Trang 1 HUE UNIVERSITY UNIVERSITY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES --- HOANG THI HANH NGUYEN MA THESIS IN THEORY AND METHODOLOGY OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING In partial ful
Introduction
Background of the study
In the 21st century, the era of strong globalization and integration, English has become an international language which has been widely used in a variety of sectors such as tourism, education, business, and so forth Not only has English been used for oral communication among speakers from different nations but this language has also been made use of for written materials such as newspapers, websites, blogs, and books all over the world Thus, the command of English is more than just an essential and potent tool for achieving individual and career objectives; it also acts as a key factor for success in obtaining a position in the job market To achieve such a command of English, EFL learners are required to undergo constant practice with a great deal of patience, under favorable language learning conditions related to the learners themselves, instructors or teachers, learning materials, interpersonal communication skills, and educational environments According to Cummins (2008), this might require continuous exposure, practice, and active language learning during a period of several years
Understanding the great importance of English as a foreign language and the requirements for acquiring English proficiency, Vietnamese Ministry of Education made English a compulsory subject for students from primary schools to high schools Furthermore, English has become a prerequisite for students of different majors at tertiary level to graduate, which further emphasizes the significance of English language education Many universities across Vietnam offer specialized English undergraduate programs to cultivate a workforce with a mastery in English, meeting the demands of high-level English proficiency employees for such fields as English Pedagogy, English linguistics, interpretation, and translation
However, despite the effort made by Vietnamese educators, this is not enough when EFL
2 students in Vietnam still has to face a number of hindrances which are in line with the constraints proposed by Richard (2015), including time limitation, unsuitable class size, which leads to the lack of English-speaking environment and fewer opportunities for authentic communication and practice, test orientation curriculum, the lack of materials, and teachers’ limited English proficiency Consequently, this leads to a change in people’ perception and conceptualization of English teaching and learning, which no longer merely based on in-class instructions, and more attention has been paid to the learning process taking place in contexts outside the classroom, which can help to compensate for the above- mentioned shortcomings Corresponding to this viewpoint, Hyland agrees: “Language learning can take place at any time and in any place, including the home and the community”
(2004, pp 180) Although most foreign language research has strongly emphasized on formal language learning, namely the learning that takes place within classroom settings (Richards,
2015), several researchers hold the belief that informal language learning should be paid equal attention compared to formal learning (De Wilde et al., 2020; J S Lee, 2019; Sundqvist,
2019) due to its great potentials It is also argued that second language learning is not confined to the classroom but extends to learning experiences outside classroom contexts as these out-of-classroom activities address the limitations of the classroom learning process (Nunan & Richards, 2015) Informal language learning was first defined by Watkins and Marsik (1992) as a process resulting from learners’ experience, occurring beyond formal educational settings in a planned or unplanned manner, which takes place mostly unintentionally, and the involved activities do not specifically aim at learning
In recent decades, the penetration of digital technologies has increasingly been greater in education practice, especially in English language learning Since students have easy and almost free access to a wide range of digital tools and platforms, with the assistance of
3 computers, mobile phones, and the internet, the learning process does not merely occur in classroom or institutional contexts In fact, students have involved themselves more in informal language learning thanks to the high availability of technology and digital resources These resources provide numerous opportunities for learners to be exposed to authentic language input and integrations Moreover, the pervasion of technologies, which enables language learners to get frequent exposure to digital platforms and online communities, helps to make their digital informal learning become normalized and socially common, and this leads to more open-minded and broader views on the concept informal language learning in terms of learners’ intention, purposes and plan when associating technology in their language learning outside institutional contexts These emerging contexts and situations in EFL education highlight the urgent necessity of gaining a deep insight into learners’ practices of engaging in informal language learning using digital resources.
Rationale of the study
Since there has been a shift from teacher-centered to learner-centered approach, associated with the advancement in technology-based approach in recent years, learners’ ability to take charge of and self-regulate their own learning outside the contexts of classroom is increasingly becoming crucial for them adapt to the changes In reality, many studies have shown that digital tools such as gaming, mobile devices, social media, video streaming, and online communities had a considerable impact on informal L2 learning with great interest and engagement of learners (Sundqvist, 2019; Chen, 2013; Alm, 2015; Wang & Chen, 2019; Sunstein & Chiseri-Strater, 2011; Richards, 2015) Furthermore, using digital resources for informal language learning helps learners improve different skills in their English competence with authentic communication opportunities available (Aryati, Widiati, and Riyanto, 2019) Considering the contexts of Vietnamese tertiary education, English-majored students are
4 required to attain high level of proficiency and mastery in English use to fulfill the demands of jobs that necessitate in-depth and precise language skills Consequently, autonomous learning or informal language learning becomes an almost obligatory pursuit for these students if they desire to acquire necessary expertise, and accordingly, digital resources emerge as indispensable tools for their English learning outside instructional contexts, without or with little guidance from their teachers
In the light of the discussed situations, the researcher decided to conduct a study to investigate the use of digital resources for informal English learning in Vietnamese educational context where a great number of studies still focus on formal or institutional settings and how teachers apply technology to teach English, and informal language learning receives quite less attention Taking the case of English-majored students at University of Foreign languages and International Studies, Hue University, however, due to time limitations in formal language classrooms for English skills, it is difficult for both lectures and learners to cover all knowledge of English and practice using the language frequently, so it is necessary for students to conduct their learning in informal contexts to enhance their English proficiency On top of that, it is likely that the learners act very differently in an informal learning environment than in the formal learning environment of the classroom (Boo et al
2015) Hence, the study attempted to explore the implementation practice among English- major undergraduates, who are studying in tertiary level of education which requires a lot of ability for self-study or autonomy In other words, the paper discovered how they learn
English skills in informal settings, without or with little control and urge from teachers or institutions, but for the sake of the learning itself to their English competence, what types of tools or platforms that they use for their learning, and their perception on the effects of informal language learning using technologies on their English improvement Reasons behind their choice and application of online tools and platforms were also be investigated
Aims of the study
The most important aim of the research is to investigate the implementation practice of using digital resources for English-major students’ informal language learning, with several major objectives First, this study was conducted to clarify second-year English-major students in Hue University of Foreign Languages and International Studies (HUFLIS) utilize for their informal language learning and how they employ these ILL resources, as well as to grasp their perceptions towards the effect of this implementation to improve their English skills and knowledge Furthermore, the study looked into factors that influence students' choice and use of digital resources for informal language learning.
Research questions
As far as the aims are concerned, the study is conducted to address the following research questions:
1 What digital resources do HUFLIS second-year English-major students use for informal language learning to improve their English proficiency?
2 How do HUFLIS second-year English-major students use digital resources for informal language learning to improve their English proficiency?
3 What are the perceptions of HUFLIS second-year English-major students towards the effects of informal language learning by using digital resources?
4 What factors influence HUFLIS second-year English-major students' use of digital resources for informal language learning?
Significance of the study
The research is carried out in the hope that its findings will help to improve the situation related to limited time and other possible drawbacks in language classrooms by suggesting several ways, strategies, and useful digital tools to support students’ informal learning of English Furthermore, students will probably be aware of the usefulness of digital resources for their language learning outside formal contexts, hence be able to make the best use of them At the same time, teachers can consider the outcomes of paper as references or guides for their instructional decisions in language classrooms and figure out how to combine online technologies in both formal and informal settings for better learning outcomes.
Structure of the study
This study is organized into five chapters with the main contents as follows:
Chapter 1: Introduction provides the main concepts of the study, including the background, the rationale of the study, the aims of the study, the significance of the study as well as the overall structure of the study
Chapter 2: Literature Review comprises 3 main segments The first part gives an introduction into ILL and its dimensions The second section offers a review of the use of ILL digital resources, its potentials, and challenges, as well as factors affecting the use of ILL digital resources The third constituent presents a review of previous studies into the field of ILL, thereby identifying the gap for this study
Chapter 3: Methodology describes the methodology used in this study, consisting of research design, research instruments, research participants, data collection, data analysis, and reliability and validity of the study
Chapter 4: Findings and Discussion presents the findings of the study, together with the discussion of significant results directly related to the research aims It comprises 5 main parts, the first four sections of which provide results in relation to participants’ characteristics,
7 the frequency of ILL resources use in general and in different contexts, participants’ perception of the effect of ILL digital resources, as well as the factors influencing their utilization of ILL digital resources The last segment discusses the issues raised in the research questions, thereby giving explanations applicable to the findings
Chapter 5: Conclusion and Implications summarizes the results of the study, offers implications for EFL university students and teachers, deals with the limitations of the study and gives recommendations for further studies.
Summary of the chapter
This chapter acts as an introductory section for the current study It has initially discussed the background as well as the theoretical and contextual rationale of the research, highlighting the importance of investigating ILL digital resources in the context of tertiary education in Vietnam Additionally, it has outlined the study's objectives with the introduction of research questions and its significance Finally, it concluded by outlining the structure and organization of the thesis In essence, this chapter has provided fundamental background information to establish a firm base foundation for the following chapters
Literature Review
Informal language learning
2.1.1 The concept of informal language learning
Informal language learning was first defined by Watkins and Marsik (1992) as a process resulting from learners’ experience, occurring beyond formal educational settings in a planned or unplanned manner, which takes place mostly unintentionally, and the involved activities do not specifically aim at learning Steven (2009), while sharing the same opinion of the intention aspect, added that informal language learning happens in daily life activities related to work, family or leisure, yet he supposed that this process is not structured regarding learning objectives, time and support, and does not lead to certification This was in line with Cross’s claim (2006) of informal learning as “the unofficial, unscheduled, impromptu way people learn to do their jobs (p.19) However, the matter of whether informal language learning happens incidentally or deliberately has still been a subject of controversy among experts in the field
With the pervasion of technologies, language learners are able to get frequent exposure to digital platforms, tools, resources and online communities, which makes their online informal learning become normalized and socially common, and this leads to more open-minded and broader views on the concept informal language learning in terms of learners’ intention, purposes and plan when associating technology in their language learning outside institutional contexts Livingstone (2001), on the other hand, considers informal learning to include deliberate activities “without the presence of external imposed curricular criteria” (p.30) Benson (2011) also argued “in ‘self-directed naturalistic learning’ the learner sets up a naturalistic learning situation with the intention of language learning, but once engaged in the situation, switches the focus of attention to communication, enjoyment or
9 learning something other than the language itself” (p 139)
When regarding the concept of informal learning, Rogers (2008) and Schugurensky
(2007), with elaborative considerations, separate the concept into two types of informal learning, defined by their degree of intentionality: task-conscious learning and learning- conscious learning Task-conscious learning, also known as incidental learning, occurs when learning happens unintentionally, while engaged in some activity This type of learning is task-conscious, and the achievements are measured in terms of task-fulfillment rather than learning (Roger, 2008) The second type is learning-conscious learning, which is deliberate and intentional, with the achievements being measured in terms of learning In this type, the learner is in control of the learning situation and may involve a resource person but not necessarily an educator (Roger, 2008; Schugurensky, 2007) These two types of learning, task-conscious and learning-conscious learning, represent two opposite points on a spectrum, and learners are likely to shift between them
Another researcher, Trinder (2017), defines informal learning as being under the control of the learner, not associated with any specific course or educational institution, occurring outside of traditional classroom settings While some researchers (such as Tissot, 2004; Stevens, 2010) argue that informal learning is usually unintentional or random, Trinder
(2017) asserts that learners are aware of both the process and the outcomes of their informal learning experiences Based on the analyzed data of Trinder’s research, informal learning is characterized by several key features It is initiated by the learner or peers rather than by the teacher, takes place outside the classroom, and combines language acquisition with other goals, such as entertainment, information search, and communication Experienced learners tend to be more aware of the language acquisition process, and this awareness may be explicit Additionally, informal learning may be intentional for some learners These
10 characteristics allow scope for the study of both deliberate and incidental learning activities, and for differing views as to the extent to which the learner is aware of the learning process
In a study by Linh & Trang (2021) which investigated the use of web 2.0 as an informal language learning platform, they translated the term “Informal learning of foreign languages’’ into Vietnamese as “Học ngoại ngữ ngoài lớp học” (p.1) This partly reflected the location facet of informal language learning, which was further discussed in the next section of dimensions of informal language learning
In the scope of the study, the researcher sides with the broader view in terms of students’ intentional aspect towards their informal language learning, regarding this concept as a process that incidentally or intentionally occurs outside classroom or institutional settings with students self-directing their learning; the process might or might not lead to qualifications, or it can be merely for entertaining purposes
2.1.2 Dimensions of informal language learning
According to Benson (2011), there are four dimensions of informal language learning or language learning beyond the classroom including “location, formality, pedagogy, and locus of control” (p 9)
As stated by Bension (2011), location refers to where and when a language learning activity takes place and can be physical or virtual, which usually refers to out-of-class or in classroom contexts
The second dimension is the formality of the language learning process which addresses whether the learning activity is linked to formal/educational qualifications/certificate or to learners’ personal interest e.g., formal, non-formal, or informal
In other words, this deals with formal or informal contexts of learning Informal language learning apparently occurs outside of formal educational contexts and often involves
11 spontaneous, unstructured interactions Learners engage in conversations, listen to authentic materials, or use online resources without the constraints of formal classroom settings
Regarding pedagogy dimension, according to Dressman and Sadler (2020), pedagogy encompasses the various teaching approaches used, including instructional methods, the organized sequence of learning materials, explicit explanations, and assessment practices In the case of informal language learning, this dimension is considered to decide if the learning process is instructed or non-instructed, or sometimes self-instructed Learners will take control of their learning process, adopting individualized approaches, and selecting resources and activities that align with their needs and interests
The last dimension is locus of control that relates to the degree to which learners direct their learning compared to others who oversee the learning (Benson, 2011) In the context of learning beyond classroom or informal learning, learners are supposed to be independent and self-regulated and have a higher degree of control and responsibility for their own learning They set their own goals, make decisions about what, when, and how to learn, and monitor their progress This dimension highlights the importance of learner autonomy, self-regulation, and the ability to manage one's language learning journey
These four dimensions of informal language learning and language autonomy— formality, location, pedagogy, and locus of control—help characterize the unique nature of learning a language in informal settings They highlight the learner's agency, the flexible learning environments, and the learner-centered approaches that are central to informal language acquisition Chik (2014) added another dimension called Trajectory which refers to how learners manage and regulate their informal learning activities over time However, this dimension is believed to be challenging to be tracked since it needs observation and investigation for a long period of time
In terms of the pedagogy aspect of informal language learning, several specific characteristics are also proposed by Benson (2011), including self-instruction, naturalistic language learning, and self-directed learning in language acquisition, as explained below
Self-instruction refers to learners taking control of their own learning process and actively planning language learning activities outside the formal classroom setting It could involve learners setting their own goals, choosing relevant materials and resources, and organizing their learning process according to their individual needs and preferences Self- instruction allows learners to take ownership of their learning and tailor it to their specific language learning goals For example, students watch online language tutorials or instructional videos on YouTube to learn some skills of the English language
Digital resources in informal language learning
Globalization and integration of education all over the world has necessitated the integration of digital technologies, especially in the realm of language learning Language learners have exploited these digital resources to support their learning process both inside and outside classroom contexts According to Prensky (2001), modern students are described as
"digital natives" since before they enter the learning process, they have grown up in a digital era, constantly engaging with various technologies such as computers, video games, digital music players, video cams, cell phones, and other digital tools throughout their lives Digital resources refer to electronic materials, tools, and content that are available in digital format and can be accessed and utilized for different purposes, among which educational purpose is widely emphasized To some extent, digital resources can be understood as a concept referring to a wide range of electronic materials, tools, websites, applications, and platforms that support educational activities and enhance learning experiences On the other hand, digital resources can include digital platforms that are not explicitly designed or used for learning purposes, but for various fields such as business, healthcare, and entertainment While digital resources often refer to materials and platforms specifically intended for educational or informational use, the term can also embrace a broader range of digital platforms that may have other purposes but can
16 be repurposed or utilized for learning For example, social media platforms, online video- sharing platforms, or communication tools like instant messaging applications can be considered digital resources if they are used by individuals for language learning These platforms may not have been originally designed for formal or structured learning, but learners can leverage them as digital resources for informal learning experiences Hence, within the scope of this study, the term “digital resources" can be understood to include both online and offline digital platforms and tools that have been used to support language learners’ informal language learning These resources can be either not initially created for educational purposes but are adapted by individuals for educational goals or specifically designed for language education The reason for highlighting the significance of digital resources in informal language learning in this study stems from the potential educational benefits that technology offers (Thorne et al., 2009; Zhao & Lai, 2007) Technology plays a crucial role in the learning environment, forming an integral part of the ecology of learning (Benson, 2006; Greenhow, Robelia, & Hughes, 2009; Sefton-Green, 2006)
2.2.2 The use of digital resources for informal language learning
2.2.2.1 Types of digital resources and associated activities used for informal language learning
Digital resources can be understood as digital materials, tools, and systems, such as websites, social media, online games, multimedia and mobile phones, which are available through the internet and can be used to support various activities such as learning, communication, collaboration, and productivity These resources include but are not limited to, learning management systems (LMS), webinars, online forums or communities (such as Reddit, Discord, etc.), video conferencing, social media platforms (YouTube, Facebook, Instagram, Twitter), blogs, podcasts, and mobile applications In the context of language
17 learning, digital technologies have been increasingly used for language learning in recent years, providing learners with various opportunities to access authentic language materials, interact with other learners and native speakers, and receive immediate feedback The use of digital resources has become particularly significant for informal language learning For example, the same authors found that mobile technologies, such as smartphones, were used extensively for language learning outside of the classroom Furthermore, the findings of Trinder's (2017) study, which involved examining the practices and preferences of 175
Austrian university students regarding new media usage in self-directed informal online learning, indicate that television series and films are the most popular learning resources in terms of both the frequency of use and skill acquisition Other digital resources were also mentioned in Trinder’s study with high frequency of use, including Online dictionaries, Social networks, Online news sites/journals, etc
In a paper by Alm (2015), social media like Facebook was found as a platform where learners have opportunities to observe and to participate in real conversations, so the language they learn and use is more real and applicable, and these conversations enabled them to use the colloquial language they learned during their exchange and to pick up new words and conversational techniques or phrases Social media was also acknowledged as one of the most popular resources used by Indonesian students in a study carried out by Inayati and &
Karifianto (2022) These authors also highlighted the use of video-sharing platforms that received a high preference among learners In particular, the participants also reported that social media posts that were in English, including the threaded comments, became a useful source of exposure in their informal language learning environment
In another paper by Yurieva, Musiichuk, and Baisan (2021), it indicated that students also watch YouTube videos or films to expose themselves to authentic language and examples
18 of phrases Moreover, in this study, the researchers listed out a wide range of digital resources that are made use of by language learners, namely, Text or voice messages, news websites, online courses related to topics other than language learning, online or downloading e-books, language learning sites (British Council, BBC learning English, etc.), blogs, podcast/ radio and discussion forum (which is the least used) In the specific context of Vietnamese students, a few studies have investigated the use of digital technologies for language learning
A study conducted by Ba (2018), which investigated Internet use in promoting business learners’ autonomy and improving their learning skill, revealed that YouTube and Google Translation are the two most popular websites or tools to study English online with the participants
The research will also look into the utility of AI platforms like chatbot, which have recently arisen strongly throughout the world and opened a new era where human tasks are gradually conducted by a so-called robot creature In the Vietnamese educational context, AI chatbots like ChatGPT or Bing AI are not officially recognized in formal or academic settings, but only used by a number of students outside their classrooms for supporting their studies and knowledge acquisition Lu et al (2006) suggested that learners regard chatbots as partners and engage in regular conversations with them to improve their L2 abilities, and this platform also provides records of conversation, which is convenient for future review
Students, through conversations with the chatbot, can search for any knowledge and information, ask questions about language knowledge including vocabulary, grammar or even ask the chatbot to produce ideas for their assignments In return, these AI-based chatbots managed to accomplish their tasks in an organized and modest way, not regarding the quality of their products as these require more rigid and thorough considerations and investigations The potential of AI-based tools will be further discussed in the next section: Positive outcomes of digital resources in Informal language learning
2.2.2.2 Positive outcomes of digital resources in informal language learning
So far, several studies have examined the outcomes of informal language learning or autonomy using digital resources The findings have shown that using online platforms for learning language outside formal contexts has positive impacts on both affective factors and learners’ language proficiency Lee (2019) conducted a study aimed at examining informal digital learning experiences of L2 English The study revealed that the frequency and diversity of digital language learning practices were significant factors in the learning process The research found that those who engaged in informal digital learning more frequently showed higher levels of L2 enjoyment and confidence The study also indicated that diversity in digital language learning practices was highly predictive of speaking ability, productive vocabulary knowledge, learner anxiety, and TOEIC scores These findings suggest that informal language learning through technology has an impact not only on the emotional aspects of learning but also on L2 proficiency
Moreover, Trinder (2017), in his research named ‘Informal and deliberate learning with new technologies’, claimed that film in its different online guises is regarded the most helpful medium for improving listening skills and pronunciation, and although it offers no opportunities for language production, it is amongst the three best-ranked technologies for developing pronunciation and communicative competence
Furthermore, Pearson (2004) conducted a survey on Chinese international students enrolled in an Academic English course at a university in New Zealand The study found that the majority of these students utilized a range of resources and platforms, such as TV, radio, magazines, movies, the internet, and conversations with peers, to enhance their English language proficiency The students reported that these informal learning activities outside of the classroom were more engaging and effective than their formal classroom learning
Specially, digital platforms like social media are useful for L2 exposure and practice
Summary of the chapter
The literature concerning ILL with the facilitation of digital resources indicates a recent shift in research focus from formal classroom-based learning to language learning in informal contexts This literature has also demonstrated the availability of a wide array of ILL digital resources and activities for EFL learners aiming to enhance their English skills, as well as potentials of this utility for informal English learning Besides, the overall review of prior studies has discussed the utilization of ILL digital resources and activities by EFL students, clarified the affordances and limitations associated with the practice of digital tools and platforms use for ILL, and outlined various factors that influence the choice of such resources These factors include both internal and external aspects Ultimately, this chapter has established a theoretical framework for the study, providing a basis for exploring different dimensions of ILL with technology
Methodology
Research design and methods
To address the above-mentioned research questions, this study exploited mixed methods which integrate both quantitative and qualitative methods using questionnaires and interviews to offer the best potential for the answer Mixed research is basically defined as:
“…the type of research in which a researcher or team of researchers combines elements of qualitative and quantitative research approaches (e.g., use of qualitative and quantitative viewpoints, data collection, analysis, inference techniques) for the broad purpose of breadth and depth of understanding and corroboration.”
(Johnson et al., 2007, p.123) Mixed methods research is claimed to provide a broader and more comprehensive understanding of the research problem than either method alone (Creswell and Plano Clark,
2017) and reduce some of the problems associated with singular method (Sechrest and
Sidana, 1995) According to Johnson and Turner (2003), the fundamental principle of mixed research requires researchers to collect multiple data combining various approaches, strategies, and methods, which is more likely to result in complementary strengths and nonoverlapping weaknesses Within the context of the research, this combination enabled the conductor to explore both overall and detailed experience and perception of language learners on the implementation of digital technology in informal language learning The practice and students’ perspectives of using digital resources for informal language learning could be fully investigated applying both characteristics of quantitative research (e.g., statistical analysis,
34 standardized data collection, etc.) and those of qualitative research (e.g., induction, discovery, exploration, etc.) Furthermore, the reliability and validity of the study could be obtained and increased thanks to the use of multiple data sources and methods in mixed methods research, which allowed for cross-validation and reducing bias (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004) The qualitative method using interview was further employed to gain a deep analysis of students’ perception of their integration of digital resources for their informal English learning, and some of challenges and difficulties they face during the application were also looked into with the help of this approach.
Participants of the study
The participants of the study are 91 English-major students from Hue University of Foreign Languages and International Studies, who are in the second year of their program The reason why the research chose this population is that they are currently attending courses on four English skills, including listening, reading, writing, and speaking in their second-year curriculum Therefore, they are likely to be open to the idea of investing time in informal learning using digital technologies to improve their language skills
Convenience sampling was employed to recruit participants from the English Department of the university This method of sampling was chosen primarily because of the willingness of the students to participate in the study.
Research instruments
The quantitative approach was employed in this study with the facilitation of questionnaires This instrument was selected since it enables the researcher to collect the data from a large number of participants, which made it easier to reach an accurate generalized
35 conclusion Brown (1988) figured out that questionnaires are more effective for gathering information on a large scale than other instruments Furthermore, questionnaires provide a variety of items, ranging from closed ended to open-ended with various sorts of selection items, or Likert scale with different levels along the continuum (Cohen, 2011) The data from closed ended items are more convenient to quantify, compare, and classify as the choices are limited and predetermined (Cresswell, 2008; Wiersma, 2008), while open-ended questions allow respondents to express themselves “in their own terms” (Bransford, 2000; Punch,
2009) In the light of that, a survey with both closed-ended and open-ended questions was integrated to elicit data about the students' use of digital technologies for informal language learning and their perceptions of the effectiveness of these tools According to Seliger and Shohamy (1989), they point out that closed-ended questionnaires are more efficient because of their ease of analysis whereas Gillham (2000) argue that “open questions can lead to greater level of discovery” (p.5)
The questionnaire was distributed to the respondents in the form of an online survey via Google form This way is much more convenient and economical compared to the traditional survey with printed paper as Google Form is a free platform Moreover, the data collected through Google Form can be automatically shown in a Google Sheets spreadsheet, making data organization and analysis more efficient
The online survey was adapted using Likert scales, checkboxes, and checkbox grid for closed-ended questions and short answer questions for open ended questions The participants responded to the questionnaire in English The questionnaire included three major sections:
Participants’ demographic information, Participants’ use of Digital resources for Informal language learning, and Perception of participants towards the effects of informal English learning using digital resources (see Appendix A)
➢ In the first section, participants’ demographics including their names or emails
(optional), genders, majors, and self-rated English proficiency were collected (see
➢ The second section, which was used to investigate the practice of students’ use of digital resources for informal language learning, consisted of 1 open-ended items (see
Question 5 in Appendix A) and 3 closed-ended items in the form of 19 5-point Likert scale items (Question 6 and 8 in Appendix A), and a checkbox grid (see Question 7 in
Appendix A) The two Likert scales ranges from 1 to 5 (Never (N), Rarely (R),
Sometimes (S), Often (O), and Always (A)) to evaluate the frequency of participants’ use of various digital resources and that in different informal language learning contexts with distinct aims (see Table 2)
➢ The third part comprises 3 closed-ended items (see Question 9,10, 11 in Appendix A), encompassing two checkboxes and a 5-point Likert scale with 13 statements pertaining to participants’ perception towards the effectiveness of informal English learning with the application off digital resources in terms of both English proficiency and affective factors (see Table 2) The statements were rated on the 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 to 5 (Strongly Disagree, Disagree, Neutral, Agree, and Strongly Agree) At the end of the questionnaire, there is some space where participants can leave their contact emails or phone numbers if they agree to take part in the later interview
Summary of the main categories in the questionnaire
ILL digital resources and frequency use
Frequency of use of different digital resources for ILL
How ILL digital resources are used Time allocation for ILL digital resources Item 5
The use of ILL digital resources for improving English skills and knowledge
Frequency of use of digital resources in two different contexts (extramural and extracurricular) with distinct aims
Perception towards the effects of ILL digital resources
Perception towards the effect of ILL digital resources on English proficiency (Listening, Reading, Speaking, Writing, Pronunciation, Grammar, Vocabulary, World knowledge)
Perception towards the effect of ILL digital resources on Affective factors (confidence, motivation, enjoyment, relaxing learning)
Perception towards the most useful digital resources for ILL
Factors influencing the use of ILL digital resources
Factors influencing the use of ILL digital resources
Prior the study, the questionnaires were piloted to 11 second-year English-major students detect and discard any possible misleading questions or misunderstandings, as well as to ensure the reliability of the study In the pilot study, the calculation of Cronbach’s Alpha coefficients was conducted to ensure the reliability of measurement scales in the study with the use of SPSS software Cronbach's Alpha, often known simply as "Cronbach's Alpha," is a statistical measure used to assess the internal consistency or reliability of a set of items in a
38 questionnaire or scale Cronbach's Alpha values range from 0 to 1 The higher the values are, the more reliable and consistent the scale is If the Cronbach's Alpha score of a scale is from 0.7, the items in the scale will be acceptable, and the consistency of the items are strong In the distributed questionnaires, there were 32 Likert scale items, including 17 items for the frequency of participants’ use of different digital resources for Informal language learning, 2 items for the implementation in different contexts, and 13 items for participants’ perception towards the effect of digital resources for informal language learning Two items for the application in two contexts and for two purposes were only analyzed using percentages, while the remaining five-point Likert items were analyzed using Cronbach’s Alpha values for reliability checking
The reliability statistics of the piloted questionnaires
Piloted Frequency of use of different digital resources for ILL
Perception towards the effect of digital resources in ILL
As can be seen from Table 3, Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient values of the two scales in the piloted questionnaires were 839 and 890 respectively for the scale of ‘Frequency of use of different digital resources for ILL’ and that of ‘Perception towards the effect of digital resources in ILL’ These scores are much higher than the standard score of above 0.7, which means that the two scales are reliable for official questionnaire administration
The qualitative data was collected using interviews as the major instrument Semi- structured interviews will be conducted with a subset of the participants, which focuses on detailed information and insights into participants’ experiences and attitudes towards digital technology use for informal language learning The reason behind the decision to opt for this qualitative instrument lies in its possibilities of gaining deep understanding of the investigated issue and the possible emergence of new issues related to the topic during the interview process Particularly, semi-structured interviews are claimed to allow for new matters to arise along the way (Lodico et al., 2010; Menter et al 2011) It is also an effective method to obtain the interviewees’ belief, opinion, feelings, and action about the explored area in a highly personal and detailed degree (Kvale, 2009; Mc Donough, 197; Punch, 2009) This instrument also helps the researchers to understand the meaning and interpretation of responses, especially the quantitative data, from the participants regarding their behavior or events (Hennink et al., 2011; Bowling, 2014)
The researcher also decided to employ semi-structured interviews in which the interviewer could ask both guided questions and unplanned questions at the same time This type of interview could encourage flexibility, facilitate two-way communication between the researcher and the interviewed lecturers, and help the interviewer gain more detailed relevant information Creswell (2013) emphasizes that interviews allow researchers to adjust questions and follow-up prompts based on participants' input, enhancing the quality of the data gathered
The interview prompts concentrated on participants' explanations and clarification of their answers in the questionnaires, with 7 questions in total, relating to the following
40 domains: their type of digital resources used for their informal language learning, their strategies/methods/activities for their use of digital resources for informal language learning, their detailed perception of the effectiveness of the implementation, how different factors influence their choice of resources, and challenges/difficulties faced by participants during the integration (see Appendix B and C) The interviews will be carried out in Vietnamese in order to minimize any misunderstandings and anxiety that the participants might have during the interview, and they can be comfortable to express themselves clearly The interviews will be audio-recorded with the permission from the participants and later be transcribed into English for analysis
3.3.3 Summary of the research instruments
Specific research instruments used to collect data to answer 4 research questions were summarized in Table 4
Summary of the research instruments for each research question
1 What digital resources do HUFLIS second-year English- major students use for informal language learning to improve their English proficiency?
2 How do HUFLIS second-year English-major students use digital resources for informal language learning to improve their English proficiency?
3 What are the perceptions of HUFLIS second-year English- major students towards the effects of informal language learning by using digital resources?
4 What factors influence HUFLIS second-year English- major students' use of digital resources for informal language learning?
Data collection procedure
The procedure of collecting quantitative data from the questionnaire underwent three main periods including piloting, modifying, and distributing the questionnaire to participants
After some changes were made thanks to the responses from 11 pilot participants and the feedback from the researcher’s supervisor in the pilot stage, the final version of the survey was delivered online to HUFLIS English-majored second-year students via the use of Google Form With the assistance of some lecturers who were in charge of several classes for second- year students in English Department, the survey link was sent to their classes’ Facebook groups All the personal information of the respondents was assured to be kept confidential and only used for scientific research purposes
Once all the questionnaires were collected, the collection of qualitative data through interviews was conducted There were 12 participants who expressed their willingness to take part in the interview sections with the researcher Therefore, all of them were selected for the interview Interviews were also carried out online due to the geographic barriers which means that some students went back to their hometowns as they just finished their final tests at university Before the interview part, the interviewees would receive the Interview Sheet with
7 questions to read first, which enables them to have more time to understand and prepare for the interview questions In each interview session, the researcher made a phone call with each participant and asked them questions in Vietnamese While the participants were answering, the researcher took notes and tape recorded (with the agreement of the interviewees) their answer simultaneously for data tracking and further analysis The participants conveyed their thoughts and perspectives in Vietnamese in order to feel more comfortable and easier to give their answers Besides 7 structured questions, the interviewer asked some follow-up questions when there was any unclear information or new issues emerging during the interview session to gain more in-depth Each interview lasted about 10 to 15 minutes
Data analysis
The quantitative data collected from the questionnaire was interpreted through descriptive statistics, which was used to describe general features and trends of the data and to find out the most frequently responded views The results from the questionnaires were calculated and analyzed by SPSS software After being processed, the frequencies of these survey responses were expressed as percentages For Likert-scale items, means scores and standard deviations were also calculated to show the tendency of students’ attitudes and experience in integrating Digital technologies in informal English learning to improve English skills The quantitative data was then visualized using tables, bar charts, and pie charts
For qualitative analysis, all of the interviews were transcribed and translated into English None of the participants were addressed by their real names so as to protect their confidentiality Instead, the interviewed students would be coded as S1, S2, S3, etc In this study, interview transcripts would be analyzed carefully using thematic content analysis to gain detailed and insightful description under the discussed topic The data from the survey participants was combined with the interview data (using quotations) to be compared and synthesized to provide detailed interpretations.
Reliability and validity
Reliability and validity are crucial concepts in research that ensure the accuracy, consistency, and trustworthiness of the findings Reliability pertains to the degree to which a measurement of a phenomenon yields consistent and stable outcomes (Carmines & Zeller,
1979) In other words, reliability can be interpreted as the consistency and stability of the research finding over time and across different conditions Hence, it is vital for researchers to employ consistent measurements instruments and approach to minimize potential errors Validity, on the other hand, refers to the extent to which a study accurately measures or
43 assesses what it claims to measure (Polit and Hungler, 1999), and the validity of a study is ensured if the research instruments allow the researcher to achieve the research objectives (Polit, 1999) This is important because valid research ensures that the conclusions drawn from the study are sound and can be applied to the broader population or context
In order to obtain reliability and validity for the research, two methods of data collection, including questionnaires and interviews, were exploited to triangulate the data and increase the validity of the findings, at the same time minimize the possible measurement errors According to Denzin and Lincoln (2017), triangulation is a way to ensure that the findings are reliable and valid by using multiple sources of data Moreover, in the pilot stage, the calculation of Cronbach’s Alpha coefficients was conducted to ensure the reliability of measurement scales in the study by the use of SPSS software In addition, after the official questionnaires were delivered to the total of 91 participants, Cronbach’s Alpha coefficients were also calculated for reliability checking
The reliability statistics of the official questionnaires
Official Frequency of use of different digital resources for ILL 17 844
Perception towards the effect of digital resources in ILL 13 936
As can be seen from Table 5, the corresponding Cronbach’s Alpha values, which were yielded through the analysis of the total data collected from 91 participants, were 844 for the scale of frequency of use of different digital resources for ILL and 936 for the latter scale Therefore, it could be concluded that both of these measurement scales demonstrate strong reliability
Furthermore, to ensure the validity of the study, the questionnaire and the interview questions were written with simple and clear language so that the participants could understand them easily Detailed instruction and explanation were also included in the questionnaire Specifically, during the pilot period, the researcher also observed the process in which the pilot participants filled in the form and asked for their feedback as well as checked if there was any part ambiguous to them.According to Creswell (2017), pilot testing is an effective way to ensure reliability and validity of research instruments Clear instructions and explanations will be also provided by the researcher when the students ask for during the data collection procedure This will help to avoid confusion and misinterpretation of the questions For interviews, the interviewer also used simple language to ask questions in Vietnamese and was willing to explain when the questions are not understandable to prevent misunderstanding.
Summary of the chapter
In this chapter, an overview of the study's research design and method has been presented It has provided a rationale for the various procedures, methods, and activities employed by the researcher to accomplish the study's objectives Following a detailed explanation of why a mixed methods approach, incorporating both quantitative and qualitative data collection techniques, was selected, the chapter has outlined the research participants, instruments, and the procedures for collecting and analyzing both types of data Lastly, it has clarified how reliability and validity of the measurement were ensured
Findings and Discussion
Findings
Percentage of participants by gender
The data presented in the pie chart illustrates the proportions of participants by gender
As can be seen from the pie chart, female participants dominate with the significant percentage of 89%, while male participants account for a much smaller figure of only 11% The inclusion of both male and female participants in this study is anticipated to result in data that is free from gender bias
Percentage of participants by major
From Figure 2, among the English-major second-year participants, almost 60% of them are pursuing English language studies The percentage of respondents who major in English language teaching accounted for 38.5 %, whereas only 2.2% of the participants attend both English language teaching and English language studies courses simultaneously
Participants’ self-rated proficiency in their English skills
Figure 3 depicts the percentages of participants’ self-rated proficienct in four English skills including Listening skill, Reading skill, Speaking skill, and Writing skill The chart shows that except for speaking skill, over half of the researched students rated their level as
“Fair” in most skills with 52.7% for Listening skill and Reading skills and 53.8% for Writing skill In particular, while the reponses for “Poor” only occupy 7.7 % in three skills including Reading skill, Speaking skill, and Writing skill, the students seem to be least confident in their Listening skill since up to 30.8 % of them rated their listening ability as poor By contrast, 49.4% of the respondents rated their speaking as “Good”, which means that speaking skill might be the most optimistic skill to the participants Very few respondents thought that their levels of four skills are “Very good”
4.1.2 Frequency of participants’ use of digital resources for ILL
Table 6 illustrates the frequency of participants’ use of different digital resources for informal language learning associated with mean scores and SD scores of listed categories
Frequency of participants’ use of digital resource for ILL
Resources Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always M SD
6.1 I use online/ offline dictionaries/translator (e.g.,
6.5 I use Online news sites/journals/ magazines (e.g.,
CNN, The New York Times, The
6.6 I use E-books (online or downloading) 9.9% 25.3% 30.8% 28.6% 5.5% 2.95 1.079
6.8 I use Text or voice chat (e.g.,
6.13 I use Language learning sites (e.g., BBC, CNN, British
6.14 I use Online courses not related to English language learning (e.g., marketing, business, design, etc.)
6.15 I use Online courses related to English language learning (e.g.,
IELTS, TOEIC, not belonging to the HUFLIS English Programs)
6.16 I use AI platform (chat GPT,
6.17 I use Mobile applications for language learning (e.g., ELSA,
The mean score interpretation was based on the table below, according to
Source: Moidunny (2009) Combining the data in Table 6 and Table 7, it is obvious that 4 out of 17 listed digital resources including TV programs /films/movies, YouTube videos,Social networking, and
Language learning sites fell into the high category, which means that they received high frequency of use from the participants On top of that, Online/ offline dictionaries/translator, whose mean score is 4.46, fell into the frequency level of very high use and ranked the first the table in term of frequency of use In other words, these types of digital resources were the most frequently used by the researched students In particular, the majority of the survey respondents reported that they used Online/Offline dictionaries/translators on an “Often” and
“Always” basis (90.1%), while these significant levels of frequency were also seen for
YouTube videos and Social networking with 68.2% and 73.7% respectively
With the mean scores ranging from 2.61 to 3.20, Online news sites/journals/ magazines, E-books,Text or voice chat, Video chatting, Podcast/Radio, Online courses related to English language learning, AI platforms, and Mobile applications for language learning were reported to fall within the frequency level of medium use by the respondents
The data also revealed that over one third of the English majored second-year students
“sometimes” employed these sorts of digital platforms By contrast, the lowest mean frequency scores were witnessed in 4 digital resources, namely Forum discussion, Blogs,
Emailing, and Online courses not related to English language learning, ranging from 2.08 to
2.46 These low used resources were reported to be “Never” and “Rarely” exploited by the majority of over 50 percent of the respondents, meaning that these types were not popular with the researched participants Besides the given digital resources, three surveyed students reported to learn English informally via another type of resources, namely Online Games
When asked about the reasons why the participants use these digital resources for their ILL, the interviewees provided a fairly diverse range of reasons, all related to the benefits of most frequently used resources The preference can be firstly attributed to the update and the diversity of knowledge of various topics for learning provided by these resources (S1, S9)
Moreover, user-friendliness (S5) and the familiarity of these digital platforms to students’ daily life (S2) were also mentioned as the reasons behind students’ choices, and students also prefer these resources because of their easy and free accessibility as there are a wide range of resources are free to be used and downloaded, so students can access them flexibly regardless of time and location (S12)
“The sources of knowledge and information from these digital resources are new and up-to-date, and a lot of knowledge and information are not found in textbooks or reference books Moreover, these platforms supply rich and diverse knowledge for us to learn.” (S1)
“Many platforms and applications that I use are user-friendly with many supporting features, which makes it quicker and more convenient to access information
Particularly, the information is integrated into one platform, so it’s easier and more timesaving to look for information.” (S5)
“Digital resources like social media and video-sharing platforms are quite familiar to students like us as they are used for different purposes such as communicating, updating news, entertaining Therefore, we can easily incorporate these resources into our ILL.” (S2)
“I am interested in these digital technologies because they are easy to access
Especially, many resources are free and available for download, so I can use them whenever needed, without any time or location limitations.” (S12)
“I choose to use digital resources as English knowledge and other learning materials are available on these resources with a wide range of topics, so I have more choices of my favorite learning topic easily.” (S9)
4.1.3 Participants’ activities with digital resources for ILL
4.1.3.1 Participants’ time allocation for ILL digital resources
Students’ daily time allocation for ILL using digital resources
As indicated in Figure 4, most of the participants reported that they spent 1 to less than
3 hours per day (50.5%) using digital resources for their Informal language learning, whereas roughly a quarter of the survey participants used digital platforms for less than 1 hour per day One positive sign which can be inferred from the illustrated figures was that 23.1% of the respondents allocated 3 to 5 hours every day using technology for their English learning beyond classroom contexts, which was a significant rate Very few students spent more than 5 hours per day for ILL digital resources with only 1.1%
4.1.3.2 Participants’ use of ILL digital resources for improving English skills and knowledge
Table 8 illustrated the data about the participants’ usage of ILL digital resources for different English skills and knowledge includingListening skill (L), Reading skill (R),
Speaking skill (S), Writing skill (W), Pronunciation (P), Grammar (G), Vocabulary (V), and World Knowledge (WK) In the questionnaires, students were allowed to choose a single resource for multiple skills and knowledge
Students’ use of ILL digital resources for improving English skills and knowledge
7.5 Online news sites/ journals/ magazines (e.g.,
CNN, The New York Times,
7.13 Language learning sites (e.g., BBC, CNN,
7.14 Online courses not related to English language 19.8% 23.1% 17.6% 12.1% 14.3% 11% 12.1% 18.7%
53 learning (e.g., marketing, business, design, etc.)
7.15 Online courses related to English language learning (e.g., IELTS,
TOEIC, not belonging to the
7.17 Mobile applications for language learning (e.g.,
It is clear from Table 8 that Online/ offline dictionaries/translator (e.g., Cambridge,
Oxford, T-flat, Google Translator, etc.) were utilized for all four skills and English knowledge with high percentages In particular, these types of digital resources are most exploited to support the participants’ reading skill and writing skill They are also popular to enhance the participants’ vocabulary and pronunciation Most of the interviewed participants reported that they usually use English-English dictionaries such as Cambridge or Oxford to search for the meaning and the pronunciation of new words, as well as the contexts in which the words are used Some interviewees said that they also learn family words, synonyms, and antonyms Especially, an interviewee reported: “Sometimes, after looking up new words on English-
English dictionaries, I still do not understand the meaning, so I often use Google translators to turn them into Vietnamese so that I can fully understand new vocabulary items.” (S12)
Regarding TV programs /films/ movies and YouTube videos which provides learners with audio-visual aids, these resources were highly favored by the participants when they learned listening skill and speaking skill, especially listening skill with over 70% for each type of resources Besides, as illustrated in Table 8, the participants’ pronunciation was also practiced using these resources When being asked about how they use these audio-visual digital materials, most interviewed students said that they often listen to English songs, watch videos about general topic or their favorite topic, or watch movie cut videos to increase their
Discussion
Based on the results obtained through qualitative and quantitative data analysis, these findings will be discussed and presented according to the major research questions
Comparisons and contrasts with the results of previous studies will also be presented to gain an overview of the topic
4.2.1 Research question 1: What digital resources do HUFLIS second-year English- major students use for informal language learning to improve their English proficiency?
Regarding the first research questions, the results suggested that second-year English- majored students at HULIS use the majority of listed digital resources for their ILL at an above-average level of frequency The data revealed that online and offline dictionaries and translators hold the first place among all listed digital resources in terms of frequency use, which was in line with the results in studies by Trinder’s (2017) and Yurieva, Musiichuk, and Baisan (2021) In these previous studies, online/offline dictionaries were also the most prefered by English learners It can stem from the fact this type of digital resources exerts a direct impact on learners’ understanding and comprehension of English as vocabulary is the fundamental element that facilitates the learning process of other English skills and knowledge According to Nation (2011), in English as a foreign language (EFL) learning, vocabulary items plays a vital role in all language skills (i.e listening, speaking, reading, and writing, while Nunan (1991), furthermore, argue that the acquisition of an adequate vocabulary is crucial for successful second language use because without an extensive
71 vocabulary, learners will not be able to apply the structures and functions they have learned for comprehensible communication
Furthermore, TV programs /films/movies, YouTube videos, Social networking, and Language learning sites were highly preferred by the majority of second-yead English- majored students The positive results for TV programs/films/movies, YouTube videos, and Social networks, which was also in agreement with the outcomes drawn from Trinder’s
(2017) study, brought little surprise since apart from the aspects of language learning, these resources contain entertaining factors which might require little effort in their learning procedure and thus might bring them enjoyment while learning According to Allen et al
(2014), language learners’ enjoyment was identified to be the key factor for their overall engagement and motivation In Trinder’s (2017) research, this type is also amongst the three best-ranked technologies for developing pronunciation and communicative competence as these resources provide a rich learning experience with plentiful examples of the kind of English students miss in their formal classes However, the appearance of Language learning sites in the top rankings seemed to be worth noticing because this contradicted Trinder’s
(2017) findings as it is suggested that these sites required deliberate study and serious endeavor from learners and are discipline specific As students suggested, their preference for these highly used resources results from different factors, including the latest updates and diversity of knowledge and information provided by these platforms, their user-friendliness, their familiarity, and easy accessibility According to Golonka et al (2014), learners can access these resources at any time and place, allowing them to fit language learning into their busy schedules
Other resources such as Online news sites/journals/ magazines, E-books, Text or voice chat, Video chatting, Podcast/Radio, Online courses related to English language learning, AI
72 platforms, and Mobile applications for language learning were only used by the students to a medium extent In particular, although Text or voice chat and Video chatting are commonly used the students in their daily life, these platforms are not extremely favored for English- major students’ personal language learning environments, which is in conformity with the claim in Trinder’s (2017) research, namely chatting and texting played a very minor role in students’ informal language contexts Very few interviewees reported themselves texting, voice chatting or making video call with other foreign English speakers In the context of Vietnamese education, it can be explained that these communication technologies require much interaction and communication competence Meanwhile, English learners in Vietnam are evaluated to be quite shy and hesitant to communicate in English, and their learning environment places a greater emphasis on knowledge and grammar rather than communicative competence, which can hinder students' confidence when utilizing these resources Hence, they might avoid these high-risk communication experiments which probably cause negative social judgment (Lamb and Arisandy, 2019) Interestingly, although the findings of the study indicate that AI platforms are not utilized by a large number of English-major students due to their recent emergence in the last few years, most interviewees showed their interest in the use of this new platforms What is more, there is little doubt when Forum discussion, Blogs, Emailing, and Online courses not related to English language learning are revealed to be the least frequently used digital resources as they might be least relevant and straightforward to students' language learning, but rather related to other fields
4.2.2 Research question 2: How do HUFLIS second-year English-major students use digital resources for informal language learning to improve their English proficiency?
When it comes to how second-year English-major students at HUFLIS utilize digital resources for their informal English learning, the data about students’ time allocation revealed
73 a moderate result; namely, the majority of students spent about 1 to 3 hours per day for their ILL with digital resources while merely one quarter of them allocated 3 to 5 hours per day, which can be seen as a humble rate as their major is English language The first reason for this could be that the participants were just in their second year of university, so they have not fully developed their autonomous ability Secondly, this can be attributed to students’ hesitation and lack of confidence in using digital resources due to the lack of guidance and uncertainty regarding the quality and the effectiveness of the learning materials The lack of quality control over the content of resources available online was claimed to be one of the major challenges when learners apply ILL digital materials (Lee & Kwon, 2011)
Regarding the contexts in which HUFLIS second year English-majored student conduct their ILL with the usage of digital resources, students’ informal digital learning was reported to occur in both extracurricular and extramural contexts In other words, students are flexible when using digital resources to learn English by themselves, both for academic purposes and personal needs, depending on different situations On the one hand, their learning process is outside classroom contexts, not part of the formal language programs but still linked to it, sometimes with little teachers ‘guidance on what resources should be exploited For example, students reported that when they were assigned to write an essay for a course at university, they often use ChatGPT to search for information and ideas as references on their own Sometimes, their lecturers suggested some other digital platforms which can support them with their assignments, but eventually the decision on used tools totally depends on the students themselves On the other hand, the findings indicated that students learned English on their own, in unstructured environments that are independent of institutional contexts, for merely personal demands For example, students revealed that they often watch English movies or YouTube videos just for entertainment and let the learning process occur
74 with the naturalistic approach Therefore, it can conclude that two contexts of Informal digital language learning proposed by Lee (2019) appeared the scope of this study
The results from both questionnaires and interview analysis show that students developed various strategies when using ILL digital resources to improve their overall
English proficiency as well as specific English skills and knowledge First of all,
Online/Offline dictionaries and translators, which are the most popular resources, were used for students’ practice of all skills and linguistic knowledge Students exploited these resources by looking up not only meaning of vocabulary items, but also other elements such as pronunciation, stress, contexts, family words, synonyms, antonyms, and related collocations, which can facilitate different aspects of English learning Another noticeable result of the study is that students’ choices of digital resources for each skill and linguistic area depends much on the characteristics of the resources themselves Digital resources such as TV programs/films/movies and video-sharing platforms like YouTube and Tik Tok are mostly used to improve students’ Listening, Speaking, Pronunciation, Vocabulary, and World
Knowledge According to Trinder (2017), these audiovisual technologies were considered as the most useful medium for improving learners’ listening skill, pronunciation, and communicative competence It can be because these resources help to provide students with a valuable input and increase exposure to authentic English language In addition, Films/Movies and YouTube videos contain a number of useful colloquial and idiomatic English expression (Eken, 2003), background and cultural information presented in authentic scenarios, visual elements such as facial expressions and body language, which can help student observe language use in different settings (Maness, 2004) Students in this study report that they often listen and watch films or videos to expose themselves with the language and try to repeat native speakers’ speech exactly to improve their English communication competence
Specifically, a number of students in this study reported paying great attention to digital resources that can help improve their listening skill like audiovisual resources This tendency can be traced back to the result of students’ self-rated English proficiency which reflected that students are least confident in their Listening ability
Meanwhile, second-year English-majored students at HUFLIS also had a tendency to take advantage of digital resources that consists of long written content with academic nature and complex linguistic structures to enhance their reading skill, writing skills, grammar, and vocabulary These resources include Online news sites/Journals/ Magazines, E-books, and Language learning sites The wealth of knowledge and information in these resources can facilitate learners’ English comprehension as well as their general knowledge with a wide range of vocabulary items Furthermore, students can also learn about word use and writing styles of new articles and magazines, which are clear and straightforward (Ahmmed, 2016) Regarding social media such as Facebook, Instagram, etc which play an important role in students’ daily activities, students in the study reported to use these resources for all English skills and linguistic knowledge as they are a source of exposure in ILL environment Students frequently had chance for authentic interaction and communication in these social platforms by reading English posts and comments or engaging themselves in English conversation and discussion This means that these strategies can help students with both receptive and productive skills This finding could lend support to Hamat and Hassan’s (2019) and Inayati and Karifianto’s (2022) studies which highlighted the potential of social media for facilitating English skills and other aspects of the language Specifically, the finding of the study also put emphasis on how second-year English-major students exploit AI platforms in their ILL, which are considered as a new emerging and powerful technology Several participants reported their use of ChatGPT chatbot mainly for their writing skill and vocabulary This tendency can
76 be explained through the nature of this type of digital resources which only allows interaction through written text, making it merely suitable for developing reading and writing skills, as well as vocabulary, rather than listening and speaking skills
The interviewed students also revealed that during their integration of ILL digital resources, they encountered several challenges and difficulties, namely the lack of teachers’ guidance and orientation, initial unfamiliarity with technologies, learners’ limited vocabulary repertoire, the excessive diversity of learning resources, the uncertainty about the reliability and accuracy of learning resources, and the overdependence on the use of digital technologies Although some suggestions were proposed by students to overcome these obstacles such as asking for senior students’ help or close teacher and self-regulating, the solutions are still subjective, one-sided, and not radical enough Hence, this necessitates more involvement of teachers, educators and other technological stakeholders to mitigate the challenges faced by English learners in their informal learning contexts
4.2.3 Research question 3: What are the perceptions of HUFLIS second-year English- major students towards the effects of informal language learning by using digital resources?
According to the findings from both quantitative and qualitative data analysis, second- year English-majored students showed positive perception towards the effectiveness of ILL digital resources on their English improvement as well as their affective factors Students acknowledged that they could see the enhancement in their overall English proficiency, their specific skills including Listening, Reading, Speaking, and Writing, as well as other linguistic components such as pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, and their general knowledge These findings are in line with the results of previous studies by Yurieva, Musiichuk, and Baisan
(2021), Trinder (2017), Inayati and Karifianto’(2022), and Ismail and Shafie (2019) For
Conclusion and Implications
Summary of the findings
The conclusion of the study was drawn with regard to the research questions proposed in the study:
1 What digital resources do HUFLIS second-year English-major students use for informal language learning to improve their English proficiency?
It can be concluded that second-year English-major students at HUFLIS employ a wide range of digital resources to enhance their English proficiency to at an above-average level of frequency Notably, Online and offline dictionaries and translators emerged as the most frequently used resources, providing essential support for vocabulary acquisition and language comprehension In addition, students showed a strong preference for audiovisual digital resources such as TV programs/films/movies, YouTube videos, and social networking platforms The appeal of these resources can be attributed to their authentic and interactive nature, combining language learning with entertainment, as well as the motivational impact of enjoyable learning experiences Surprisingly, language learning sites, despite their academic and serious nature, ranked quite prominently These afore-mentioned digital resources were particularly favored for students’ ILL use due to their beneficial factors including regular updates, information diversity, user-friendliness, familiarity, and easy accessibility Moreover, the study found moderate use of other resources, with AI platforms showing potential despite their recent introduction
2 How do HUFLIS second-year English-major students use digital resources for informal language learning to improve their English proficiency?
Regarding how second-year English-major students at HUFLIS utilized ILL digital resources, the majority of students reported dedicating 1 to 3 hours per day, while a smaller number of them allocated 3 to 5 hours daily This allocation may reflect students' subtle transition into autonomous language learners in their second year of university, which can stem from their lack of confidence due to concerns about resource quality and insufficient instructors’ guidance Considering students’ learning contexts and aims, students engaged in ILL within both extracurricular and extramural contexts, indicating flexibility in their usage of digital resources The findings emphasized the significance of unstructured learning environments outside formal classroom settings, where students employed digital resources for both academic purposes and personal needs
It is evident that students adopted diverse strategies when using ILL digital resources to improve language skills and knowledge Online and offline dictionaries and translators were mostly used to look up various language aspects, including vocabulary, pronunciation, stress, context, synonyms, antonyms, and collocations, which can also support their practice of four language skills Meanwhile, audiovisual resources like TV programs/films/movies and
YouTube videos primarily target listening, speaking, pronunciation, vocabulary, and world knowledge These resources enhanced learners' exposure to authentic language and settings, colloquial expressions, and cultural insights Furthermore, digital resources that contain long written content with academic and complex linguistic structures, such as Online news sites/journals/magazines and E-books, were instrumental in improving reading, writing, grammar, and vocabulary In particular, Social media platforms, which were highly favored by the students, facilitate authentic interaction and communication and benefit both receptive and
83 productive skills Besides, compared to other English skills and components, listening skill was paid much more attention as students reported using different resources to practice this skill, in which they have least confidence However, during the process of adopting these ILL digital resources, students encountered difficulties, including the absence of teacher guidance, initial technological unfamiliarity, limited vocabulary, excessive resource diversity, content reliability concerns, and overreliance on digital technologies While students proposed solutions such as seeking senior students' assistance or self-regulating, these remained subjective and insufficient Therefore, this underscores the need for greater teacher involvement and institutional support to address these challenges effectively
3 What are the perceptions of HUFLIS second-year English-major students towards the effects of informal language learning by using digital resources?
As for the third research question, students showed positive perception towards the effect of ILL digital resources Students acknowledged the improvements in their overall English proficiency, as well as specific language skills, pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, and general knowledge Furthermore, these resources positively influenced affective factors, namely enhancing learners' confidence, motivation, and enjoyment in their learning outside classroom contexts It is also noteworthy that the majority of the exploited digital resources which were most frequently used correlated with those deemed most useful by students
4 What factors influence HUFLIS second-year English-major students' use of digital resources for informal language learning?
Considering the factors affecting learners’ decision of digital resources for their ILL, Peers/friends and teachers exerted significant influence on students’ resource choices, with teachers' guidance primarily focused on the selection of resources for specific skills or linguistic aspects Furthermore, famous and successful language learners on the internet
84 played a prominent role in resource selection Personal interests, as an internal factor, also play an important role on learners’ selections of ILL digital resources Moreover, learners’ needs, personality or disposition, proficiency level, advertisement, and resources’ characteristics impact students' choices, but only to moderate extent, while parents have a minor impact on students’ decisions
To sum up, this research contributes to a deeper understanding of informal language learning in the digital age, providing valuable insights for educators, institutions, and learners seeking to optimize the benefits of digital resources in informal language acquisition.
Implications
From the achieved findings, there are some pedagogical implications for both EFL university students and teachers
As for EFL students, the study informed about a wide range of ILL digital resources used for specific English skills and components, as well as different ways to exploit these resources by the research students This can act as reference resources for EFL students who do not know how to start their ILL with digital resources Moreover, the results offer insights into the various factors shaping students’ selection of resources, which means that EFL learners can take advantage of these to seek the digital resources that are suitable for their personal needs, interest, proficiency level, and other objective factors relevant to their learning contexts Besides, since the findings also emphasized the importance of peer influence, it is advisable for students to establish and engage in learning communities with other EFL peers or classmates, where they can share and discuss useful resources worth employing as well as their strategies and their learning experience
Considering the implications for EFL teachers, the findings highlighted the importance of teachers’ influence in students’ resource selection Students also identified the lack of teachers’ guidance as one of the significant challenges that hinder the effectiveness of ILL digital resources, so it is suggested that teachers or lecturers should get more involved in students’ digital informal language learning to mitigate the identified challenge effectively Specifically, teachers can provide valuable guidance by recommending appropriate and effective digital resources and specific strategies for the integration, as well as helping students evaluate the quality and credibility of digital learning materials to make the most of these potential resources Furthermore, as students’ ways of incorporating digital resources in their ILL seem to diversify, not be consistent and scientifically supported, it is essential for teachers and educators to develop a framework with consistent principles on which students can reply to apply digital technologies in their ILL without confusion and uncertainty Last but not least, the findings revealed students' strong preference for digital dictionaries and translators, social media, video-sharing platforms, and specific learning language sites for their informal language learning, it is recommended that language instructors integrate these platforms more frequently into their teaching strategies in formal contexts, which can also facilitate learner’ informal learning environments in parallel.
Limitations of the study
Although this study offered valuable insights into the use of digital resources for students’ informal language learning with practical implications for both EFL educators or teachers and learners, it still has some limitations that need to be taken into consideration First and foremost, the scope of the research was limited with the participation of only 91 second year English-majored students at HUFLIS in the survey questionnaire and 10 of them
86 taking part in the interview section Hence, it is difficult to generalize the findings to the whole sample of English-majored students at HUFLIS as well as other institutions, where the EFL teaching and learning environments, students’ proficiency, as well as other factors are different, so the conclusions drawn from the research might be not relevant to other contexts Moreover, due to the researchers’ inadequacy of time, experience, and knowledge, the study did not thoroughly address some issues Particularly, the qualitative data from the interviews with small sample size is not enough to reflect the overall perception and specific experiences of EFL learners on the researched topic.
Recommendations for future studies
Based on the results of the study, there are some recommendations and directions for further studies on the related topic in the future Firstly, to make the results more reliable and valid, the scope of the study should be expanded with more participants It could include the participations of English-majored students of four undergraduate year levels at HULIS or at other universities in Vietnam Secondly, future studies should be conducted focusing not only on students’ perceptions towards the effectiveness of ILL digital resources, but more interventions should be implemented to investigate the usefulness, which can provide more in-depth and convincing findings and enhance the reliability and validity the studies Another direction for further research can be the investigation of the relationship between the usage of ILL digital resources and a range of factors, which may encompass variables related to learners, such as gender, field of study, and level of English language proficiency Finally, as the current study identified the potential of AI platforms for English language learning, there is a call for further exploration in this emerging digital resource
This chapter has concluded the thesis with critical reflections on the significance of the study to the larger context of research and practices A variety of important conclusions and implications concerning the utility of ILL digital resources of students at tertiary levels have been achieved based on the validated methodological construct and the theoretical framework While this chapter has brought the thesis to an end, it has simultaneously opened new directions and possibilities for future research, based on the limitations of this study
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Questionnaire: Using Digital Resources for Informal Language Learning of English
I would like to invite you to participate in our research project titled " ENGLISH- MAJOR STUDENTS’ USE OF DIGITAL RESOURCES FOR INFORMAL LANGUAGE
LEARNING AT UNIVERSITY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL
STUDIES, HUE UNIVERSITY." This project is part of the master's thesis of Miss Hoang Thi Hanh Nguyen
The purpose of this research is to explore the experiences and perceptions of English- majored students in using digital resources for Informal Language Leaning (ILL) For you to have better understanding, informal language learning (ILL) refers to a process in which students learn languages outside of traditional classroom or institutional settings It can happen by chance (incidentally/unintentionally) or on purpose (intentionally), and students take control of their own learning The focus may be on getting qualifications/ academic achievement or on personal interest or entertainment Regarding digital resources , they refer to both online (e.g., MP3s, learning apps, social media, YouTube, news websites, e-books, etc.) and offline resources (downloaded books, audio recordings, videos, dictionary, etc.) Through this survey, we aim to collect data on the digital resources you use for your ILL process and your perceptions in their effectiveness
Your personal information will be kept safe and confidential, accessible only to the researcher and her supervisor Moreover, your responses will be made anonymous and used merely for academic purposes, specifically for Miss Hanh Nguyen ‘s master thesis and potential publications in scientific journals
At the end of the survey, you will have the option to express your interest in participating in an interview with the researcher This interview aims to gain a deeper understanding of how you utilize digital resources and activities for your ILL to enhance your English proficiency If you indicate your interest in participating, the student researcher, Hanh Nguyen, will reach out to you to schedule the interview at a time that is convenient for you Please make sure you understand all the contents before you do the survey If there is anything unclear, do not hesitate to contact the researcher through this email address: hanhnguyenhoanggg@gmail.com
□ English language teaching □ English language studies
Poor Fair Good Very good
B Students’ use of Digital resources for Informal language learning
5 How many hours do you use digital resources for informal language learning every day? Fill in the blanks
Ex: I spend 3 hours a day using digital resources for informal language learning
I spend 3 minutes a day using digital resources for informal language learning
I spend … a day using digital resources for informal language learning
6 How frequently do you use the following digital resources and activities for your informal language learning? Please tick (√) in the appropriate box
Digital resources for ILL Never
In terms of resources, I use …
Q5 Online news sites/journals/ magazines (e.g.,
CNN, The New York Times,
Q14 Online courses not related to English language learning
Q15 Online courses related to English language learning
Q17 Mobile applications for language learning (e.g ELSA,
Other resources: (skip if you DO NOT use any other resources)
7 What English skills and English knowledge do you use these digital resources for? Please tick (√) in the appropriate box
You can choose more than one English skill/ English knowledge for each type of resources
I use digital resources for … Listening skill
Knowledge Q1 Online/offline dictionaries/translator (e.g
Q5 Online news sites/journals/ magazines (e.g., CNN, The New
York Times, The Guardian, etc.)
Q8 Text or voice chat (e.g Skype,
BBC, CNN, British Council, etc.)
Q14 Online courses not related to
Q16 AI platforms (chat GPT, Bing
Q17 Mobile applications for language learning (e.g ELSA,
Other resources: (skip if you DO NOT use any other resources)
8 There are two contexts and aims for using digital resources for informal language learning
A To learn on your own, outside the classroom, with a little teachers’ control or guidance, to fulfil academic goals in your language classroom (still linked to the university program) For example, you complete your assignment through self-instruction (watching YouTube tutorial videos or seeking online articles), outside of the classroom You control your learning by yourself and have your own strategies
B To learn on your own, outside the classroom, for personal needs (entertaining, socializing, etc.), BUT not related to university program, and without teachers’ control For example, students, on their own initiative, chat casually with other English users on social networks for socializing, and this activity is not part of school assignments
How frequently do you use the above-mentioned digital resources (you claim using) in these two contexts? Please tick (√) in the appropriate box
Context & aims of using digital resources for informal language learning (ILL)
Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always
C Perception of students towards the effects of informal English learning using digital resources
9 What is your opinion about the effects of informal English learning using digital resources? Please rate your level of agreement with the following statements:
Using digital resources for informal English learning
Q1 has a positive impact on my overall language proficiency
Q10 Make me become more confident in my language ability
Q11 Make me feel motivated to learn
Q12 Make my learning more enjoyable
Q13 Make my language learning more relaxing
10.Which resources do you think are the most useful? Please 5 most useful resources and tick (√) in the appropriate box
Digital resources for ILL Useful
Cambridge, Oxford, T-flat, Google translator, etc.)
Q5 Online news sites/ magazines (e.g CNN, The
New York Times, The Guardian, etc.)
Q7 Forum discussion (e.g Reddit, Discord, etc.)
Q8 Text or voice chat (e.g Skype, Messenger)
Q9 Video chatting (e.g Zalo, Messengers, Skype,
Q13 Language learning sites (BBC, CNN,
Q14 Online courses not related English language learning
Q15 Online courses related to English language learning
Q16 Mobile applications for language learning (ELSA, Duolingo, etc.)
(e.g chat GPT, Bing AI, etc.)
(skip if you DO NOT use any other activities)
11 What factors influence students' use of digital resources for informal language learning? (You can choose more than one)
□Famous and successful language learners
If you are interested in participating in an interview, please kindly provide your email address AND/OR your mobile phone number here for the researcher to contact you later (your contact info will be secured):
THANK YOU VERY MUCH FOR YOUR COOPERATION!
Appendix B Interview questions in Vietnamese
Câu hỏi 1: Bạn sử dụng nguồn tài nguyên kỹ thuật số nào thường xuyên nhất cho việc tự học ngôn ngữ ngoài lớp học của bạn? Bạn có thể mô tả cách bạn sử dụng chúng chi tiết không?
Câu hỏi 2: Bạn có sử dụng các nền tảng trí tuệ nhân tạo (AI) để học ngôn ngữ ngoài lớp học không? Nếu có, bạn sử dụng chúng như thế nào?
Câu hỏi 3: Tại sao bạn sử dụng những nguồn tài nguyên kỹ thuật số này cho việc tự học ngôn ngữ ngoài lớp học?
Câu hỏi 4: Bạn có sử dụng bất kỳ cách cụ thể nào khi sử dụng tài nguyên kỹ thuật số số cho việc nâng cao trình độ tiếng Anh của bạn không? Nếu có, bạn có thể mô tả nó không?
Câu hỏi 5: Những nguồn tài nguyên kỹ thuật số cho việc tự học ngoài lớp học này giúp bạn cải thiện các kỹ năng/khía cạnh ngôn ngữ tiếng Anh của bạn như thế nào? Bạn có thể cung cấp một số ví dụ không?
Câu hỏi 6: Bạn có thể chia sẻ về những thách thức hoặc khó khăn bạn gặp phải khi sử dụng tài nguyên kỹ thuật số cho việc tự học ngôn ngữ ngoài lớp học không? Bạn đã vượt qua chúng như thế nào?
Câu hỏi 7: Các yếu tố ảnh hưởng mà bạn đã chọn trong bảng hỏi ảnh hưởng đến sự lựa chọn tài nguyên kỹ thuật số cho việc tự học ngôn ngữ ngoài lớp học của bạn như thế nào?
Appendix C Interview questions in English
Question 1: What digital resources do you use most frequently for your informal language learning? Can you describe how you use them in detail?
Question 2: Do you use AI platforms for your informal language learning? If Yes, how do you use them?
Question 3: Why do you use these ILL resources?
Question 4: Do you use any specific ways when using ILL digital resources to enhance your
English language proficiency? If yes, can you describe it?
Question 5: How do these ILL resources help you improve your English areas of language/skills? Can you provide some examples?
Question 6: Can you share any challenges or difficulties you have encountered while using digital resources for informal language learning, and how you have overcome them?
Question 7: How do the chosen factors influence your choice of digital resources for informal language learning?
Appendix D Sample of the semi-structured interview transcript (S5)