from one vowel to the other Examples include /eɪ/, /aɪ/, /ɔɪ/, /əʊ/, /aʊ/, /ɪə/, /eə/, and /ʊə/
o Triphthongs: The most complex type of vowels, where three vowel
qualities are perceived as they glide from one vowel to another and then
to a third
These characteristics together describe the complex nature of English vowels,
including their articulation and phonetic qualities
2, What are the features of the English consonants?
The features of the English consonants, as described in the provided lecture text, can
be detailed as follows:
1 Classification by Place of Obstruction:
• Bilabial sounds: Produced with the upper and lower lips pushed together: /p/,
/b/, /m/, /w/
• Labio-dental sounds: Articulated with contact between the lower lip and the
upper teeth: /f/, /v/
• Dental sounds: Generated with the tip of the tongue protruded between the
lower and the upper teeth: /θ/, /ð/
• Alveolar sounds: Made by advancing the tip of the tongue toward the alveolar
ridge: /t/, /d/, /n/, /l/, /s/, /z/
• Post-alveolar sounds: Produced by raising the blade of the tongue toward the
alveolar region: /tʃ/, /dʒ/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /r/
• Palatal sounds: Pronounced by advancing the blade of the tongue toward the
highest part of the hard palate: /j/
• Velar sounds: Made as the tongue body contacts the soft palate: /k/, /g/, /ŋ/
• Glottal sound: Produced by the narrowing of the glottis as the wall of the
pharynx contacts the root of the tongue: /h/
2 Classification by Manner of Obstruction:
Trang 38• Plosive (stop) consonants: Complete closure of the vocal tract followed by a
burst of air: /p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/, /g/
• Fricative consonants: The airflow is constricted, causing friction: /f/, /v/, /θ/,
/ð/, /s/, /z/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /h/
• Affricate consonants: Combination of a plosive and a fricative, starting with a
complete closure and ending with a constricted release: /tʃ/, /dʒ/
• Nasal consonants: The airflow passes through the nose: /m/, /n/, /ŋ/
• Approximate consonants: The constriction is not narrow enough to cause
• Fortis and Lenis: Consonants are classified based on the force of articulation
Voiceless consonants are generally fortis (strong), and voiced consonants are lenis (weak)
These features help in distinguishing consonants based on how and where they are produced in the vocal tract, as well as whether they involve vocal cord vibration
3, What are the common rules of English Consonants and Vowels?
❖ Sound Classes:
• Vowels are produced with a comparatively open vocal tract, allowing the
airflow to pass unimpeded, resulting in open sounds
• Consonants are produced with a certain constriction in the vocal tract, leading
to obstructed airflow
❖ Characterization:
Trang 39• Vowels are associated with the least obstruction to the flow of air during their production
• Consonants are associated with obstructed airflow through the vocal tract during their production
❖ Acoustic Energy:
• Vowels display a different acoustic energy compared to consonants They are highly resonant and intense with greater sonority
❖ Functionality in Syllables:
• Vowels are syllabic, meaning a syllable can contain a minimum of one vowel
• Consonants function at the margins of syllables, either singly or in clusters, and are optional
❖ Voicing:
• Vowels typically involve the vibration of vocal folds, making them voiced
• Consonants can be either voiced or voiceless
❖ Articulatory Features:
• The quality of vowels depends on the size and shape of the vocal tract, which can be modified using the tongue and lips
• Consonants are classified by place, manner, and voicing
4, What are the phenomena of allophones?
In the field of phonetics and phonology, allophones are variants of a phoneme that occur in different contexts without changing the meaning of the word The phenomena
of allophones are explained as follows:
1 Definition and Concept:
o A phoneme is an abstract unit of sound that can distinguish meaning between words For example, /t/ in "team" and "steam"