XÂY DỰNG THANG ĐO NGƯỜI TIÊU DÙNG THEO CHỦ NGHĨA TOÀN CẦU Ở CÁC THỊ TRƯỜNG MỚI NỔI: MỘT NGHIÊN CỨU TẠI THỊ TRƯỜNG VIỆT NAM

XÂY DỰNG THANG ĐO NGƯỜI TIÊU DÙNG THEO CHỦ NGHĨA TOÀN CẦU Ở CÁC THỊ TRƯỜNG MỚI NỔI: MỘT NGHIÊN CỨU TẠI THỊ TRƯỜNG VIỆT NAM.XÂY DỰNG THANG ĐO NGƯỜI TIÊU DÙNG THEO CHỦ NGHĨA TOÀN CẦU Ở CÁC THỊ TRƯỜNG MỚI NỔI: MỘT NGHIÊN CỨU TẠI THỊ TRƯỜNG VIỆT NAM.XÂY DỰNG THANG ĐO NGƯỜI TIÊU DÙNG THEO CHỦ NGHĨA TOÀN CẦU Ở CÁC THỊ TRƯỜNG MỚI NỔI: MỘT NGHIÊN CỨU TẠI THỊ TRƯỜNG VIỆT NAM.XÂY DỰNG THANG ĐO NGƯỜI TIÊU DÙNG THEO CHỦ NGHĨA TOÀN CẦU Ở CÁC THỊ TRƯỜNG MỚI NỔI: MỘT NGHIÊN CỨU TẠI THỊ TRƯỜNG VIỆT NAM.XÂY DỰNG THANG ĐO NGƯỜI TIÊU DÙNG THEO CHỦ NGHĨA TOÀN CẦU Ở CÁC THỊ TRƯỜNG MỚI NỔI: MỘT NGHIÊN CỨU TẠI THỊ TRƯỜNG VIỆT NAM.XÂY DỰNG THANG ĐO NGƯỜI TIÊU DÙNG THEO CHỦ NGHĨA TOÀN CẦU Ở CÁC THỊ TRƯỜNG MỚI NỔI: MỘT NGHIÊN CỨU TẠI THỊ TRƯỜNG VIỆT NAM.XÂY DỰNG THANG ĐO NGƯỜI TIÊU DÙNG THEO CHỦ NGHĨA TOÀN CẦU Ở CÁC THỊ TRƯỜNG MỚI NỔI: MỘT NGHIÊN CỨU TẠI THỊ TRƯỜNG VIỆT NAM.XÂY DỰNG THANG ĐO NGƯỜI TIÊU DÙNG THEO CHỦ NGHĨA TOÀN CẦU Ở CÁC THỊ TRƯỜNG MỚI NỔI: MỘT NGHIÊN CỨU TẠI THỊ TRƯỜNG VIỆT NAM.XÂY DỰNG THANG ĐO NGƯỜI TIÊU DÙNG THEO CHỦ NGHĨA TOÀN CẦU Ở CÁC THỊ TRƯỜNG MỚI NỔI: MỘT NGHIÊN CỨU TẠI THỊ TRƯỜNG VIỆT NAM.XÂY DỰNG THANG ĐO NGƯỜI TIÊU DÙNG THEO CHỦ NGHĨA TOÀN CẦU Ở CÁC THỊ TRƯỜNG MỚI NỔI: MỘT NGHIÊN CỨU TẠI THỊ TRƯỜNG VIỆT NAM.XÂY DỰNG THANG ĐO NGƯỜI TIÊU DÙNG THEO CHỦ NGHĨA TOÀN CẦU Ở CÁC THỊ TRƯỜNG MỚI NỔI: MỘT NGHIÊN CỨU TẠI THỊ TRƯỜNG VIỆT NAM.XÂY DỰNG THANG ĐO NGƯỜI TIÊU DÙNG THEO CHỦ NGHĨA TOÀN CẦU Ở CÁC THỊ TRƯỜNG MỚI NỔI: MỘT NGHIÊN CỨU TẠI THỊ TRƯỜNG VIỆT NAM.XÂY DỰNG THANG ĐO NGƯỜI TIÊU DÙNG THEO CHỦ NGHĨA TOÀN CẦU Ở CÁC THỊ TRƯỜNG MỚI NỔI: MỘT NGHIÊN CỨU TẠI THỊ TRƯỜNG VIỆT NAM.XÂY DỰNG THANG ĐO NGƯỜI TIÊU DÙNG THEO CHỦ NGHĨA TOÀN CẦU Ở CÁC THỊ TRƯỜNG MỚI NỔI: MỘT NGHIÊN CỨU TẠI THỊ TRƯỜNG VIỆT NAM.XÂY DỰNG THANG ĐO NGƯỜI TIÊU DÙNG THEO CHỦ NGHĨA TOÀN CẦU Ở CÁC THỊ TRƯỜNG MỚI NỔI: MỘT NGHIÊN CỨU TẠI THỊ TRƯỜNG VIỆT NAM.XÂY DỰNG THANG ĐO NGƯỜI TIÊU DÙNG THEO CHỦ NGHĨA TOÀN CẦU Ở CÁC THỊ TRƯỜNG MỚI NỔI: MỘT NGHIÊN CỨU TẠI THỊ TRƯỜNG VIỆT NAM.XÂY DỰNG THANG ĐO NGƯỜI TIÊU DÙNG THEO CHỦ NGHĨA TOÀN CẦU Ở CÁC THỊ TRƯỜNG MỚI NỔI: MỘT NGHIÊN CỨU TẠI THỊ TRƯỜNG VIỆT NAM.XÂY DỰNG THANG ĐO NGƯỜI TIÊU DÙNG THEO CHỦ NGHĨA TOÀN CẦU Ở CÁC THỊ TRƯỜNG MỚI NỔI: MỘT NGHIÊN CỨU TẠI THỊ TRƯỜNG VIỆT NAM.XÂY DỰNG THANG ĐO NGƯỜI TIÊU DÙNG THEO CHỦ NGHĨA TOÀN CẦU Ở CÁC THỊ TRƯỜNG MỚI NỔI: MỘT NGHIÊN CỨU TẠI THỊ TRƯỜNG VIỆT NAM.XÂY DỰNG THANG ĐO NGƯỜI TIÊU DÙNG THEO CHỦ NGHĨA TOÀN CẦU Ở CÁC THỊ TRƯỜNG MỚI NỔI: MỘT NGHIÊN CỨU TẠI THỊ TRƯỜNG VIỆT NAM.XÂY DỰNG THANG ĐO NGƯỜI TIÊU DÙNG THEO CHỦ NGHĨA TOÀN CẦU Ở CÁC THỊ TRƯỜNG MỚI NỔI: MỘT NGHIÊN CỨU TẠI THỊ TRƯỜNG VIỆT NAM.XÂY DỰNG THANG ĐO NGƯỜI TIÊU DÙNG THEO CHỦ NGHĨA TOÀN CẦU Ở CÁC THỊ TRƯỜNG MỚI NỔI: MỘT NGHIÊN CỨU TẠI THỊ TRƯỜNG VIỆT NAM.XÂY DỰNG THANG ĐO NGƯỜI TIÊU DÙNG THEO CHỦ NGHĨA TOÀN CẦU Ở CÁC THỊ TRƯỜNG MỚI NỔI: MỘT NGHIÊN CỨU TẠI THỊ TRƯỜNG VIỆT NAM.XÂY DỰNG THANG ĐO NGƯỜI TIÊU DÙNG THEO CHỦ NGHĨA TOÀN CẦU Ở CÁC THỊ TRƯỜNG MỚI NỔI: MỘT NGHIÊN CỨU TẠI THỊ TRƯỜNG VIỆT NAM.XÂY DỰNG THANG ĐO NGƯỜI TIÊU DÙNG THEO CHỦ NGHĨA TOÀN CẦU Ở CÁC THỊ TRƯỜNG MỚI NỔI: MỘT NGHIÊN CỨU TẠI THỊ TRƯỜNG VIỆT NAM.XÂY DỰNG THANG ĐO NGƯỜI TIÊU DÙNG THEO CHỦ NGHĨA TOÀN CẦU Ở CÁC THỊ TRƯỜNG MỚI NỔI: MỘT NGHIÊN CỨU TẠI THỊ TRƯỜNG VIỆT NAM.XÂY DỰNG THANG ĐO NGƯỜI TIÊU DÙNG THEO CHỦ NGHĨA TOÀN CẦU Ở CÁC THỊ TRƯỜNG MỚI NỔI: MỘT NGHIÊN CỨU TẠI THỊ TRƯỜNG VIỆT NAM.XÂY DỰNG THANG ĐO NGƯỜI TIÊU DÙNG THEO CHỦ NGHĨA TOÀN CẦU Ở CÁC THỊ TRƯỜNG MỚI NỔI: MỘT NGHIÊN CỨU TẠI THỊ TRƯỜNG VIỆT NAM.XÂY DỰNG THANG ĐO NGƯỜI TIÊU DÙNG THEO CHỦ NGHĨA TOÀN CẦU Ở CÁC THỊ TRƯỜNG MỚI NỔI: MỘT NGHIÊN CỨU TẠI THỊ TRƯỜNG VIỆT NAM.XÂY DỰNG THANG ĐO NGƯỜI TIÊU DÙNG THEO CHỦ NGHĨA TOÀN CẦU Ở CÁC THỊ TRƯỜNG MỚI NỔI: MỘT NGHIÊN CỨU TẠI THỊ TRƯỜNG VIỆT NAM.

INTRODUCTION

Background of the dissertation

A fundamental decision of the global expansion strategy is to determine potential consumers in different markets and subsequently exploit those segments (Rana et al.,

International marketers are focused on understanding why some consumers prefer global products while others resist them This understanding of consumer dispositions is crucial, as a successful marketing strategy relies on aligning consumer characteristics with product attributes.

Research indicates that products aligning closely with consumer preferences are more likely to be purchased (Fan, Xi, & Liu, 2018) In international marketing, there has been a significant shift in focus from countries to consumers as the primary unit of analysis, reflecting the diminishing importance of national borders in today's global market (Kotabe, 2003).

Globalization continues to significantly influence market dynamics, driven by advancements in transportation and technology that have reduced barriers between countries (Terasaki, 2016) As free trade and e-commerce evolve, consumers now have access to a vast array of global products, making it uncommon for markets to be limited to local offerings (Han & Won, 2018) Surveys on consumer behavior indicate a blend of diverse and similar preferences across markets (Ladhari, Souiden & Choi, 2015) Consequently, global companies are increasingly targeting consumers who are open to new products and prioritize perceived performance over origin This consumer cosmopolitanism serves as a crucial segmentation strategy for firms aiming for greater profitability beyond their domestic markets, as these consumers tend to favor global products (Laroche, Zhang, & Sambath, 2018).

In today's interconnected world, markets do not globalize uniformly, as cultural differences present significant challenges for companies aiming for global expansion (Naseem, Verma, & Yaprak, 2015) The ongoing international marketing debate centers on the balance between standardization and adaptation strategies (Lee & Griffith, 2019) Interestingly, the most competitive firms manage to achieve high levels of local customization while maintaining low global costs (Powers).

& Loyka, 2010) A standardization approach will achieve economies of scale in value- added activities, while an adaptation focus will better exploit customer values (Theodosiou

Contemporary strategists argue that decision-making hinges on a specific context, particularly when weighing the costs of customizing offerings to meet a target consumer's needs against the potential profits from that segment (Leonidou, 2003; Power & Loyka).

The extent of cosmopolitanism and ethnocentrism within consumer segments significantly influences marketing strategies High ethnocentrism necessitates a clear customization approach, while strong cosmopolitanism calls for a broad standardization strategy Understanding these dynamics is crucial for effectively targeting and positioning in international consumer markets.

Consumer attitudes towards local and foreign products vary significantly between developed and developing countries, influenced by levels of cosmopolitanism and ethnocentrism These attitudes are shaped by perceptions of quality associated with in-group versus out-group products.

Prominent scholar Yaprak (2003) highlights a significant challenge in cross-national studies, noting that most phenomena are initially conceptualized and operationalized in industrialized countries, which leads to inconsistent generalizations when applied to other contexts This issue continues to be relevant, as evidenced by reports in 2021.

3 more than a billion (appropriately 85%) of people live in emerging countries (Worldbank,

Emerging markets have become a global economic powerhouse, contributing 74% to global growth in 2018, with projections suggesting this will rise to 84% by 2023 (Ashmore, 2019) The youth population in these markets significantly outnumbers that in developed countries (OECD, 2021), indicating a higher level of cosmopolitanism among consumers compared to their developed counterparts (Han).

Consumer cosmopolitanism in emerging markets is increasingly recognized as a vital factor for multinational firms aiming for strong global performance It is essential to consider research contexts when assessing consumer attitudes, as this understanding can help international companies refine their marketing strategies effectively.

Research gap

Cosmopolitanism, first introduced in sociology by Merton in 1957, refers to individuals whose orientation is global rather than local In 1994, Cannon and colleagues linked this concept to consumer behaviors, establishing the term "consumer cosmopolitanism," which has since been examined in the context of globalization (Terasaki, 2016) Despite contributions from various scholars, the concept remains unresolved, lacking a unified definition and theoretical framework (Bartsch, Riefler, & Diamantopoulos, 2016; Makrides et al., 2021) This ambiguity has resulted in numerous measurement tools, which have shown varied core domains and conflicting findings in empirical research (Terasaki, 2016; Makrides et al., 2021) Consequently, it remains unclear which measurement instruments are most effective in capturing the essence of consumer cosmopolitanism.

Vietnamese consumers since few replication studies have been conducted in this context (Nguyen & Pham, 2021)

Currently, there is a lack of established measurement scales for consumer cosmopolitanism specifically developed by emerging Asian consumers, which also overlook the variations in values among young consumers influenced by globalization and digitalization (Makride et al., 2021) Additionally, consumer cosmopolitanism evolves with the economic development level, necessitating careful review and adaptation of any scaling efforts (Zeugner-Roth, Žabkar, & Diamantopoulos).

As of 2015, there has been a notable lack of guidance on whether to use an adapted, refined, or newly developed scale to assess the level of cosmopolitanism among young consumers in Vietnam (Nguyen & Pham, 2021).

Consumer cosmopolitanism is a complex and dynamic area of study in consumer research, reflecting individual psychological shifts and the impact of globalization (Bartsch, Riefler, & Diamantopoulos, 2016) Although various measurement scales for consumer cosmopolitanism exist, they are based on distinct underlying theories (Wang et al., 2015) The presence of multiple scales and the lack of empirical research on this segment in the Vietnamese market raise concerns about the effectiveness of targeting and communication strategies, as the characteristics of cosmopolitan consumers remain poorly defined and addressed in Vietnam (Diallo, 2015).

Problem statement

Consumer cosmopolitanism is crucial for developing effective international marketing strategies, as highlighted by extensive literature on the topic (Makrides et al., 2021) Despite this, many studies primarily examine the relationship between consumer cosmopolitanism and related factors, leading to inconsistencies in empirical results Makrides and colleagues (2021) noted that conflicting findings regarding the profiles and behaviors of cosmopolitan consumers have emerged, raising concerns about the reliability of the research in this area.

Academics have identified contextual setting as a significant factor influencing research outcomes While situational differences play a crucial role, they are not solely responsible for the inconsistencies observed in replicated studies Researchers remain concerned about the ability of measurement instruments to accurately reflect the conceptual nature of the constructs being studied (Dobrow & Tosti‐Kharas, 2011).

(2016) indicated that there has been little work on systematic review of consumer cosmopolitanism and, thereby, it has provided additional reasoning for the academic issues around the concept

Actually, consumer cosmopolitanism is regarded as the most chaotic and instable construct within consumer centrism (Riefler, Diamantopoulos, & Siguaw, 2012; Makrides et al.,

In 2021, researchers in the field emphasized that a construct must have a universally accepted theoretical definition to be effectively captured Social psychologists argue that a stable conception is essential for identifying the core domain for operationalization, as highlighted by Clark and Watson.

Despite the essential importance of defining constructs, researchers continue to disagree on the definition of consumer cosmopolitanism, leading to uncertainty about the appropriate domain for developing a measurement scale (Saran & Kalliny, 2012; Terasaki, 2016).

Cosmopolitanism can be understood through five main perspectives: (1) sociocultural condition, (2) philosophy, (3) political project, (4) competence, and (5) attitude Researchers often choose a perspective based on personal judgment, leading to a lack of consensus on the definition of consumer cosmopolitanism in existing literature (Riefler, Diamantopoulos, & Siguaw, 2012) Definitions vary, with Cannon and Yaprak (2002) viewing it as an orientation, Lawrence (2012) as an attitude, Zeugner-Roth, Žabkar, and Diamantopoulos (2015) as a personal trait, and Riefler (2017) as a sentiment This absence of a unified theoretical definition has persisted for years and represents a significant gap in studies of consumer cosmopolitanism.

Pichler (2009) identified two perspectives for measuring cosmopolitanism in consumer behavior: competence and attitude However, a debate persists between scholars who favor subjective measurements, viewing cosmopolitanism as an inherited personality trait, and those who support objective measurements, considering it a learnable skill This ongoing discussion highlights the differing motivations behind innate traits versus practiced behaviors (Pichler, 2012), suggesting that the choice of perspective on consumer cosmopolitanism could lead to significant managerial challenges and strategic implications.

There is significant academic disagreement regarding the appropriate degree of consumer psychological perspective to operationalize cosmopolitanism, as noted by Terasaki (2016) and Prince et al (2016) This conflict arises from differing views on whether consumer cosmopolitanism should be conceptualized as an orientation or an attitude, impacting the predictability of empirical studies (Riefler, Diamantopoulos, & Siguaw, 2012) Consumer researchers suggest that specifying the subject matter can influence the personal disposition developed towards it (Reed II et al., 2012) To address this issue, it is essential to fully capture the construct's nature and scope; however, the lack of a reliable definition remains a significant reason for the research gap surrounding consumer cosmopolitanism (Saran & Kalliny, 2012; Terasaki, 2016).

Nearly three decades after the introduction of the CYMYC scale by Cannon and colleagues in 1994 to measure consumer cosmopolitanism, various researchers have developed their own psychometric scales for this concept Notable contributions include those from Cleveland, Laroche, and Papadopoulos (2009), Riefler, Diamantopoulos, and Siguaw (2012), Lawrence (2012), and Saran and Kalliny (2012) Despite measuring a similar concept, these scales differ in their core domains and underlying theories, highlighting the diversity in approaches to understanding consumer cosmopolitanism.

Consumer cosmopolitanism varies significantly across nations, particularly between developed and less-developed markets, highlighting the need for updated measurement scales due to rapid digitalization (Liu & Hong, 2020) Most existing research focuses on well-developed emerging markets like Singapore and China, leaving a gap in understanding this concept in less-developed regions such as Vietnam (Makrides et al., 2021) The cosmopolitan consumer segment is recognized as a lucrative market, yet there is limited guidance on effective measurement scales to assess its influence (Terasaki, 2016; Nguyen & Pham, 2021) Inadequate measurement tools can hinder international marketers' segmentation and positioning strategies (Cleveland & Laroche, 2007; Makrides et al., 2021) Additionally, Asian societies are witnessing shifts in consumer values driven by industrialization and globalization (Han & Nam).

Recent literature indicates a shift towards individualism and Westernization among young Vietnamese consumers (Chen & Ren, 2016) Market data reveals that this demographic exhibits greater cosmopolitanism compared to previous generations (Delanty, 2018) As emerging consumers in Vietnam demonstrate distinct purchasing behaviors, marketers must deepen their understanding to effectively engage this group Despite significant economic growth and globalization, there is a notable lack of academic research on consumer cosmopolitanism in the Vietnamese market Focusing on young consumers is essential for tapping into the cosmopolitan segment in Vietnam (Nguyen, 2009; Nguyen et al., 2018; Han, 2017).

Research objective

This dissertation seeks to explore the complexities of consumer cosmopolitanism by addressing key problem statements The study has three main objectives: first, to empirically replicate the most widely utilized measurement scale for consumer cosmopolitanism.

This article aims to explore cosmopolitanism within the context of Vietnam, focusing on three key objectives: first, to develop a reliable psychometric scale for assessing the cosmopolitanism levels among young Vietnamese consumers; second, to highlight the unique characteristics of these cosmopolitan consumers; and third, to address emergent research problems through a pragmatic mixed-methods approach as outlined by Creswell & Creswell (2017) Additionally, the article will clarify how these research objectives contribute to resolving the associated research questions.

This integrated analysis will explore the contexts and debates surrounding consumer cosmopolitanism, aiding in the development of theoretical frameworks and measurement approaches The systematic review will clarify which of the five perspectives to adopt in defining consumer cosmopolitanism, the choice between subjective and objective operationalization, and the appropriate psychological level for an objective approach By reviewing existing measurement instruments and replicating the three most cited scales within a Vietnamese sample, the study will validate the theoretical definition and its underlying domains The results will highlight the limitations of previous scales and identify the most reliable option Finally, the empirical study will determine if a new scale is necessary for measuring consumer cosmopolitanism in Vietnam and outline essential components for its development.

The dissertation aims to create a psychometric scale tailored for Vietnamese cosmopolitan consumers, following the standard procedures outlined by DeVellis (2016) This new scale will undergo rigorous evaluation through a series of tests and re-tests to confirm its construct validity and theoretical framework, ensuring its reliability, validity, and applicability across various contexts.

9 procedure in scale development will support academic questions about how to measure the extent of consumer cosmopolitanism in the Vietnamese young market in an effective and reliable manner

This dissertation explores the essential characteristics of young cosmopolitan consumers in Vietnam through empirical studies utilizing a new scale The findings aim to offer valuable insights for international marketers, enhancing their segmentation and positioning strategies in the Vietnamese market By understanding the drivers and outcomes of cosmopolitanism among young Vietnamese consumers, practitioners can gain critical information to optimize market performance and strengthen brand presence.

Research question

Against stated research objectives, this dissertation will examine three main research questions:

• Among available psychological measurement scale of consumer cosmopolitanism, which instrument is appropriate to adapt in Vietnamese young consumers?

To develop a new psychometric scale that accurately measures the level of cosmopolitanism among Vietnamese young consumers, it is essential to identify the limitations of existing scales that fail to capture this phenomenon in the specific research context This involves conducting qualitative research to understand the unique cultural and social factors influencing cosmopolitan attitudes among Vietnamese youth By integrating these insights, researchers can create a tailored scale that reflects the diverse dimensions of cosmopolitanism, ensuring it resonates with the experiences and perspectives of this demographic Ultimately, this new scale will provide a more reliable and valid tool for assessing cosmopolitanism in the Vietnamese market.

• Accepting consumer cosmopolitanism as a profitable segment, how could a manager portrait its profiles to design a better marketing strategy?

Significance of the dissertation

This dissertation significantly contributes to consumer cosmopolitanism by conducting a thorough literature review, enhancing our understanding of this crucial concept in international marketing The integrated review will also aid researchers in pinpointing inconsistencies and addressing existing issues related to consumer cosmopolitanism that require resolution.

A comprehensive analysis of research methods will enable academics to effectively select the best approaches to meet their objectives The formal development of a new measurement scale for Vietnamese young consumers will enhance understanding of this demographic The creation of a robust psychometric instrument will aid researchers in accurately assessing the construct and its nomological relationships For practitioners, this new scale will provide valuable insights into consumer characteristics and behaviors across various purchasing scenarios Understanding cosmopolitan consumers is crucial for successful marketing strategies, including product development, targeting, positioning, promotional appeal, branding, and product life cycle planning (Terasaki, 2016; Makrides et al., 2021).

Structures of the dissertation

This dissertation is structured into five sections, beginning with an introduction that outlines the study's background, problem statements, research questions, and objectives The first chapter addresses the academic issues and gaps that justify the need for this research, clarifying the purpose and significance to define the dissertation's scope Following this, the second chapter presents a thorough literature review, incorporating essential elements such as relevant theoretical definitions.

Chapter Two establishes the theoretical foundations, framework, and rationale supporting the research procedures, models, and hypotheses It outlines the research methodology employed to fulfill the dissertation's objectives The third chapter details the systematic research approach used to formulate the dissertation's plans and procedures, including an overview of the research designs, methods, and interpretations tailored to the specific research problems A mixed-method approach will be utilized, with a thorough discussion of the research design in each phase, ensuring a comprehensive analysis aligned with the research objectives.

The fourth chapter will present statistical results that either support or challenge the research questions and hypotheses, interpreting the findings in relation to previous studies The final section will address recommendations and limitations, while the fifth chapter will outline the theoretical and managerial contributions of the research Additionally, it will offer specific suggestions for future researchers based on the identified limitations of the dissertation.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Research context - Vietnam economy and Vietnamese consumers

Within 30 years of the economic and political reforms known as Doi Moi, Vietnam's economy has accomplished remarkable achievements Since 1986, these reforms have been initiated to transform the national economy from a command economy to a socialist- oriented market economy Doi Moi was primarily concerned with removing authorized barriers to progress and implementing many market-oriented policies, such as domestic market liberalization, foreign direct investment (FDI), private sector encouragement, and state-owned enterprises (SOEs) subsidy reduction (Tuan, 2012) By utilizing market- oriented policies, the Doi Moi released multiple barriers and motivated all sectors to exploit the market The reforms have proved their effectiveness through positive outcomes recorded for Vietnam’s economy

Between 1986 and 1990, the economy experienced an annual growth rate of 4.4 percent, followed by an impressive growth rate of 6 percent per year from 1990 onward during the early stages of reform.

Vietnam has undergone significant economic and social transformation, evidenced by its removal from the list of the world's poorest nations in 2008 (Worldbank, 2021) This progress is reflected in improved living standards and health outcomes; between 1993 and 2017, the infant mortality rate decreased from 32.6 to 16.7 per 1,000 live births, while life expectancy rose from 70.5 to 76.3 years, the highest among countries with similar economic conditions (Worldbank, 2021) Additionally, Vietnam's Human Capital Index (HCI) stands at 0.69, indicating that a child born in the country can expect to be 69% as productive if provided with complete education and care.

The International Finance Corporation (IFC) first used the phrase "emerging market" to refer to a relatively small group of developing nations having middle-to-higher income

Vietnam is recognized as an emerging market in Southeast Asia, characterized by robust and stable economic growth in recent years The government's commitment to policy reforms and infrastructure development has effectively attracted foreign investment This rapid growth and industrialization have drawn significant interest from investors across various industries.

Since 1986, foreign direct investment (FDI) in Vietnam has shown significant growth, reaching 12.33 billion U.S dollars recently However, in 2020, FDI was only 84.5% of the previous year’s figures due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic Despite these challenges, Vietnam's GDP still grew by 2.9% in 2020, highlighting the country's resilience Economists maintain that Vietnam continues to attract international investment, as the temporary effects of lockdowns and travel restrictions are not expected to deter foreign firms With supportive government policies in place, Vietnam remains a desirable destination for investors, solidifying its status as a key emerging market.

Vietnam's population reached 97 million in 2020, marking a 150% increase since 1986, with projections suggesting growth to 120 million by 2050 (World Bank, 2021) This surge in population enhances local spending power, creating significant opportunities for businesses in the consumer market While Vietnam's consumer market is rapidly evolving, there are specialized challenges that businesses must navigate Recognized as one of the most promising markets in Southeast Asia, Vietnam's potential is driven by a complex system of macro and microeconomic indicators.

Vietnamese consumers are influenced by a variety of macro factors, including demographics, economy, technology, politics, and culture, which shape their personal values and purchasing behaviors (Ramya & Ali, 2016) These influences vary across different market segments and individuals, highlighting the need for tailored marketing strategies, particularly for foreign investors Understanding the unique characteristics of each segment is essential for effective engagement with Vietnamese consumers Figure 1 illustrates the key factors affecting consumer behavior in Vietnam.

Figure 1: Key factors affecting Vietnamese consumer behaviors

Vietnamese consumers exhibit a notable degree of ethnocentrism, as supported by various empirical studies (Kucukemiroglu, Harcar, & Spillan, 2007; Nguyen, Nguyen, & Barrett, 2008; Vuong & Khanh Giao, 2020) While ethnocentrism is pronounced in certain segments of the population, it is important to recognize that not all Vietnamese consumers share this characteristic.

Demography Economy Nature Technology Politic Culture

History Culture Social Economy Personal Psychology

As Vietnam has increasingly integrated into globalization, younger consumers exhibit distinct beliefs and attitudes compared to previous generations They are exposed to a wealth of product information from around the world and can easily access these products in local markets This globalization has led to a fragmented and diverse consumer market, with the emergence of cosmopolitan and xenocentric groups among Vietnamese consumers (Thuy Hang Dao & von der Heidt, 2018; Nguyen & Pham, 2021) Contemporary consumer psychology suggests that ethnocentrism, cosmopolitanism, and xenocentrism exist on a continuum, varying across different consumer segments (Prince et al., 2016) Notably, younger, urban consumers display more cosmopolitan tendencies than their middle-aged and rural counterparts.

Vietnamese consumers prioritize quality as the key factor influencing their purchasing decisions across various product types (Deloitte, 2021) Their perception of quality is shaped by several surrogate indicators, including price, brand origin, and promotions, with the importance of these attributes varying by product category Notably, local brands in food, beverages, and non-electronic products receive favorable evaluations, while foreign brands, particularly Japanese, Korean, and Western, are preferred in consumer electronics, often commanding higher prices (Alcantara et al., 2020; Deloitte, 2021) This preference is linked to the association between product attributes and the perceived image of the country of origin (Thuy Hang Dao & von der Heidt, 2018).

Vietnamese consumers, particularly the youth, show a welcoming attitude towards foreign and global brands This trend is especially evident among younger individuals who are increasingly integrated into the globalized economy, viewing the world as a vast marketplace and identifying as global consumers.

The age group of 18 to 35 years represents a vital and lucrative market segment in densely populated nations (Na & Kang, 2019; Bravi et al., 2020; Ha, Binh, & Dang, 2020) Students, in particular, are an ideal demographic for studying cosmopolitan consumers due to their strong engagement with globalization and digitalization, positioning them as future middle-class consumers (Han, 2017; Yang, Farrell, & Lin, 2022) The rise of Vietnamese cosmopolitan consumers signifies a promising market opportunity for international companies seeking to maximize profits in the region (Mai & Tambyah, 2011; Rupa, Umberger, & Zeng, 2019) Figure 2 illustrates the key factors influencing consumer behavior in Vietnam.

Figure 2: Fundamental micro factors affecting Vietnamese consumers

(Adapted from Rupa, Umberger, & Zeng, 2019)

Age & stages in life cycle Gender

Underlying theory

Prominent scholars assert that underlying theories are crucial in defining constructs and their nomological relationships (Lawrence, 2012; Bartsch, Riefler, & Diamantopoulos, 2016) The lack of a consistent definition for consumer cosmopolitanism is attributed to the absence of a grounded theory (Jarvis, MacKenzie, & Podsakoff, 2003) Key theories that explain consumer cosmopolitanism include attitudinal theory (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1977), identity theory (Stryker, 1968), social identity theory (Tajfel, 1978), cultural identity theory (Arnett Jensen, 2003), consumer culture theory (Appadurai, 1990), and acculturation theory (Berry, 1997) The following section will delve into these theories to elucidate consumer behaviors relevant to consumer cosmopolitanism.

Notable researchers in consumer attitudes: Fishbein and Ajzen (1977) defined attitudes as

Attitude is defined as a learned predisposition to respond consistently in a favorable or unfavorable way toward a specific object, reflecting an individual's state of readiness (Argyriou & Melewar, 2011) It represents an accumulated general evaluation that exists on a continuum from negative to positive, indicating the degree of liking or disliking (Al-Debei, Akroush, & Ashouri).

Attitude is a learned judgment shaped by consumer experiences, making it possible to influence target segments effectively (Ajzen, 2008) It is a critical focus for both researchers and practitioners as it reliably predicts consumer behavior (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975; Ajzen, 1985; Argyriou & Melewar, 2011) Understanding how attitudes form is essential for developing strategies to change them Furthermore, attitude theory emphasizes the significance of specific objects in assessments, highlighting their integral role in consumer evaluations (Asiegbu, Powei, & Iruka, 2012).

Attitude serves as a key framework for assessing consumer preferences for specific products, shedding light on the varying attitudes consumers may have toward different brands within the same category (Prince et al., 2016).

The concept of attitude encompasses two key meanings: it serves as a state of mind towards an object and as an evaluative judgment that is categorized Understanding these dual aspects—result and process—can aid researchers and managers in developing effective attitudinal change strategies The discourse surrounding attitude is complex, with functionalists viewing it as stable and memory-based, while constructivists see it as variable and context-dependent According to functional theory, consumers form attitudes through accumulated product information, leading to favorable perceptions based on benefits and needs satisfaction This theory aligns with the ‘expectancy-value’ model by Fishbein and Ajzen (1975), emphasizing the role of beliefs in shaping attitudes Conversely, constructivists argue that attitudes are not stored but are retrieved based on situational goals, often leading consumers to utilize heuristic processing to simplify decision-making They suggest that consumers initially rely on available information and adjust their attitudes as new information emerges.

Consumers tend to avoid cognitive effort, making initial information more influential in their evaluative judgments This information can stem from direct experiences or insights shared by others, often expressed through emotions Contemporary constructivists emphasize situational independence in attitudes, with the constructive theory of play serving as a foundation for acquiring serial information, as highlighted by Anderson (2014) and the anchoring and adjustment heuristic proposed by Tversky and Kahneman (2013) Although empirical studies in this area are limited, focusing more on evaluative judgment than on attitudes, there is a consensus among academics that the distinctions between functionalist and constructivist perspectives are often blurred A combined approach that integrates both views may offer a more comprehensive understanding of attitudes.

An attitude reflects an inner psychological process that influences a consumer's predisposition toward a purchasing object It is a multi-dimensional construct, with the tri-component model being the most effective framework for understanding attitudinal formation This model comprises three components: cognitive, affective, and behavioral, which together shape an individual's attitude toward a specific object.

The three key components of consumer attitudes are cognitive, affective, and conative Cognitive components encompass the knowledge and beliefs consumers hold about an attitude object Affective components involve the feelings and emotions associated with the object, while conative components reflect the behavioral intentions that influence a consumer's actions toward it (Asiegbu, Powei, & Iruka, 2012; Kaiser & Wilson, 2019).

Consumer attitudes play a crucial role in shaping behavior, forming the basis of attitude theory Viewing consumers as information processors, the cognitive approach analyzes behaviors through personal cognition Two main types of cognitive models emerge: analytical models, which offer insights into consumer decision-making processes, and prescriptive models, which guide effective strategies for influencing consumer choices.

Consumer behavior is structured around key analytical models, notably the Theory of Buyer Behavior by Howard and Sheth (1969) and the Consumer Decision Model developed by Kollat, Engel, and Blackwell (1970) Additionally, the prescriptive frameworks include the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) by Fishbein and Ajzen (1977) and the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) by Ajzen and Schmidt (2020) Both TRA and TPB utilize attitudes to forecast behaviors, incorporating various antecedents While the TPB builds upon the TRA, it has emerged as the leading prescriptive model, largely due to its robust predictive capability validated through numerous empirical studies (Bray, 2008).

2.2.2 Self and Identity theory (personal, social, and national identity theories)

An individual's "sense of self" significantly influences their thoughts, emotions, and actions, as highlighted by research in psychology and sociology The self-concept plays a crucial role in how a person defines themselves, reflecting the balance between personal and social identity Understanding this interplay of identities allows for predictions about social behavior, emphasizing the importance of identity in shaping human interactions.

Throughout their lifetime, individuals engage in multiple roles and belong to various groups based on demographic factors, which significantly influence their behavior.

Hogg, Terry, and White (1995) highlight that personal and social identity are interconnected aspects that are essential for understanding behavior Identity theory seeks to connect the individual self with societal influences (Stryker, 1968; Stets & Burke, 2000).

The self assumes various roles within a social structure, taking on responsibilities linked to those roles, as explained by identity theory (Stets & Burke, 2000) In contrast, social identity theory focuses on the connections between the self and others, whether from similar or different groups (Tajfel, 1968) A key aspect of social identity is social categorization and comparison, which helps individuals define intergroup relations and distinguish between different social groups.

Social identity theory, as proposed by Tajfel, elucidates how individuals' behaviors are influenced by their affiliations with in-groups and out-groups This theory highlights the role of social comparison in helping individuals recognize both similarities and differences between members of their own group and those outside it.

Theoretical backgrounds

Cosmopolitanism, derived from the Greek term meaning "world citizenship," signifies a global community where individuals, known as cosmopolitans, embrace a multicultural identity that transcends national boundaries These individuals are characterized by their openness to diverse cultures and frequent travel, reflecting a commitment to a broader, interconnected world.

Cosmopolitanism and transnationalism are often seen as interchangeable due to the lack of a universally accepted definition However, Roudometof (2005) provided clarity on the distinctions between these concepts, along with glocalization The emergence of cosmopolitanism has led to academic debates, particularly regarding the use of plural versus singular forms as a comprehensive approach Understanding cosmopolitanism requires recognizing the coexistence of diverse identities, allowing individuals to reflect on which identity is most relevant at any moment Contemporary scholars now view cosmopolitanism as a form of internal globalization, emphasizing the psychological transformation of individuals regardless of their transnational experiences This internal globalization fosters opportunities for individuals worldwide to engage with diverse cultures and identities without necessarily having transnational exposure.

Recent theoretical definitions of cosmopolitanism have shifted away from requiring international mobility, suggesting that global experiences can motivate a more cosmopolitan identity This perspective positions cosmopolitanism and cosmopolitan as continuous variables, emphasizing that they represent a transformative journey rather than a fixed endpoint Understanding these concepts in this way allows for a more nuanced interpretation of what it means to be cosmopolitan.

26 account for the fluctuating level of cosmopolitanism within a person (Delanty & Harris,

2018) This further acknowledges that cosmopolitanism takes place in every part of the world and that cosmopolitans exist everywhere without regard to nations (Taraborrelli,

Cosmopolitanism presents challenges in differentiating sociological concepts such as nationalism, patriotism, and itself, highlighting their overlaps yet distinct characteristics Nationalists prioritize national interests, while cosmopolitans focus on human rights, shaping their respective behaviors For nationalists, patriotism is essential, whereas cosmopolitans view it as a virtue but not obligatory Typically, nationalists are patriots, but cosmopolitans are not necessarily so Importantly, cosmopolitanism does not reject nationalism or patriotism; rather, it can embody elements of both Ultimately, cosmopolitanism is regarded as a social value that emphasizes a higher moral standard, advocating for global human rights and responsibilities.

Pichler (2009) identifies five key interpretations of cosmopolitanism: as a sociocultural condition, a philosophy, a political project, a competence, and a predisposition Firstly, it is seen as a sociocultural condition emerging from globalization, where transnational social fields enable individuals to acknowledge diverse cultures globally (Roudemetof, 2005) In this context, people can adopt either an open-minded or a closed perspective toward others Secondly, cosmopolitanism is viewed as a philosophy that encourages the mindset of a "citizen of the world," promoting acceptance of multicultural identities and advocacy for human rights (Vertovec).

& Cohen, 2002) Thirdly, cosmopolitanism is understood as a political project of national strategy To integrate into international trade in order to foster the national economy,

Governments need to revise their policies to attract foreign investors and foster entrepreneurship (Audi, 2009) Cosmopolitanism is viewed as both an innate trait and a competence, suggesting that some individuals are naturally inclined to appreciate and respect cultural differences, a perspective supported by Roudemetof (2005) Additionally, cosmopolitanism is characterized by open-mindedness and an appreciation for diversity, allowing individuals to hold varying evaluations influenced by different factors Furthermore, practical cosmopolitanism emphasizes the importance of skills and practices that enable individuals to engage and interact effectively with diverse cultures (Pichler, 2012).

The advancement of technology has blurred geographical distances, enabling us to stay informed about global events (Audi, 2009) The rise of the Internet has facilitated the creation of virtual cultural spaces that foster ongoing and expanded interactive discussions (McEwan).

The concept of otherness in third culture highlights that cultures are shaped by interpersonal interactions, leading to stronger bonds and greater tolerance among individuals Virtual intercultural communities enhance cosmopolitanism by connecting members from diverse nations and cultures, facilitating self-multi-references However, joining these communities requires specific skills, including technological proficiency, internet access, language comprehension, and tolerance for differences Research indicates that younger, educated, and more privileged individuals tend to exhibit more cosmopolitan traits Ultimately, these capabilities are acquired over time, suggesting that cosmopolitanism is learned rather than innate.

In summary, leading sociologists suggest that cosmopolitans and locals should be viewed as clusters of attitudes across various indicators, indicating that both groups represent distinct orientations (Roudemetof, 2005; Pichler, 2009).

The classification of an individual as a cosmopolitan does not exclude the presence of localism, as both concepts can coexist While theoretical models suggest pure cosmopolitan and pure local types with consistent attitudes, few individuals fit these ideal categories Instead, people exhibit varying attitudes across different dimensions, reflecting their diverse connections to specific issues The key to categorizing someone as cosmopolitan, local, or a blend of both lies in understanding the correlation of their attitudes (Roudemetof, 2005) Pichler (2009) emphasizes that researchers should consider a wide range of attitudes to effectively operationalize cosmopolitanism as an orientation.

Consumer cosmopolitanism, often referred to as the cosmopolitan consumer, is a concept in international marketing that remains turbulent and disorganized due to the lack of a universally accepted definition Various authors have provided theoretical definitions, but these do not establish a consistent conceptual framework The complexity is further heightened by similar constructs being operationalized across different domains, leading to significant discrepancies in measurement Bartsch, Riefler, and Diamantopoulos (2016) emphasize that while researchers and practitioners have access to numerous promising factors to understand consumer behavior, they often fail to utilize these insights effectively.

Cosmopolitanism, rooted in sociology and anthropology, has applications across various disciplines, including marketing Characterized by open-mindedness and an appreciation for diversity, it is essential for international marketers aiming to boost their outbound profits Among the five perspectives for operationalizing cosmopolitanism, two stand out as particularly relevant for enhancing marketing strategies.

29 are applicable in consumer behaviors, which are: (1) as a competence; and (2) as a disposition, since they tap into psychological facets (Riefler, Diamantopoulos, & Siguaw,

Cannon and Yaprak (1994, as cited in Riefler & Diamantopoulos, 2009) were pioneers in connecting cosmopolitanism with marketing, defining it as a general orientation applicable to consumer behaviors This foundational work has led to extensive research on consumer cosmopolitanism, as summarized in Table A2 (Appendix A) Despite the interchangeable use of cosmopolitanism and consumer cosmopolitanism in consumer research, this overlap can lead to confusion between sociological cosmopolitanism and its application in consumer behavior, as noted by Bartsch, Riefler, and Diamantopoulos.

In the context of research, it is essential to refer to consumer cosmopolitanism or cosmopolitan consumers rather than simply cosmopolitanism An extensive review of the literature reveals four key branches of theoretical definitions frequently utilized by prominent researchers in the field of consumer cosmopolitanism.

The first conceptual definition is introduced by Cannon and colleagues (1994):

Cosmopolitan consumers are characterized by their openness to new ideas and their focus on functional needs, prioritizing products and services that effectively meet these needs, irrespective of traditional or social influences This consumer orientation towards non-local products encourages a more objective evaluation of purchasing decisions (Cannon & Yaprak, 2002) While the theoretical contribution of this definition of consumer cosmopolitanism is acknowledged, it also presents certain deficiencies (Riefler, Diamantopoulos, & Siguaw, 2012) Cannon and colleagues (1994) further suggested that cosmopolitanism represents a general orientation that influences consumer behavior.

Justification for the theoretical operationalization of consumer cosmopolitanism

2.4.1 Justification for the conceptual nature of consumer cosmopolitanism

Consumer cosmopolitanism, a subset of cosmopolitanism, specifically outlines the purchasing behaviors of a distinct consumer segment (Cannon & Yaprak, 2002) This perspective has been supported by leading scholars such as Cleveland, Laroche, and Papadopoulos (2009) and Riefler, Diamantopoulos, & Siguaw (2012) The understanding of cosmopolitanism has shifted from transnationalism to encompass glocalization, reflecting the internal globalization experienced by individuals in today's interconnected world This evolution signifies a transformation in individuals who, through intercultural exchanges, develop openness and respect for diversity (Roudemetof, 2005) Ultimately, cosmopolitanism emerges from the acculturation process that occurs when individuals engage with new cultures (Steenkamp).

Consumer cosmopolitanism applies the principles of cosmopolitanism to marketing, sparking ongoing debate among scholars regarding the distinction between cosmopolitanism and consumer cosmopolitanism, as well as the methods used to measure both concepts.

Pichler (2009) identified five perspectives for understanding cosmopolitanism, emphasizing two key individual-level approaches: competence and attitude Competence is viewed as a subjective approach tied to self-identity, while attitude is seen as an objective approach related to learned predispositions and self-evaluation over time Despite extensive literature, a universally accepted definition of consumer cosmopolitanism remains elusive (Cannon & Yaprak, 2002; Riefler & Diamantopoulos, 2009; Bartsch, Riefler, & Diamantopoulos, 2016; Dogan & Yaprak, 2017) Prominent researchers have proposed four main definitions of consumer cosmopolitanism, with orientation being one of the most frequently cited.

Consumer cosmopolitanism lacks a universally accepted definition, which has been identified as a primary factor limiting the effectiveness of existing measurement scales (Netemeyer, Bearden, & Sharma, 2003) Additionally, DeVellis (2016) emphasized the importance of a well-defined construct domain in the scale development process, asserting that researchers require a clear content domain to create reliable measurement items.

Before discussing effective methods for developing scale measurement, it is essential to define the construct clearly This article will explore four distinct definitions of consumer cosmopolitanism, assessing their capacity to accurately represent the concept and identifying any potential limitations associated with each perspective.

Cosmopolitanism is an orientation that encourages consumers to embrace new ideas and seek products based on their needs, irrespective of their origin This foundational definition connects consumer cosmopolitanism to behaviors, as established by early researchers like Cannon et al (1994) In marketing, Cannon and colleagues advocated for an objective approach to effectively operationalize this concept.

Cosmopolitanism can be understood as a consumer orientation, characterized by a set of attitudes and predispositions towards various issues, including consumption A cosmopolitan consumer embodies cosmopolitan values in their consumption patterns, indicating that consumer cosmopolitanism is integral to the consumption process Measurement scales like the CYMYC, COSMO, and COSMOSCALE have been developed based on this theoretical framework However, the definition of orientation lacks clarity, as it does not distinctly differentiate between personal and consumer orientation This distinction is vital, as personal orientation may influence various life aspects, while consumer orientation is confined to consumption behaviors Cosmopolitans view themselves as global citizens, which shapes their behaviors and necessitates a more precise context for consumer cosmopolitanism If a cosmopolitan consumer identifies as a world citizen, the overlap between cosmopolitanism and consumer cosmopolitanism could undermine existing academic contributions that emphasize cosmopolitanism's role in driving consumer behavior.

Cosmopolitanism is viewed as a unique set of qualities that enable individuals to respect and appreciate the differences among others This definition, introduced by Cleveland and Laroche (2007), emerged from their research on the skills acquired within a global consumer culture They later refined this concept to define consumer cosmopolitanism.

Cosmopolitanism is increasingly viewed as a learnable skill relevant to consumer behavior in a globalized world (Laroche & Papadopoulos, 2009; Cleveland et al., 2011) The COS scale, widely used in empirical studies, defines this concept but has faced criticism for its vagueness, particularly in its failure to connect cosmopolitanism directly to purchasing behaviors (Lawrence, 2012; Riefler, Diamantopoulos, & Siguaw, 2012) While the definition emphasizes the adaptability of individuals to achieve personal values, it is argued that it more accurately reflects the traits of a cosmopolitan individual rather than a consumer, as it lacks specific references to consumer-related activities.

Thirdly, cosmopolitanism is treated as a personal trait that a certain consumer expresses

A cosmopolitan consumer is characterized by open-mindedness, which facilitates the acceptance of diverse cultures and their products, as defined by Riefler and Diamantopoulos (2009) in their comprehensive study of consumer cosmopolitanism This definition acknowledges the multi-dimensional nature of the concept, forming the basis of the CCOSMO scale (Riefler, Diamantopoulos, & Siguaw, 2012) However, scholars like Lawrence (2012) challenge this definition, arguing that open-mindedness is a universal human trait rather than a specific consumer characteristic, making it less valuable to investigate its antecedents This perspective leads to a rejection of previous research on the antecedents of consumer cosmopolitanism Additionally, it is emphasized that merely listing key traits of a consumer segment fails to provide a comprehensive definition, as personality is a relative concept that exists on a continuous scale rather than a fixed one, making it impossible to fully capture the personal traits of any consumer segment.

Cosmopolitanism is recognized as a consumer disposition, specifically highlighting consumer cosmopolitanism as a favorable attitude towards foreign and global products This disposition encompasses various psychological aspects, including identities, orientations, attitudes, and beliefs, as noted by contemporary researchers (Bartsch, Riefler, & Diamantopoulos, 2016; Dogan & Yaprak, 2017; Srivastava & Balaji, 2018) However, the lack of a specific measurement scale for this concept has been identified, with critiques suggesting that the current definition is overly broad and fails to accurately reflect the nuances of consumer cosmopolitanism The diversity in disposition, identity, values, orientation, and attitude complicates the development of a precise measurement scale.

This dissertation redefines consumer cosmopolitanism, describing cosmopolitan consumers as individuals who perceive themselves as global consumers in a worldwide marketplace They prioritize functional needs and make purchasing decisions based on product performance, transcending cultural and social differences These consumers objectively evaluate products, seeking information on labels to assess quality This updated definition builds on earlier concepts by Cannon et al (1994) and emphasizes the psychological aspects of consumer behavior, focusing on how individual mindsets shape consumption patterns By framing the world consumer and marketplace, the definition clarifies the context and characteristics of this consumer segment's purchasing habits.

53 information to determine the domain, the underlying theory, and consequently, build a measurement scale for the construct

2.4.2 Justification for the underlying theory of consumer cosmopolitanism

Consumer cosmopolitanism is widely recognized as a component of consumer dispositions, encompassing psychological traits such as values, identities, orientations, beliefs, and attitudes Despite varying perspectives on its nature and scope, establishing a clear conceptual domain is crucial for understanding its relevant networks, as suggested by Netemeyer, Bearden, and Sharma (2003) The complexity of consumer cosmopolitanism is further compounded by differing underlying theories, leading to ongoing debates among scholars, particularly regarding its classification as either an orientation or an attitude (Srivastava and Balaji, 2018) Bartsch, Riefler, and Diamantopoulos (2016) identified six theories to operationalize consumer dispositions, including attitude theory, identity theories (personal, social, and national), consumer culture theory, and acculturation theory A review of these theories highlights the need to determine the most suitable framework for operationalizing consumer cosmopolitanism and assessing the significance of its conceptual domain.

Consumer culture theory and acculturation theory are inadequate for understanding consumer cosmopolitanism, as their focuses do not align with its conceptual domain While consumer culture theory seeks to explore the relationships between consumer behavior, the marketplace, and cultural meanings in consumption, it primarily explains purchasing decisions in specific markets In contrast, consumer cosmopolitanism pertains to a purchasing preference that originates within the consumer.

Acculturation theory examines how consumers change when exposed to external cultural influences, highlighting potential responses like assimilation or integration This theory provides insights into behaviors during intercultural interactions However, its broad scope makes it unsuitable for specifically operationalizing consumer cosmopolitanism within the consumption context.

Related constructs and nomological networks with consumer cosmopolitanism

The lack of a unified theoretical definition and a reliable psychometric measurement scale for consumer cosmopolitanism has been acknowledged in recent literature (Bartsch, Riefler, & Diamantopoulos, 2016; Dogan & Yaprak, 2017) Given its significance in international marketing, there is a pressing need for a clear construct definition and a dependable tool to assess consumer cosmopolitanism (Bartsch, Riefler, & Diamantopoulos, 2016; Zhang & Hanks, 2018) To develop a new scale for this concept, it is essential to explore the conceptual framework and related constructs while ensuring the reliability and validity of the proposed measurement Whether creating a completely new scale or refining an existing one, validation is crucial for its effectiveness.

Consumer cosmopolitanism, a key consumer disposition, is influenced by various factors including socio-demographic elements, past experiences, consumer characteristics, and consumer values This disposition significantly impacts behavior intentions, actual behaviors, and post-purchase actions It serves as a broad orientation that encompasses attitudes towards diverse specific objects Consequently, constructs related to socio-demographics, past experiences, consumer characteristics, and values are hypothesized to affect consumer cosmopolitanism, while constructs linked to attitudes and behavior intentions are expected to be influenced by it (Bartsch, Riefler, & Diamantopoulos, 2016) Furthermore, other forms of consumer centrism also play a role in this dynamic.

70 ethnocentrism and consumer xenocentrism will be hypothesized to be correlated with consumer cosmopolitanism (Makrides et al., 2021)

The literature review identifies various antecedents of consumer behavior, including cultural, psychological, economic, and demographic factors (Han, 2017; Han & Won, 2018) Notably, consumer researchers highlight that personal traits and psychological aspects significantly shape consumption tendencies (Ramya & Ali, 2016) This section underscores the essential characteristics and values that serve as key antecedents of consumer cosmopolitanism.

Risk aversion is characterized by feelings of uncertainty in unfamiliar situations, prompting individuals to take actions to avoid potential risks (Raju, 1980; Hofstede & Bond, 1984; Bao, Zhou & Su, 2003) Variations in risk tolerance affect consumer behavior, with those exhibiting high risk aversion experiencing increased anxiety when faced with new products (Zare et al., 2010) This anxiety stems from concerns over unclear product information and fears of subpar performance (Matzler, Grabner-Krӧuter & Bidmon, 2008) Additionally, risk aversion is often inversely related to openness, as both concepts represent differing attitudes toward novelty and diversity (Konuk, 2018) Research indicates that consumers with higher risk aversion are more likely to exhibit ethnocentric tendencies (Wang & Chen, 2004; Casado-Aranda et al., 2020), while those who embrace risk tend to be more cosmopolitan (Riefler, Diamantopoulos & Siguaw, 2012; Han & Won, 2018) This relationship suggests that a willingness to explore new products is a key driver of consumer cosmopolitanism (Terasaki, 2016).

The study examines the nomological validity of the C-COSMO scale, highlighting the impact of risk aversion on consumer cosmopolitanism It suggests that cosmopolitan consumers, who tend to embrace new products regardless of their origin, exhibit lower perceived risk due to their higher risk-taking tendencies (Prince et al., 2016) Consequently, the hypothesis posits that increased risk aversion negatively influences consumer cosmopolitanism.

Innovativeness refers to an individual's tendency to adopt new products earlier than others in society, influencing purchasing behaviors Defined as consumer innovativeness, this inclination allows certain consumers to embrace new items more readily than the majority Research indicates that traits of innovativeness are closely linked to consumer cosmopolitanism, as cosmopolitan consumers are generally more receptive to new products Innovative individuals are open to change and actively seek new product information, which enhances their enjoyment of diverse market offerings Empirical studies, such as those by Khare and Kautish, demonstrate a positive correlation between innovativeness and consumer cosmopolitanism, suggesting that innovations significantly impact cosmopolitan consumers' willingness to engage with new market options.

A person's tendency to find change over time is known as variety seeking behavior (Van Trịp & Steenkamp, 1992; Seetharaman & Chintagunta, 1998; Mohan, Sivakumaran &

Variety-seeking behavior arises from attribute satiation with familiar choices and is commonly observed in low-involvement products due to their low cost (Sharma, 2012; Sharma, Sivakumaran, & Marshall, 2010) Consumers who exhibit a high level of variety-seeking tend to switch options mainly to combat boredom rather than due to dissatisfaction with product performance Research by Sapic, Filipovic, and Dlacic (2019) highlights a positive correlation between variety-seeking and consumer cosmopolitanism in the fast-food markets of Croatia and Serbia Studies on consumer cosmopolitanism indicate that the tendency to seek variety, regardless of product origin, is a defining trait of cosmopolitan consumers (Zeugner-Roth, Abkar & Diamantopoulos, 2015; Prince et al., 2016) Riefler, Diamantopoulos, and Siguaw (2012) propose that transcending consumption borders is a key aspect of consumer cosmopolitanism, stemming from variety-seeking behaviors Therefore, it is hypothesized that variety-seeking positively influences consumer cosmopolitanism.

Materialism refers to a priority placed on the ownership of property as a life goal (Richins,

Materialism, a concept widely explored in fields such as marketing, economics, and social sciences, has been redefined in the context of consumer behavior as the degree to which individuals enhance their self-image through the acquisition of products linked to social status This cultural value significantly affects consumer responses to both local and foreign products, with variations influenced by a country's economic development Research indicates that in developing nations, materialistic consumers tend to prefer foreign products due to their associations with status and prestige.

Materialism and consumer cosmopolitanism are two contrasting constructs in consumer behavior, with materialism often viewed as an inclination and consumer cosmopolitanism as an unbiased perspective Research indicates a potential negative correlation between the two, as highlighted by Cleveland, Laroche, and Papadopoulos (2009) Specifically, Nguyen and Pham (2021) found that materialism does not positively influence consumer cosmopolitanism among Vietnamese youth Therefore, it is hypothesized that materialism may indeed have a positive impact on consumer cosmopolitanism.

Self-identity is a vital psychological concept that influences behavior and can enhance marketing strategies by understanding whether consumers adopt a global or local identity A global identity emerges when individuals feel connected to a worldwide community, while a local identity is rooted in one's immediate community and lifestyle This distinction is crucial for international companies targeting consumers with a global identity, as it fosters a positive attitude towards globalization Consumer psychologists emphasize that a global identity is essential for cultivating a cosmopolitan perspective, which promotes open-mindedness in purchasing behaviors and influences pro-environmental actions.

2021) Green behaviors are clarified conceptually and empirically by a global identity in a cosmopolitan consumer because the actions serve for in-group benefits, and the in-group

74 from a global identity is for all humans Thus, it is hypothesized that global identity will have a positive influence on consumer cosmopolitanism

Consumer cosmopolitanism represents a lucrative market for international companies aiming to increase profits across borders Cosmopolitan consumers possess an open-minded perspective, leading to a favorable inclination towards non-local products and an active engagement with global consumer branding This section will explore the potential behavioral responses associated with consumer cosmopolitanism.

2.5.2.1 Perceived quality toward foreign product

A foreign product refers to items not manufactured by domestic companies, as noted by Rawwas et al (1996) and Blonigen & Soderbery (2010) With globalization, the definition of foreign products has evolved, allowing for hybrid products that have differing brand origins and production locations According to Olshavsky and Miller (1972), quality is defined as the overall evaluation of a product, while Zeithaml (1988) and Roth & Romeo (1992) emphasize that perceived quality represents consumers' assessments of a product's excellence This perceived quality is inherently subjective, reflecting individual judgments that can vary from person to person, as highlighted by Snoj, Korda, and Mumel.

The perceived quality of foreign products varies based on the economic development levels of the consumer's country compared to others Consumers in developing countries often view products from developed nations as having higher quality due to the association of quality with a country's advancement The country of origin significantly influences consumer perceptions, acting as a proxy for quality judgments Additionally, cosmopolitan consumers tend to evaluate all products impartially, often favoring foreign goods perceived as superior to local alternatives.

Cosmopolitan consumers prioritize products that offer superior performance, focusing on competitive advantages rather than their country of origin (Jin et al., 2015) Consequently, consumer cosmopolitanism is believed to have a neutral effect on the perceived quality of foreign products, and in developing countries, it may even enhance the perception of quality and value associated with these products (Zeugner-Roth, Zabkar, & Diamantopoulos).

2015) As a result, it is hypothesized that consumer cosmopolitanism will have a positive influence on perceptions of foreign products

An attitude is a learned psychological tendency that influences an individual's favor or disfavor toward a specific entity (Eagly & Chaiken, 1998) In the context of foreign products, this attitude consists of three components: cognitive, affective, and behavioral (Ostrom, 1969; Bagozz et al., 1979; Mitchell & Olson, 1981) The cognitive component encompasses a consumer's beliefs and knowledge about foreign products, while the affective component involves the emotions consumers experience towards them The behavioral component reflects the intentions to act regarding these products (Asiegbu, Powei, & Iruka, 2012; Kaiser & Wilson, 2019) Cosmopolitan consumers are open-minded and do not harbor prejudice against products based on their origin (Terasaki, 2016; Prince et al., 2016) In Vietnam, cosmopolitan consumers tend to favor foreign products that best meet their needs (Riefler et al., 2017) Numerous studies have demonstrated a positive correlation between consumer cosmopolitanism and favorable attitudes towards foreign products (Parts & Vida, 2013; Lawrence, 2012; Cleveland & Balakrishnan, 2019) Therefore, it is hypothesized that consumer cosmopolitanism positively influences attitudes toward foreign products.

Consumer cosmopolitanism and other specific contexts

Consumer cosmopolitanism reflects a sense of self-identity that fosters respect for cultural diversity and promotes a feeling of global belonging (Bookman & Hall, 2019) This multifaceted concept varies across different typologies and requires validation through both general and specific contextual examinations (Riefler et al., 2012; Cleveland & Balakrishnan, 2019) This dissertation will explore two specific contexts where cosmopolitan consumer behaviors are evident From a political perspective, consumer cosmopolitanism manifests as a commitment to world citizenship and global responsibility, emphasizing values such as solidarity, equality, ethics, and environmentalism (Woodward & Emontspool, 2018) Consequently, cosmopolitan consumers are likely to support eco-business initiatives that align with humanistic principles.

82 values (Bookman & Hall, 2019) Thus, scholars strongly believe that green marketing are among specific research contexts to certify a typical world cosmopolitan consumer (Khare

Consumer cosmopolitanism is characterized by an openness to new experiences and a desire to explore cultural differences in everyday life (Kautish, 2020; Papastergiadis, 2018) This mindset fosters a positive response to the adoption of new technologies, as it emphasizes innovation and adaptability (Lim & Park, 2013) Consequently, researchers suggest that studying new technology adoption provides a valuable opportunity to understand the behaviors of cosmopolitan consumers (Westjohn et al., 2009).

2.6.1 Consumer cosmopolitanism and Green consumption

Consumer cosmopolitanism refers to the perspective of individuals who identify as global consumers rather than being limited to a specific nation (Terasaki, 2016) This mindset leads cosmopolitan consumers to be more attuned to global events and issues, recognizing their influence on personal benefits (Makrides et al., 2021) They are particularly aware of significant environmental challenges, such as global warming and pollution, which directly affect human lives (Kayaalp, Naml, & Meral, 2021) The push for sustainability is increasingly prominent, encouraging individuals to minimize their ecological footprint (Dantas et al., 2021) In marketing, eco-friendly practices are emerging as essential trends, with consumers actively shifting towards sustainable choices and supporting businesses engaged in cause-marketing (Thomas, Kureshi, & Vatavwala, 2020) Researchers assert that cosmopolitan consumers are likely to adopt green behaviors due to their perception of greater benefits compared to other consumer segments (Grinstein & Riefler, 2015) Consequently, green marketing is recommended as an effective strategy to engage cosmopolitan consumers by appealing to their humanistic values, as evidenced by studies showing a link between cosmopolitan orientation and green knowledge among Indian consumers (Khare & Kautish, 2020).

Consumer psychologists affirm the role of identity to explain consumption behaviors (Reed

The concept of self significantly affects an individual's reactions to their environment, with green behaviors being influenced by global self-identity, as environmental values are integral to this identity This global self-identity also plays a crucial role in predicting the development of a cosmopolitan orientation.

In 2012, a new scale measurement for consumer cosmopolitanism was developed, and this dissertation aims to validate and ensure its reliability by focusing on green behaviors as a specific context The study will present a conceptual model that outlines the antecedents and consequences of consumer cosmopolitanism.

2.6.1.1 Underlying theory and conceptual model

The theory of attitude formation is crucial in understanding how consumer attitudes towards green products develop According to the tripartite model, an attitude consists of three components: cognitive, affective, and conative Research indicates that green products are more likely to inspire consumer action The cognitive component of an attitude is influenced by factors such as online communities, global self-identity, and consumer cosmopolitanism The proposed research model illustrating these relationships is depicted in Figure 5.

Figure 5: Proposed research model of the 1 st specific quantitative study

2.6.1.2 Theoretical definitions and hypotheses development

A green product is characterized by its use of non-toxic materials and environmentally friendly manufacturing processes, adhering to standards set by recognized authorities (Kumar & Ghodeswar, 2015) The production of green products can occur at various stages throughout the manufacturing process (Suki, 2016) As green products gain traction, they are becoming a crucial trend and a key focus for marketers (Suki, 2016) Additionally, green consumption is increasingly seen as an important factor for specific consumer segments, while governments are actively promoting sustainability, leading to substantial advancements in green product development (Zahid et al.).

Research indicates that green behaviors are influenced by humanism and cosmopolitanism values, which motivate individuals to engage in actions that benefit human communities (Chen, Chen, & Tung, 2018; Mayekar & Sankaranarayanan, 2019).

Attitude toward green products refers to the learned predisposition to favor items that have minimal environmental impact and promote sustainability (Chen, Chen, & Tung, 2018; Alhosseini Almodarresi et al., 2019) This green attitude can be understood as a positive evaluation of eco-friendly products (Ajzen, 2008) The development of consumer attitudes toward green products encompasses three key components: cognitive, affective, and conative Furthermore, consumer awareness of the benefits of green products for sustainability significantly influences their attitudes and can predict their behaviors regarding green consumption (Indriani, Rahayu, & Hadiwidjojo, 2019).

Green product awareness is reflected as a consumer's consciousness about purchasing and using green products that would contribute positively to the environment (Rizwan et al.,

2014) Green product awareness is expressed by the knowledge that a consumer could

Green product awareness is crucial for fostering sustainability, as it reflects a consumer's understanding of environmental issues and their ability to mitigate their ecological impact through informed purchasing decisions (Qiao, Choi, & Pan, 2021; Yu, Han, & Hu, 2016) A consumer's knowledge and beliefs about green products significantly influence their positive attitudes toward these items Empirical studies have consistently demonstrated this relationship, highlighting the importance of consumer education in promoting sustainable practices (Rizwan et al., 2014; Lutfie, Syafrina, & Hidayat, 2017; Rajadurai, Bathmanathan, & Azami, 2018).

H1: Green product awareness will positively influence on attitude toward green products

Environmental issues are global concerns, and consumers with high cosmopolitanism tend to be more aware of green products, which align with global trends and benefit society as a whole Green products serve as a global positioning strategy to engage cosmopolitan consumers (Grinstein & Riefler, 2015) Research by Khare and Kautish (2020) indicates that Indian cosmopolitan consumers possess greater knowledge about green products Therefore, it is hypothesized that consumer cosmopolitanism positively influences awareness of green products.

H2: Consumer cosmopolitanism will positively influence on green product awareness

A person with a global self-identity embodies strong human values, viewing themselves as a global citizen committed to societal well-being (Valencia Sáiz, 2005) This perspective fosters a cosmopolitan approach to consumption, influencing their choices and priorities (Pichler, 2009; Terasaki).

2016) In 2020, Khare and Kautish found that a consumer with a global self-identity tends to express a higher awareness of green products and sustainable consumption Thus, it is hypothesized that:

H3: Consumer global self-identity will positively influence on green product awareness

H4: Global self-identity will positively influence on consumer cosmopolitanism

Online communities are formed when individuals interact and share information through digital platforms, facilitated by technological advancements (Park & Cho, 2012; Vohra & Bhardwaj, 2019) These communities enable consumers to exchange information without geographical or temporal constraints, providing significant advantages in marketing (Nguyen et al., 2016) They connect an unlimited number of users, enhancing knowledge and consumption insights, while influencing how consumers perceive and evaluate products or brands (Park & Cho, 2012) In collectivist cultures like Vietnam, social influence plays a crucial role in shaping consumer behavior, as individuals choose online groups that reflect their values, fostering self-expression (Turner, 2010) Membership in these communities creates a sense of belonging and encourages adherence to group norms (Hall-Phillips et al., 2016) Consequently, participation in online green environments can enhance one’s global self-identity, as these groups promote positive causes (Renger & Reese, 2017; Schmitt et al., 2019).

H5: Online green community will positively influence on global self-identity

Joining green communities enhances members' knowledge of eco-friendly products and sustainable consumption, leading to a greater understanding of environmental issues This connection has been supported by various studies conducted in countries such as Malaysia (Suki, 2016), Bangladesh (Siddique & Hossain, 2018), and Pakistan (Hussain, Khokhar, & Asad, 2014).

87 others Grinstein and Riefler (2015) pointed out that cosmopolitanism valued green behaviors, and thus a cosmopolitan consumer would express a positive attitude toward green products

H6: Online green community will positively influence on consumer cosmopolitanism

Joining green groups enhances consumer awareness and information exposure, leading to increased green purchasing behaviors Membership in these online communities is associated with greater access to green product information, which in turn fosters environmentally friendly behaviors Therefore, it is proposed that participation in green online communities significantly impacts awareness of green products and subsequently encourages sustainable consumer actions (Lutfie, Syafrina, & Hidayat, 2017; Siddique).

& Hossain, 2018) Thus, it is hypothesized that:

H7: Online green community will positively influence on green product awareness

2.6.2 Consumer cosmopolitanism and technology adoption

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research approach

The research on consumer cosmopolitanism highlights a significant gap in the definition and measurement of this construct, which is essential for developing effective measurement scales Despite the existence of three psychological instruments—COS scale, C-COSMO scale, and CCOS scale—each is based on different theories and primarily utilizes samples from developed countries This raises concerns about their applicability in developing markets Consequently, the dissertation aims to replicate these scales for Vietnamese young consumers to identify the most suitable measurement tool If the results are unsatisfactory, a new scale will be developed and validated through multiple empirical studies, all framed within a pragmatic research approach.

In research, four primary philosophical worldviews are commonly recognized: postpositivism, constructivism, transformative, and pragmatism Postpositivism focuses on verifying theories, while constructivism is concerned with generating new theories Transformative research emphasizes processes of change, and pragmatism prioritizes addressing specific problems Rather than adhering strictly to one methodology, researchers concentrate on the research problem itself and utilize a variety of approaches to gain a comprehensive understanding, allowing for greater flexibility in their methods.

Researchers have the flexibility to choose methodologies, techniques, and procedures that align with their specific goals and objectives Table 2 outlines essential aspects of four commonly used worldviews in scientific research To address research problems effectively, mixed methods have been utilized in the dissertation The subsequent sections will elaborate on the research design and methods employed.

Table 2: Four widely-employed worldviews

- Usually true for quantitative research

- Usually true for qualitative research

- Seek for in-deepth understanding

-Focuses on inequities, lives/ experiences of marginalized groups

- Links political and social action

Research design

To address the research challenges, a mixed-method design is essential This dissertation aims to replicate three existing consumer cosmopolitanism measurement scales among Vietnamese youth before developing a new psychometric scale tailored to this construct Initially, quantitative data will be collected and analyzed to inform the qualitative phase, followed by a second round of quantitative data collection to validate the findings The qualitative results will elucidate issues identified in the first quantitative analysis, while the second quantitative phase will reinforce the qualitative insights Aligned with the research objectives, the first quantitative phase seeks to identify the most suitable measurement for consumer cosmopolitanism in Vietnam, with results analyzed to assess the need for a new measurement scale in this context.

To develop a robust psychometric scale that accurately reflects the construct in the target market, the first quantitative research serves as preliminary research before the main study Subsequently, the second quantitative research aims to validate the newly built or refined scale in specific contexts, assessing its validity and reliability Employing a mixed research method is suggested to effectively meet the research objectives, as illustrated in Figure 7 of this dissertation.

Figure 7: The dissertation research design

3.2.1 The 1 st quantitative research design

The research begins by outlining its objectives, followed by a comprehensive literature review that offers theoretical definitions and frameworks essential for developing research models and hypotheses Quantitative data collection is conducted to validate these hypotheses and derive conclusions on pertinent issues Figure 8 illustrates the initial quantitative research design as proposed by Creswell and Creswell (2017).

Figure 8: The 1 st quantitative research design

The initial quantitative research findings will help clarify the conceptual framework and foundational theory of consumer cosmopolitanism, as well as aid in the creation of a psychometric measurement scale for this concept The scale development process follows the eight-step procedure outlined by DeVellis (2016).

97 developed scale has been developed, multiple tests will be conducted to ensure its reliability and validity Figure 9 depicts the scale development procedures

Following DeVellis (2016), the author will design the qualitative research in the Table 3

Table 3: Overview of the entire procedure adopted for scale development

Phase One: Item generation and content validity

1 Closed-ended survey (Study 1) 1 Find the appropriate interviewees;

2 Deep interview and Content validity checking (Study 2)

2 Generate initial pool and Maintain reliable items

Phase Two: Psychometric properties of the scale

1 Scale purification (Study 3) 1 Reduce the numbers of item and Check the dimensionality of the scale

Phase Three: Reliability, validity and nomological check

1 1 st Replication study (Study 4) 1 Check reliability, validity and antecedents relationship

2 2 nd Replication study (Study 5) 2 Check reliability, validity, antecedents and predictive relationship

3 Known-group study (Study 6) 3 Check reliability, validity

4 Test-retest study (Study 7) 4 Check reliability, validity, and stability

Source: From this dissertation summarized

Step 1: Determine clearly what it is you want to measure

Step 2: Generate an item pool

Step 3: Determine format of the measure

Step 4: Have the initial item pool reviewed by experts

Step 6: Administer the instrument to a sample

Step 7: Evaluate the items based on responses of the sample

Step 8: Optimize scale length Assess the validity and the reliability

3.2.3 The 2 nd quantitative research design

This quantitative research seeks to evaluate the reliability and validity of a newly developed scale within a theoretical framework Building on the initial qualitative study, the research model will be constructed based on a literature review focused on consumer cosmopolitanism Quantitative data will be collected to test the proposed hypotheses, and a detailed discussion regarding the measurement scale will be provided The subsequent quantitative research is illustrated in Figure 10.

Figure 10: The 2 nd quantitative research design

Research methods

3.3.1 The 1 st quantitative research method

A survey has been conducted to gather essential data for evaluating the research model, utilizing a questionnaire designed to collect quantitative insights into respondents' behaviors, including attitudes, beliefs, perceived quality, and intentions (Creswell & Creswell, 2017) The questionnaire consists of two sections featuring closed-ended questions, focusing on evaluative criteria and demographic information Respondents will assess six constructs: consumer cosmopolitanism, attitude, perceived quality, and purchase intention regarding foreign products The research aims to replicate three existing measurement scales of consumer cosmopolitanism—the COS scale, the C-COSMO scale, and the CCOS scale—resulting in six constructs that combine these scales with three consumer outcome measures The adapted scales used include the COS scale by Cleveland and Laroche (2007), the C-COSMO scale by Riefler, Diamantopoulos, and Siguaw (2012), and the CCOS scale by Lawrence (2012).

The article discusses various factors influencing consumer behavior towards foreign products, including the perceived quality as outlined by Roth and Romeo (1992), attitudes towards foreign products from Mitchell and Olson (1981), and purchase intentions identified by Klein and colleagues (1998) Table 4 presents the adapted measurement items for these studies A 5-point Likert scale is utilized to assess participants' levels of agreement, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) Additionally, demographic information such as age, gender, income, and educational level will be collected through closed-ended questions with multiple categorical options.

I enjoy exchanging ideas with people from other cultures or countries

I am interested in learning more about people who live in other countries

I enjoy being with people from other countries to learn about their views

I like to observe people of other countries, to see what I can learn from them

I like to learn about other ways of life

I find people from other cultures stimulating

When traveling, I make a conscious effort to get in touch with the local culture

I like having the opportunity to meet people from many different countries

I like to have contact with people from different cultures

I have got a real interest in other countries

Having access to products coming from many different countries is valuable to me

The availability of foreign products in the domestic market provides valuable diversity

I enjoy being offered a wide range of products coming from various countries

Always buying the same local products becomes boring over time

I like watching movies from different countries

I like listening to music of other cultures

I like trying original dishes from other countries

I like trying out things that are consumed elsewhere in the world

I satisfy my curiosity about other cultures by purchasing products from that culture

I like to buy products that not typically available in Vietnam

I enjoy getting a taste of other cultures by purchasing foreign products

When given the chance, I enjoy international media such as magazines, television, movies or books

I enjoy attending evens primarily intended for people from other cultures

I enjoy trying products that are popular in other countries

I believe that foreign products are good in quality

Perceived quality toward foreign products

Purchase intention toward foreign products

I will consider purchasing foreign products

I like to purchase foreign products

I will always purchase foreign products

If two products are the same, I will purchase foreign products over domestic ones

Students aged 18 to 25 from five universities in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam's most urbanized area, have been chosen as the ideal sample for examining consumer cosmopolitanism (Tran et al., 2020) The target respondents will be selected using a convenience sampling method.

Han and Won (2018) assert that younger consumers exhibit greater cosmopolitanism compared to older individuals The study employs a within-subject design across three measurement scales of cosmopolitanism to evaluate their reliability and validity The research anticipates a sample size of 300 respondents, suitable for structural equation modeling analysis.

Quantitative data will be analyzed using SPSS and AMOS version 20 to assess reliability and validity Reliability is evaluated through internal consistency, measured by Cronbach’s alpha, and composite reliability, assessed via the CR value Validity tests include convergent and discriminant validity, analyzed through confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), with Harman’s Single Factor Test employed to detect common method variance Common method variance is indicated if all indicators load on a single factor, achieving an acceptable model fit Structural equation modeling (SEM) will be performed to test research hypotheses, contingent upon passing reliability and validity assessments The thresholds for these tests are detailed in Table 5, with the CFA and SEM results meeting the required criteria, as shown in Table 6.

Table 5: Cronbach’s alpha threshold values

Cronbach’s alpha Level of internal consistency α >= 0.9 Excellent

Table 6: Model fit threshold values

Chi-square/df (cmin/df) < 3 good; < 5 sometimes permissible p-value for the model > 0.05

CFI >0.95 great; >0.9 traditional; >0.8 sometimes permissible

3.3.2.1.1 Phase One - Item generation and content validity o Study 1

This study aims to identify qualified respondents for in-depth interviews, focusing on cosmopolitan consumers who can contribute valuable insights into consumer cosmopolitanism, as emphasized by Terasaki (2016) The research highlights that younger consumers tend to exhibit greater cosmopolitan traits compared to older individuals, supported by Han and Won (2018) Therefore, the sample will consist of urban university students in Ho Chi Minh City, deemed representative of the young consumer demographic (Tran et al., 2020) A survey will be conducted to gather quantitative data, utilizing a convenient sampling method with 500 questionnaires distributed across five universities, with an expectation of obtaining 300 qualified responses.

The survey will utilize closed-ended questions to gather data on consumer cosmopolitanism, structured into two sections: evaluative criteria and demographic information Riefler, Diamantopoulos, and Siguaw (2012) identify four typologies to categorize consumer cosmopolitanism and localism Additionally, consumer cosmopolitanism can be further classified as transnational or glocal, depending on the level of consumer ethnocentrism (Terasaki, 2016).

Table 7: Four typologies of consumer cosmopolitanism

Source: Cleveland, Papadopoulos, and Laroche (2011)

To generate an effective item pool, the authors targeted high-ranking interviewees within the transnational consumer cosmopolitanism framework They utilized the C-COSMO scale, consisting of 12 items, to measure consumer cosmopolitanism and the CETSCALE, with seven items, to assess consumer ethnocentrism A back-translation process was employed to ensure language compatibility and reduce misunderstandings Respondents evaluated each scale indicator on a five-point agreement scale, ranging from "strongly disagree" to "strongly agree." Demographic data, including gender, age, income, and education level, were collected through closed-ended questions while ensuring personal privacy for future in-depth interviews Only participants meeting all survey criteria were included in the analysis.

The second study aims to create an initial item pool for measuring consumer cosmopolitanism Following the first study, four distinct clusters of young consumers were identified, with a focus on those exhibiting high levels of cosmopolitanism for face-to-face interviews (Corbin & Strauss, 2008) Twenty respondents from this high cosmopolitanism group will be invited for in-depth interviews, ensuring they are fully informed about the purpose, requirements, agenda, and duration of the sessions to facilitate voluntary participation Reminders will be sent one week and 24 hours prior to the interviews, which will be conducted at a location chosen by the interviewees, while minimizing noise and distractions for optimal recording conditions.

A structured open-ended questionnaire will be developed and administered sequentially to ensure consistency among participants This questionnaire aims to explore consumer cosmopolitanism, drawing on the work of leading researchers in the field, including Cleveland & Laroche (2007) and Riefler et al (2012) The item pool will be constructed from four key sources: relevant authors, existing literature, expert insights, and open-ended responses from interviewees The interviews will be conducted in Vietnamese to facilitate clearer communication, followed by back-translation of responses to maintain content equivalence A bilingual researcher with expertise in the subject will oversee the back-translation process to ensure accuracy (Koenig & Al Zaben, 2021).

In the second phase of this study, content validity will be evaluated by experts with knowledge and experience in consumer cosmopolitanism, as recommended by DeVellis (2016) The initial pool of content will be presented to these experts for assessment regarding its clarity, relevance, and overall quality Their evaluations will play a crucial role in ensuring the validity of the study's content.

The study will assess the content validity of items related to consumer cosmopolitanism by consulting marketing faculty members and managers from global companies in Vietnam who possess expertise in psychology and consumer behavior Following an initial expert review, a different group of transnational participants from a previous study will evaluate the remaining items to ensure they align with the definition of consumer cosmopolitanism Each participant will be guided to carefully assess whether the items accurately reflect the main construct The second round of content validity will involve approximately ten experts.

3.3.2.1.2 Phase Two: Psychometric properties of the scale – Study 3

The objective of Study 3 is to refine the initial pool of items and evaluate the dimensionality of a newly developed scale measuring consumer cosmopolitanism among young Vietnamese consumers To enhance reliability, students from various universities will be recruited for the study A closed-ended questionnaire survey will gather evaluations on the initial items, utilizing back-translation to ensure content equivalence and meaning validation (Koenig & Al Zaben, 2021) Participants will rate their level of agreement using a five-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree), with an anticipated sample size of 300 respondents.

3.3.2.1.3 Phase Three - Reliability, validity and nomological check o Study 4

Study 4 aims to empirically replicate the newly developed scale of consumer cosmopolitanism, focusing on the reliability and nomological networks related to antecedent aspects To gather quantitative data, a survey featuring closed-ended questionnaires will be utilized, consisting of two sections: evaluative criteria and demographic information.

The study utilizes 106 evaluative criteria across four key constructs: consumer cosmopolitanism, risk aversion, innovativeness, and variety seeking To assess these constructs, reflective measurement scales will be employed, with respondents rating their agreement on a 5-point Likert scale Consumer cosmopolitanism will be measured using a newly developed scale, while the constructs of risk aversion and innovativeness will be adapted from established research, specifically Raju (1980) for risk aversion and Roehrich (1995) for innovativeness.

2004), and variety seeking from Van Trijp and Steenkamp (1992) Back-translation will be employed to establish content equivalence and meaning validation (Koenig & Al Zaben,

2021) Demographical information will also be collected (e.g., gender, income, educational level) for descriptive statistics

A new group of students will be recruited to collect both by Google form and hard copy

A convenience sampling method is selected to approach the target respondents The questionnaire will include some questions aimed at testing the attention span, such as:

DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS

The 1 st quantitative research

There were 700 surveys distributed, but the satisfied collected were only 340, achieving a response rate of 48.6% Among 340 valid cases, there were 197 female respondents and

A survey conducted with 147 male respondents, all under 30 years old, reveals a profile of young, educated consumers, predominantly single (n=28) The majority of participants are highly educated and have a monthly dependent income of less than 10 million VND, representing 95.3% of the total sample For further details, refer to Table 10, which outlines the sample description.

Table 10: Sample description of the 1 st quantitative research

Less than 10 million VND per month 324 95.3 From 10 million and above per month 16 4.7

The internal consistency of the reviewed measurement scales was evaluated using Cronbach’s alpha Among the three scales, the COS scale developed by Cleveland and Laroche (2007) demonstrated a strong reliability score of 0.819 with six items In contrast, the C-COSMO scale by Riefler, Diamantopoulos, and Siguaw (2012), consisting of 12 items, achieved an acceptable reliability of 0.703 Meanwhile, the CCOS scale from Lawrence (2012), which also has six items, exhibited questionable reliability with a score of 0.667.

Factor analysis was performed to categorize numerous questionnaire items into specific constructs (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988; Gaskill et al., 2001) Following Hair et al (2006), exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was utilized to uncover the latent dimensions among observed variables based on the proposed theoretical framework The study focused on validating the dimensionality of three scales according to their theoretical expectations, leading to the choice of EFA over principal component analysis (PCA) Principal axis factoring was employed to extract factors using the promax rotation method.

Factor analysis was performed to categorize numerous questionnaire items into specific constructs (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988; Gaskill et al., 2001) Following the recommendations of Hair et al (2006), exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was utilized to uncover the structure of latent dimensions among observed variables based on the proposed theory Given the study's objective to assess the dimensionality of three scales according to their theoretical expectations, EFA was preferred over principal component analysis (PCA) Principal axis factoring was employed to extract factors using the promax rotation method.

An analysis of factor dimensions in three consumer cosmopolitanism scales revealed shortcomings in the C-COSMO scale (Riefler, Diamantopoulos, & Siguaw, 2012) and the CCOS scale (Lawrence, 2012) Detailed results of the pattern matrix for these measurements can be found in Tables G1, G2, and G3 in Appendix G.

The confirmatory factor analysis has been conducted to determine composite reliability by

CR value, convergence validity by the average variance extract (AVE) value and discriminant validity by the maximum shared value (Fornell & Larcker, 1981; Hair et al.,

2006) Followed by the results from EFA, the validity assessment has been conducted not

The study evaluates convergent validity by analyzing the factor loadings of measures on their respective constructs, with values above 0.5, ideally 0.7, indicating strong validity (Anderson & Gerbing, 1998; Hair et al., 2006) Additionally, common method variance was not a concern, as one construct model failed to demonstrate an acceptable fit (Fuller et al., 2016) The results of the first quantitative research, including the CFA findings, are detailed in Table 11.

Table 11: CFA results of the 1 st quantitative research

Sub 3 separated single factors (As the result from the EFA)

Second-ordered construct with three dimensionalities (As theorized conceptualization)

Sub 2 separated single factors (As the result from the EFA)

Second-ordered construct with two dimensionalities (As theorized conceptualization)

Note: CR >= 0.7; AVE >= 0.5; and MSV