Kỹ năng đọc trung cấp

The book is divided into four topics: Topic 1: Facts and Opinions This topic teaches you how to distinguish between facts and opinions, and explains why this is important for a critical

Biên

ThS Hoàng Kim Mai Khôi

www.hutech.edu.vn

*1.2023.ENG186*

tailieuhoctap@hutech.edu.vn

CONTENTS

CONTENTS I PREFACE III

TOPIC 1: FACTS AND OPINIONS 1

1.1 DISTINGUISHING FACTS AND OPINIONS 2

1.2 FACTS 2

1.2.1 What is a Fact? 2

1.2.2 Types of Facts 3

1.2.3 Guidelines to Identifying Facts 5

1.3 OPINIONS 5

1.3.1 What is an Opinion? 5

1.3.2 Guidelines to Identifying Opinions 6

1.4 DISTINGUISHING FACTS FROM OPINIONS 8

PRACTICE 9

TOPIC 2: THE BASICS OF ARGUMENT 26

2.1 27

2.2 RECOGNIZING BIAS 31

2.2.1 Questions to Detect Bias 31

2.2.2 How to Detect Bias in the News 32

SUMMARY 37

PRACTICE 37

TOPIC 3: PURPOSE, TONE AND POINT OF VIEW 46

3.1 47

3.1.1 Types of Purpose 47

3.1.2 Ways to Identify the Purpose 50

3.2 51

3.2.1 What is the Tone? 51

3.2.2 Clues to Recognize the Tone 52

3.3 58

3.3.1 Definition of Point of View 58

3.3.2 How Important It Is to Understand the Point of View 59

SUMMARY 60

PRACTICE 60

TOPIC 4: MAKING INFERENCES 69

4.1 MAKING INFERENCES 69

4.1.1 Why Making Inferences Is Necessary in Reading 69

4.1.2 The Role of Your Prior Knowledge and Experience in Making Inferences 70

4.1.3 Building Inferences Skills 71

The book is divided into four topics:

Topic 1: Facts and Opinions

This topic teaches you how to distinguish between facts and opinions, and explains why this is important for a critical reader

Topic 2: Basics of Argument

This topic introduces the concept of bias and shows you how to detect bias in various types of texts

Topic 3: Purpose, Tone and Point of View

This topic tells you the differences between these concepts, then teaches you how

to identify the purpose of a text, the tone of a text, and the point of view of a text Topic 4: Making inferences

This topic teaches you how to make inferences from the text as the writer does not always explicitly tell you all the information or state the point of view

By following the tips and strategies in this book as well as doing the exercises following each topic, you can improve your critical reading skills and become a more effective reader We hope you will find the book helpful and benefit greatly from using it

TOPIC 1: FACTS AND OPINIONS

OBJECTIVES

When you finish this topic, you should be able to:

- distinguish between facts and opinions;

- discriminate between facts and opinions in various situations;

- identify statements of facts and opinions when reading to enhance comprehension

INTRODUCTION

In the previous chapters, you have learned basic reading comprehension skills that required you to deduce meaning from context, identify the topic and main idea, locate supporting details, and formulate main ideas You are now prepared to advance to the next level of reading skills critical reading The first of several critical reading skills that will be introduced to you is distinguishing facts from opinions Critical reading skills play a crucial role in our success at the tertiary level, as it allows us to comprehend and evaluate the merits of our reading materials

Critical reading entails asking questions about the author's intention, the structure and purpose of the text, and the meanings of specific words and phrases Critical readers also consider the context in which a text was written and how different audiences might interpret it When reading critically, you will find yourself continuously questioning, comparing, and evaluating what you read

Distinguishing between facts and opinions is one of the most crucial reading comprehension skills The texts you read on books, newspapers, or magazines may contain mixtures of facts and the authors' opinions Facts are things that have actually occurred, are true, and exist However, opinions express a feeling, an attitude, a value judgment, or a belief In other words, facts relate to what we know, whereas opinions refer to what we believe

1.1 DISTINGUISHING FACTS AND OPINIONS

When reading a text, you must be aware that the authors often include both facts and opinions so as to persuade the readers to agree with their claims Therefore, we need question ourselves, "Can the statement be debated or not?" If yes, then it is an

opinion If the answer is no, we have a fact Statements of facts and opinions are not

always a black-and-white issue, so it is not easy to differentiate between them

Below is an example text that contains both facts and opinions

1.2 FACTS

1.2.1 What is a Fact?

Fact is defined as a truth known by actual experience or observation We can prove a fact through verifiable evidence such as measurements, statistics, or observations A fact can be measured or proved; and the truth of the fact is beyond argument if one can assume that measuring devices, records, or memories are correct When critically reading, you need to know how reliable statements are before deciding whether they are facts Below are some statements of facts Do you know why they are deemed facts?

(a) The capital city of Vietnam is Ha Noi

Indians are the world s biggest bookworms According to NOP

Culture score index survey, Indians read on average 10.7 hours a week, twice as long as Americans R Sriram, CEO of Crosswords Bookstores, a chain of 26 book shops around India, says Indians are extremely

when making literary evaluation assertions Expert judgment is commonly used in evaluative assertions in many domains

1.2.3 Guidelines to Identifying Facts

The following guidelines will help you to decide whether a statement is a fact Statements of facts often:

(a) deal with people, places, objects, events, or processes that exist or once existed and that can be proven;

- Gold was discovered in California in 1848

(c) often use concrete words when referring to things, events, or measurable characteristics, such as blue, gold, 3 years, 10 kilograms, pine tree, etc

For example:

- The equator is 24,901.55 miles long

- In 1924, the Model T Ford could be purchased for $290

Besides, when evaluating a statement of fact, we can ask ourselves questions:

1 Can the information be tested by experimentation, observation, or research?

(a) are based on personal evaluations, emotions, and attitudes since they cannot be verified as true or false;

For example:

- Nothing is better for a stomach ache than red clover tea

- Couples should be acquainted for at least a year before getting married

(b) deal with future occurrences which seem probable;

For instance:

- Robots will replace human workers

- In twenty years there will be fewer cars in use than there are today

(c) contain abstract words referring to things that cannot be touched, felt, or measured

(d) contain value-judgement words, such as beautiful, good, bad, useful, helpful; or

opinion phrases like I believe, I suggest, I think, I feel, in my opinion Those are

opinion-marking signals that show you the statement is an opinion, not a fact

May/ may not As far as I am concerned

Figure 1.1: Signal Words Showing Opinions

1.4 DISTINGUISHING FACTS FROM OPINIONS

The skill of discriminating between facts and opinions is crucial A skilled reader will be aware of the author's goal For instance, does the author hope to persuade you? Entertain? Inform? You can evaluate the material you receive more critically if you are aware of the author's intention Is the information presented factual and accurate? Or is it just the author's viewpoint? Table 4.2 summarizes the differences between facts and opinions

Facts can be based on experience Opinions can vary between people

Facts are specific and certain Opinions are not based on evidence

Figure 1.2: The main differences between Facts and Opinions

- I think

- I believe

- I feel

- In my opinion

- I have a feeling that

A self-report is sometimes smuggled into a remark with an adjective suggesting an attitude or sentiment For example, if I say "This is a bad day", I'm not really reporting the objective day in the real world, but rather expressing my sentiment that the day is bad, which is comparable to stating "I'm not pleased with the day," as a self-report

When opinions are understood as self-reports rather than statements about the real world, there is no need to argue against them It would be absurd to argue, "You are mistaken you are not thirsty," or "The day is genuinely pleasant." We accept self-reports of mood or attitude as unquestionable since we have no reason to doubt them As a result, it is right that we are all entitled to our opinions because no one else has enough data to challenge our self-reports Furthermore, because views are not statements about the real world, they are usually insignificant

Below are some statements of opinion Do you know why they are opinions?

(a) Time is a better magazine than Newsweek

(b) Movies are generally more interesting than books

(c) Most TV commercials today are misleading and silly

o teach children how to behave

The above sentences are unverifiable It is impossible to prove whether they are right or wrong in your research, observation, or experimentation

1.3.2 Guidelines to Identifying Opinions

Here are some guidelines for deciding whether a statement is an opinion Statements of opinions:

(a) are based on personal evaluations, emotions, and attitudes since they cannot be verified as true or false;

For example:

- Nothing is better for a stomach ache than red clover tea

- Couples should be acquainted for at least a year before getting married

(b) deal with future occurrences which seem probable;

For instance:

- Robots will replace human workers

- In twenty years there will be fewer cars in use than there are today

(c) contain abstract words referring to things that cannot be touched, felt, or measured

(d) contain value-judgement words, such as beautiful, good, bad, useful, helpful; or

opinion phrases like I believe, I suggest, I think, I feel, in my opinion Those are

opinion-marking signals that show you the statement is an opinion, not a fact

May/ may not As far as I am concerned

Figure 1.1: Signal Words Showing Opinions

1.4 DISTINGUISHING FACTS FROM OPINIONS

The skill of discriminating between facts and opinions is crucial A skilled reader will be aware of the author's goal For instance, does the author hope to persuade you? Entertain? Inform? You can evaluate the material you receive more critically if you are aware of the author's intention Is the information presented factual and accurate? Or is it just the author's viewpoint? Table 4.2 summarizes the differences between facts and opinions

Facts can be based on experience Opinions can vary between people

Facts are specific and certain Opinions are not based on evidence

Figure 1.2: The main differences between Facts and Opinions

PRACTICE

Exercise 1 Mark statements of fact with an F and statements of opinion with an O

_ 1 In 1924, the Model T Ford could be purchased for $290

_ 2 The Model T was the most important invention of the first half of the century _ 3 By the end of this century, electric cars will be in common use

_ 4 Couples should be acquainted for at least a year before getting married

_ 5 Joining the Army is the best way to learn job skill

_ 6 No symbol elicits fear as does the swastika

_ 7 The core of a pencil is made of graphite and clay, not lead

_ 9 The equator is 24,901.55 miles long

Exercise 2 Some of the following sentences state facts, and some express opinions Some of the sentences include both facts and opinions Mark statements of fact with an F, statements of opinion with an O, and statements of fact and opinion with F + O

_1 Nothing is better for a stomachache than red clover tea

_2 Every cook needs to become familiar with basil, which is a member of the mint family

_3 In laboratory experiments, peppermint extracts have counteracted some viruses in test tubes

_4 Wearing neckties is a ridiculous habit since it serves no worthwhile purpose _5 My father bought a remnant of silk for a dollar and made it into a tie

_6 Bowties can be bought permanently tied, but the untied type is classier _7 The first television commercial, for a Bulova watch, was broadcast in 1941

_8 Children should not be allowed to watch more than an hour of television a day _9 Johnny Carson, the greatest talk show host of them all, became host of The Tonight Show in 1962

10 Watching sports events in person is better than watching them on TV

Exercise 3 Read the excerpt from a report on Benjamin Franklin Then answer the questions

A Very Smart Man

Of all our Founding Fathers, Benjamin

Franklin was the smartest In addition to being

an influential politician, Franklin was also a

writer, a printer, a scientist, and a musician

He was even Postmaster General at one point

His many inventions include bifocals and the

lightning rod We would have never known about electricity without him We might not have not have gained our independence either

1 Which of these statements is a fact?

a Of all our Founding Fathers, Benjamin Franklin was the smartest

c He was even Postmaster General at one point

d We might not have gained our independence either

Exercise 4 As you read this story, think about what parts are fact and what parts are opinion

It w

Louisa was going as a hot dog, and Maria thought that was the best idea ever Louisa always took Maria trick-or-treating, and they always had costumes that went together But this year, Louisa had been too busy with her friends to help Maria with

costume ideas when her mom asked her to go with her to the grocery store At the store, in the Halloween candy aisle, Maria saw a tall, pointed red hat that gave her a

skipped all the way to the car She had a costum

is true or it really happened in the story

Fact Opinion Fact Opinion

3 Louisa had been too busy to help Maria Fact Opinion

4 Maria was happy about her costume idea Fact Opinion

Exercise 5 As you read this story, think about what parts are fact and what parts are opinion

Jack lives in a small town in

Jack looks forward to going to the city because when they drive through the countryside they almost always see kangaroos Sometimes they even see a baby

ows all about kangaroos A baby is called a joey, a mother is called a doe, and a father is called a boomer A group of kangaroos is called a mob Once, Jack saw a kangaroo jump about three times its height It was an amazing sight! He knows that when kangaroos are hopping along at high speed, they can go as fast as 40 miles per hour Jack also knows that even

kangaroo thinks it is in danger, it just might lean back on its big tail and kick you with its back feet

Fact Opinion

2 Jack likes when his family drives to the city Fact Opinion

4 Jack was amazed at the sight of a kangaroo jumping

almost three times its height

Fact Opinion

5 Jack knows that kangaroos can be dangerous Fact Opinion

parts are fact and what parts are opinion

Marco got a letter from his Uncle Ben, the airplane pilot Uncle Ben has traveled all over the world Dear Marco, I

there is any place like it in the world It was the center of the ancient Roman Empire Today, thousand-year old structures still sit side-by-side with modern buildings Maybe this is why Rome is known

description of the capital of Italy The Colosseum is right in the middle of the city It is

an enormous outdoor circular arena built of stone The ancient Romans held all kind

of public events there It had seats for 50,000 people It had 80 entrances, so that crowds could get in and out quickly It is mostly in ruins now Many of the young people of Rome get around on colorful motorized scooters This makes a lot of sense

to me, because the traffic in the streets is crazy! Most evenings the young people gather at an ancient structure known as the Spanish Steps Hundreds of the scooters line the street, as their owners go off to hang out with their friends The Spanish Steps have been a gathering place for cent

right around the corner there is an American fast-food hamburger drive-through There are many ancient fountains in Rome One of the most famous is the Trevi Fountain It was probably made even more famous by a popular American movie

toss a coin into this fountain, your wish will be granted Of course I tossed my coin in,

Yours truly, Uncle Ben

1 There is no place in the world like Rome Fact Opinion

2 Rome was the center of the ancient Roman Empire Fact Opinion

3 The ancient Colosseum still stands in the middle of the city of

Rome

Fact Opinion

4 The Colosseum had seats for 50,000 people Fact Opinion

5 Uncle Ben took a tour of the Colosseum Fact Opinion

is a good description of Rome Fact Opinion

8 Many young people in Rome get around on motor scooters Fact Opinion

9 Traffic in the streets of Rome is crazy Fact Opinion

10 The Spanish Steps have been a gathering place for centuries Fact Opinion

Steps there is an American fast-food hamburger drive through

Fact Opinion

12 There are many ancient fountains in Rome Fact Opinion

13 Trevi Fountain was probably made even more popular by an

American movie about it

Fact Opinion

14 It is said that if you make a wish and toss a coin into the Trevi

Fountain your wish will be granted

Fact Opinion

y believe in magic fountains Fact Opinion

Distinguish between fact and opinion

Keep Teen Drivers Safe

1 A debate is underway in our great state that will affect every teenager in it The

drivers The answer, of course, is yes

2

give teens certain freedoms on the road only as they gain more experience Most

Reading Guide Look for statements throughout this essay that can be verified Those statements are facts

Does paragraph 2 contain all facts, all opinions, or both facts and opinions? How can you tell?

Look for words throughout the essay that shows what the author thinks or believes

These signal opinions

Circle four facts in this essay Underline four opinions

3 A graduated license usually has

three stages The first stage is getting a

permits have to drive a certain amount

of time with a licensed driver The

second stage is an intermediate license

This license lets teens drive

unsupervised, but with certain

restrictions The restrictions might

include not driving at certain hours of

night or with young passengers The last

4 We all know that teens take risks

sometimes far too many This applies

off a little and putting the petal to the metal?

Safety says that car crashes are the leading cause of death among teens According

to one recent study, about a third of the people killed in accidents involving 15-, 16-, and 17-year-old drivers are the teen drivers themselves

6 We cannot afford to lose our young people to loose licensing rules I believe our state should adopt a strict three-stage licensing program And we need to do this

citizens of this state must stand up and act right now

1 Which statement from the essay is a fact?

a

b The AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety says that car crashes are the leading cause

of death among teens

c The citizens of this state must stand up and act now

d The answer, of course, is yes

2 Which statement in paragraph 2 is an opinion?

a

b Such a law would give teens certain freedoms on the road only as they gain more

experience

c Most states do have laws like this

d we join them and embrace this great idea

a it makes a lot of sense

b everyone knows it is true

c it can be looked up and verified

d it shows a personal belief

4 How can you tell if a statement is a fact or an opinion?

a Opinions can be verified, whereas facts cannot

b Facts can be verified, whereas opinions cannot

c Both facts and opinions can be verified, so there is no difference between them

d There is no way to tell if a statement is a fact or an opinion

Another way to tell if something is not a fact, but an opinion, is to look

for key words that express personal feelings or beliefs, such as think and

believe Words that make comparisons or judgments, such as beautiful, horrible, and best, also signify opinions

Opinion Words Personal feeling words

think, believe, suggest, perhaps, probably, usually, typically, should, must

Judgment words

good, bad, best, worst, most, least, always, never, all, none, fantastic, terrible, amazing, awful

Exercise 8: Recognizing fact and opinion

Read the following two extracts from newspaper reports of the same accident and answer the questions that follow

Article 1

Article 2

1 Which article is the most objective?

a graphic organizer on a separate sheet of paper to organize your thoughts

A New Look at Mercury

A NASA spacecraft recently took surprising

new photos of the planet Mercury One image,

taken by the space probe Messenger,

resembles a giant spider in the middle of a

huge crater, NASA scientists said

chief scientist Sean Solomon of the Carnegie

Institution of Washington told the Associated

Press (AP)

The closest planet to the sun, Mercury is

Prockter of Johns Hopkins University, which runs the Messenger mission for NASA,

told the AP

Robert Strom, a retired planetary scientist who was part of the Messenger team,

had a

told the AP

Strom had earlier worked on the Mariner 10 spacecraft, which photographed

Mercury in

The Messenger probe took 1,213 photos of Mercury It is expected to fly by the

planet again in the future and take additional pictures

1 How does planetary scientist Robert Strom feel about the new images of Mercury?

You can read his exact words inside quotation marks

2 List two statements from this article that are facts

A fact is a statement that can be looked up and verified

3 List two opinions from this article List at least two words that signify opinions

In newspaper articles, these are almost always found inside quotation marks

Exercise 10: Read this shampoo advertisement from a magazine Then answer the questions

Tame Your Hair with Tamezol!

1 Does your hair have a bad attitude? Have you had enough trying to tame that frizzy, dry, messy mane that

2 Well, say goodbye to bad-behaving hair

formula turns unmanageable hair into hair that obeys

ingredients include lemon peel extract,

orange fruit juice, potato starch, and eucalyptus

leaf These give your hair that slick, stylish

3 Use just a small dab of Tamezol and feel its

moisturizing agents working at once When you

rinse, your hair will feel its silkiest, smoothest,

shiniest, and sleekest It will be soft to the touch

and dazzling to the eye

4 Tamezol comes in six luscious fragrances: Citrus Garden; Raspberry Bouquet; Caramel Chai Latte; Grapefruit Smoothie; Apple Strudel Delight; and Wild About Walnuts

5

florescent orange bottle wherever fine hair-care products are shelved Try Tamezol once, and your hair will never misbehave again!

1 Which statement is a fact?

a It will be soft to the touch and dazzling to the eye

b

eucalyptus leaf

c Well, say goodbye to bad-behaving hair forever

d Does your hair have a bad attitude?

2 One opinion about Tamezol is that

a it comes in a florescent orange bottle

b it is sold in drug stores, grocery stores, and other retail outlets

c it comes in six fragrances

d if you try it once, your hair will never misbehave again

3 The adjectives silkiest, smoothest, shiniest, and sleekest in paragraph 3

signal opinions because they

a make comparisons and judgments

b can be believed by everybody

c can be checked in a reference source

d can be proven true or false

4 Which word in paragraph 5 indicates an opinion?

a sold

b never

c wherever

d misbehave

Exercise 11: Read this speech by French physicist, chemist, and Nobel laureate Marie Curie Then answer the questions

by Marie Curie

1 I could tell you many things about radium and radioactivity But I shall only give you a short account of

my early work Radium is no more a baby It is more than

20 years old But the conditions of the discovery were somewhat peculiar So it is always of interest to remember them and explain them

2 In 1897, I was working on uranium rays, which had been discovered two years before I thought there should be some unknown element having a much greater radioactivity than uranium I wanted to find and separate that element It took many years of hard work

3 The special interest of radium is in the intensity of its rays They are several million times greater than uranium rays The most important property of the rays is the production of physiological effects on human cells These effects may be used to cure several diseases Particularly important is the treatment of cancer

4 For medical use, it is necessary to get the element

in sufficient quantities America produces many grams

of radium every year But the price is still very high

The radium is more than a hundred thousand times

dearer than gold

5 We must not forget that when radium was

discovered, no one knew that it would prove useful in

hospitals The work was one of pure science Scientific

work must not be considered from the point of view of

its direct usefulness It must be done for itself, for the

beauty of science Then there is always the chance a scientific discovery will also benefit humanity

6 The scientific history of radium is beautiful The properties of the rays have been studied very closely We know that particles are expelled from radium with a very great velocity near to that of light We know that the atoms of radium are destroyed

by expulsion of these particles We know that radioactive elements are constantly disintegrating, and they produce at the end ordinary elements, principally helium and lead

7 There is always a vast field of experimentation remaining Some of you should carry on this scientific work and make a permanent contribution to science

1 Which of these statements from the passage is a fact?

a Scientific work must not be considered from the point of view of its direct usefulness

b America produces many grams of radium every year

c The radium is more than a hundred thousand times dearer than gold

d There is always a vast field left to experimentation

because

a it can be verified in a reference source

b it can be proven true or false

c it is the viewpoint of the writer

d nobody agrees with it

3 Paragraph 4 provides

a only facts about radium

b only opinions about radium

c both facts and opinions about radium

d neither facts nor opinions about radium

4 What is the one opinion stated in paragraph 6?

a That particles are expelled from radium with a very great velocity

b That the atoms of radium are destroyed by expulsion of these particles

c That radioactive elements are constantly disintegrating

d That the scientific history of radium is beautiful

5 What two words in paragraph 7 signal opinions?

a always and should

b field and experimentation

c scientific and work

d permanent and contribution

Exercise 12: Read this student report on cartoon collector Art Wood Then answer the questions

Cartoon Collector

1 When J Arthur Wood, Jr was a child, he started collecting cartoons anywhere

he could find them Sixty years later, he had 36,000 of them!

2 Born in 1927, Wood always had a passion for cartoons From a very young age,

he practiced drawing cartoons by copying the styles of his favorite cartoonists He even wrote to these artists and asked them to send him new cartoons Many obliged and gave Wood their original artwork

3

hatrack attendant at the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C He did this so he

4 Wood was exceptionally talented and later became an award-winning editorial

decades of collecting, in 1995, he opened the National Gallery of Caricature and Cartoon Art in Washington, D.C It was the coolest gallery in town Unfortunately, it closed in 1997 due to insufficient funding

5 Wood then turned to his former employer, the Library of Congress Today the

36,000 original cartoon works by more than 2,800 artists It is the largest private collection

of original cartoon art in the world It is the most treasured jewel in the library

TOPIC 2: T HE BASICS OF ARGUMENT

OBJECTIVES

When you finish this topic, you should be able to:

- identify the common signs that argument is presented;

in his writing's unfair depiction of it Whatever the reason, reading with a critical eye and raising questions is a good indicator since it shows that you are a critical reader The ability to identify an author's bias and prejudice is an important critical reading skill Because bias and prejudice may render an author's claim invalid, you need to be able to do this Being able to distinguish between a sound or legitimate argument and

an invalid one is another crucial ability that every critical reader should possess Only until you have mastered both of these abilities can you assess the credibility and validity of an author's argument

In this topic, you will make use of all reading skills you have learned in previous

is a fact because

a everyone knows it is true

b it can be checked and verified

c it expresses a personal belief

d this writer never lies

6 Which of these is NOT a fact about Art

a It is the most treasured jewel in the library

b It contains approximately 36,000 original cartoon works

c It contains political cartoons, comic strips, and caricatures

d It contains pieces by contemporary artists

TOPIC 2: T HE BASICS OF ARGUMENT

OBJECTIVES

When you finish this topic, you should be able to:

- identify the common signs that argument is presented;

in his writing's unfair depiction of it Whatever the reason, reading with a critical eye and raising questions is a good indicator since it shows that you are a critical reader The ability to identify an author's bias and prejudice is an important critical reading skill Because bias and prejudice may render an author's claim invalid, you need to be able to do this Being able to distinguish between a sound or legitimate argument and

an invalid one is another crucial ability that every critical reader should possess Only until you have mastered both of these abilities can you assess the credibility and validity of an author's argument

In this topic, you will make use of all reading skills you have learned in previous

2.1 WHAT

As you improve your reading skills, you will understand more about a text and why the writer has used particular words or phrases You will learn that there is more to reading than just knowing what individual words mean

Writers create texts for a number of reasons The purpose of the text will determine the tools and techniques that writers use You must be able to 'read between the lines' to get the full meaning of the text That means understanding how some techniques are used One technique that writers use is BIAS

We are generally aware that almost everything we read each day, ranging from magazine articles, newspaper reports, pamphlets to cartoon strips are loaded with bias - a predisposition, prejudice, or prejudgement Even the most seemingly factual report, such as an encyclopaedia article, can carry an understated or implied

issue over another We are not spared of bias which is presented to us by the public media such as commercials, political speeches, and even pep talks by social activists

our thinking, and thus our actions, in a certain direction by playing upon our em

think about it unless our emotions are immensely touched in some way - and then we might start to question the cause or intent

You might be surprised that the textbooks you read for academic purposes can also contain elements of bias - after all, the textbook author may choose certain ideas

to state, and certain words to express them Being sensitive to the language in which the argument is expressed is just as important as being sensitive to the facts

reveals a bias that is aimed at influencing the reader to agree or disagree with an issue, or to support or reject a cause Nothing is wrong with this intent as long as you

do not allow yourself to be unknowingly influenced

Read the following report:

Pigeons are dirtier than you think They eat trash and leave

their droppings wherever they go Pigeons also carry diseases One

time, I was bitten by a pigeon when I tried to shoo it away I had

to get a shot because the pigeon might have given me a disease

Can you tell how this writer feels about pigeons? Do you wonder if this is the

whole story about pigeons? Does the writer say anything positive about pigeons? For

instance, he or she could have mentioned that pigeons are very successful at living around people It appears that the writer has a strong opinion about pigeons and that facts may not change that opinion

One kind of bias is a strong opinion about something You can be biased in favor

of something or biased against it In either case, you may have some facts to support your position, but a bias is based more on feelings and opinions than on facts In some cases, bias

happened to the student who was bitten by the pigeon

Suppose that while researching nutrition, you run across the

following:

Vitamin A is an important nutrient It is used to make

rhodopsin, a pigment in our eyes Thus, Vitamin A is necessary

for healthy vision People can develop night blindness if they do

not get enough of it Carrots are an excellent source of vitamin

A Carrots should be a part of your daily diet

At first, this paragraph seems to offer good information Would you be more skeptical if you learned that it was written by people who grow carrots commercially? How would your opinion change? Explain your answer below

In the passage above, the writer does not mention that ingesting too much vitamin A can make people sick The writer fails to tell the reader that eggs and sweet potatoes are also good sources of vitamin A

Bosco and Buchner (2007)

bias Although the words have a

similar meaning, bias often has a negative connotation that suggests a prejudice or narrow-mindedness about the subject Unless an author clearly states his or her point

of view, the reader determining point of view or bias must look at the choice of words and the information presented as well as the background of the author Look for the connotations and descriptive language as you read

It is also important to be aware of your own point of view or biases If you hold very different beliefs from those you are reading, you should not prejudge the material You need to read with an open mind to identify the facts as presented from

an alternative point of view (p 258)

Bias is a subjective way of thinking that tells only one side of a story, sometimes leading to inaccurate information or a false impression When you research, it is crucial that you identify the level of bias in potential sources

Below are some possible sources of bias

- The writer is relying on incomplete information

- The writer is trying to deceive the reader

- The writer wants to believe what he or she is saying

-

- The writer is trying to persuade the reader

words about bias!

Bias can be intentional or unintentional Sometimes people use bias on purpose For example, if you want to persuade someone, you present facts that support your

Look out for both kinds of bias In the pigeon example, we get the feeling that the report is not accurate because most of us know from personal experience that pigeons are usually not vicious In the example about the structure of atoms, though,

it is more difficult to detect bias We have to depend on experts for information about atomic structure If the experts have incomplete or inaccurate information, that is what we get, even if there is no intent to give wrong information

Writers can be biased because they expect to get something out of their bias: they'll get money, fame, etc This type of bias seems like lying, but it's different because they are using facts However, they are using just the facts they want to use and not giving all of the information Or they might be twisting the facts in such a way so it supports their position

2.2 RECOGNIZING BIAS

2.2.1 Questions to Detect Bias

There are things that you can look for to help you:

* Does the piece of writing contain any facts?

Facts are pieces of information that can be verified, knowledge that we know or can prove to be true

* Does the piece of writing contain any opinions?

Opinions are views or judgements made on a personal level They are usually based on personal likes or dislikes or personal experience

* Is the tone of the text positive or negative? Is this because of the writer expression?

If the opinions are mainly in one direction or the other, this is a clear indication that the writer's purpose is to share these opinions and convince others

* Do you know anything about the writer of the text?

It could be that the writer has a personal interest in the subject matter

For example, the purpose of a review is to guide you about a product or service, but the words used in a review are influenced by the experience of the writer If the writer wants to sell something, he or she will describe it in positive words This is because it is in the writer's interest to persuade the reader to buy Equally, if the writer has had a bad experience of a person, place or event, then he or she may use negative language

Smith and Morris (2011, p 412) suggest several questions to determine bias:

- What is your opinion on the subject?

-

- What does the author have to gain?

- Does the author use facts or opinions as support?

-

McWhorter (2008, p.387) offers the following list of questions to detect bias:

- Is the author acting as a reporter presenting facts or as salesperson providing only favorable information?

- Does the author feel strongly about or favor only one side of the issue?

- Does the author seem to be deliberately creating a positive or negative image?

- Does the author seem emotional about the issue?

- Are there other views toward the subject the writer does not recognize?

2.2.2 How to Detect Bias in the News

At one time or other we all complain about "bias in the news." The fact is, despite the journalistic ideal of "objectivity," every news story is influenced by the attitudes and background of its interviewers, writers, photographers and editors

Not all bias is deliberate But you can become a more aware news reader or viewer

by watching for the following journalistic techniques that allow bias to "creep in" to the news:

Bias through selection and omission

An editor can express a bias by choosing to use or not to use a specific news item Within a given story, some details can be ignored, and others included, to give readers or viewers a different opinion about the events reported If, during a speech,

a few people boo, the reaction can be described as "remarks greeted by jeers" or they can be ignored as "a handful of dissidents."

Bias through omission is difficult to detect Only by comparing news reports from a wide variety of outlets can the form of bias be observed

Bias through placement

Readers of papers judge first page stories to be more significant than those buried

in the back Television and radio newscasts run the most important stories first and leave the less significant for later Where a story is placed, therefore, influences what

a reader or viewer thinks about its importance

Bias by headline

Many people read only the headlines of a news item Most people scan nearly all the headlines in a newspaper Headlines are the most-read part of a paper They can summarize as well as present carefully hidden bias and prejudices They can convey excitement where little exists They can express approval or condemnation

Bias by photos, captions and camera angles

Some pictures flatter a person; others make the person look unpleasant A paper can choose photos to influence opinion about, for example, a candidate for election

On television, the choice of which visual images to display is extremely important The captions newspapers run below photos are also potential sources of bias

Bias through use of names and titles

News media often use labels and titles to describe people, places, and events A person can be called an "ex-con" or be referred to as someone who "served time

twenty years ago for a minor offense." Whether a person is described as a "terrorist"

or a "freedom fighter" is a clear indication of editorial bias

Bias through statistics and crowd counts

To make a disaster seem more spectacular (and therefore worthy of reading about), numbers can be inflated "A hundred injured in air crash" can be the same as

"only minor injuries in air crash," reflecting the opinion of the person doing the counting

Bias by source control

To detect bias, always consider where the news item "comes from." Is the information supplied by a reporter, an eyewitness, police or fire officials, executives,

or elected or appointed government officials? Each may have a particular bias that is introduced into the story Companies and public relations directors supply news outlets with puff pieces through news releases, photos or videos Often news outlets depend on pseudo-events (demonstrations, sit-ins, ribbon cuttings, speeches and ceremonies) that take place mainly to gain news coverage

Word choice and tone

Showing the same kind of bias that appears in headlines, the use of positive or negative words or words with a particular connotation can strongly influence the reader or viewer

We will now move onto analyzing arguments Usually you are expected, both for your course readings and for your assignments, to identify and understand the arguments that the author is making You are also expected to analyze these arguments In order to begin analyzing an argument, you must first look at the evidence presented to you, then ask questions based on that evidence

Ask questions like,

- "Based on the evidence, is there a different explanation or claim possible?"

- "Is the evidence convincing and sound?"

- "How does the argument/evidence compare with others you've read?"

You will likely find two authors who make different claims on the same topic