The dynamics of translation
As shown in the diagram below, there are some participants/actors in the translation process.
Figure 1.1 The diagram of participants/actors in the translation process
According to Newmark (1988), a text is typically pulled in ten different directions:
The truth (the facts of the matter)
Figure Ỉ.2 The dynamics of translation (Newmark, 1988, p 5)
The ten factors that affect the translation of a text are explained in more details as follows:
(1) The individual style or idiolect of the SL author When should it be (a) preserved, (b) normalized?
(2) The conventional grammatical and lexical usage of this type of text, depending on the topic and the situation.
(3) Content items referring specifically to the SL, or third language (i.e., not SL or TL) cultures.
(4) The typical format of a text in a book, periodical, newspaper, etc., as influenced by tradition at the time.
Understanding the expectations of the intended audience is crucial, considering their existing knowledge of the topic and the language style they prefer It's essential to find a balance that resonates with the largest common denominator, avoiding the pitfalls of oversimplifying or complicating the content for the readership.
(6), (7), (8) As for 2, 3 and 4 respectively, but related to the TL.
(9) What is being described or reported, ascertained or verified (the referential truth), where possible, independently of the SL text and the expectations of the readership.
(10) The views and prejudices of the translator, which may be personal and subjective, or may be social and cultural, involving the translator's
“group loyalty factor”, which may reflect the national, political, ethnic, religious, social class, sex, etc assumptions of the translator.
Figure 1.2 above shows the various forces pulling the translation activity However, there are more for translators to consider, such as word order, grammar, concision, comprehensiveness and accuracy.
Translation theories
Since the mid-1980s, there have been some major translation theories in the world:
• Linguistic Theory of Translation by Catford (1965) and Nida
(1969) focuses on finding the equivalence of meaning, grammar, content, etc.
• Functionalist Theories of Translation (German School) by Reiss
Skopos (1978) do not pay attention to source texts, as their main aim is what translators do with the translation.
• Translation as Cultural Events Theory by Hornby (1988, 1995) sets up an integrated approach to translation.
• Manipulation School Theory of Translation by Bassnett and Lefevere (1990s, 2001) points out the power of translation.
• Deconstructionist Theory of Translation by Gentzler (1993,
2001) suggests forgetting source texts and regards translation as the second original.
• Culture and Context Theory of Translation by Newmark (1988,
2001) focuses on culture and context during the translation process.
The theory proposed by Newmark (1988) appears to be the most suitable for undergraduate students, covering essential aspects of translation theories as outlined below:
Translation theory, in its narrow definition, focuses on the appropriate translation methods for specific text types, relying on a functional understanding of language More broadly, translation theory encompasses the comprehensive knowledge surrounding the translation process, including general principles, guidelines, suggestions, and practical tips.
Translation theory serves to first identify and define translation problems, then considers all relevant factors involved in addressing these issues It also outlines various possible translation procedures before recommending the most suitable method and the corresponding translation.
Pre-translation considerations
Before translating a written text from a source language (SL) to a target language (TL), several essential steps must be followed According to Newmark (1988, p 11), translators should engage in a thorough analysis of the text, taking into account various factors that are crucial for effective translation.
Translators initiate the translation process by thoroughly reading the original text to grasp its overall meaning and context This dual approach not only enhances their understanding but also allows them to analyze the text from a unique perspective that differs from that of linguists or literary critics.
Effective text comprehension involves both general and close reading techniques General reading helps grasp the overall idea, while close reading focuses on the intricate details essential for understanding complex texts This meticulous examination of words, both in isolation and within their context, is crucial for accurate translation.
Translators must possess strong linguistic skills in both languages and a deep understanding of the text's content Their initial reading focuses on familiarizing themselves with the text's context, identifying textual issues like unfamiliar vocabulary or concepts that require specific solutions Additionally, extratextual factors, such as the intended purpose and function of the translation, shape the overall translation strategy During the second, more intensive reading, translators delve into the syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic aspects of the text to ensure accuracy and coherence.
The intention of a text reflects the writer's attitude towards the subject matter, making it essential to analyze this intention This intention is typically conveyed through the writer's choice of grammatical structures and vocabulary.
Two texts can describe the same event, like a battle or a riot, yet convey differing perspectives through their language choices and grammatical structures For instance, a positive text may incorporate uplifting words such as "hopefully," "luckily," and "fortunately," while a negative text might rely on pessimistic phrases This contrast in vocabulary and tone highlights how language shapes the interpretation of facts and figures, revealing distinct viewpoints on the same situation.
“unfortunately”, “badly”, “it is a pity that ” etc.
According to Newmark (1988, p 12), the translators’ intention is generally identical with that of the authors of the SL texts.
In practical translation, the translator's intent can differ from that of the original authors For instance, when translating advertisements, notices, or instructional materials, translators may focus on accurately conveying how these texts are formulated in the source language rather than adapting them for persuasion or clarity for a new target audience Additionally, when translating manuals for a less educated readership, the explanations may be more extensive in the translation to ensure comprehension.
According to Nida (1964), there are four types of text styles (literary or non-literary):
- Narrative is a dynamic sequence of events, where the emphasis is on the verbs or, for English, “dummy” or “empty” verbs plus verb-nouns or phrasal verbs.
- Description is static with emphasis on linking verbs, adjectives and adjectival nouns.
- Discussion is a treatment of ideas with emphasis on abstract nouns (concepts), verbs of thought, mental activity (“consider”, “argue”, etc.), logical argument and connectives.
- Dialogue is a conversation with emphasis on colloquialisms and phatic expressions.
Some researchers divide text styles into five types of writing that serve different purpose as follows:
Narrative writing is the art of storytelling, focusing on events that unfold around a character Whether it's an epic saga or a brief anecdote, narratives can cover extensive periods or just a few moments, and they can be based on real events or imaginative fiction Every narrative typically consists of a clear beginning, middle, and end, providing a structured framework for the story.
Descriptive writing captures every detail of a place, person, or scene, aiming to immerse readers in the experience The goal is to evoke a sense of presence, allowing readers to feel as if they are truly part of the narrative.
Persuasive writing aims to effectively communicate the writer's viewpoint, with the intention of convincing readers to embrace a particular idea or take action on an issue By articulating opinions thoughtfully, writers can inspire others and advocate for causes they are passionate about.
- Expository writing exists to explain a subject or inform readers about a particular topic area The goal is simply to teach the readers something.
Creative wanting encompasses any writing that diverges from traditional styles or innovatively blends them, aiming to discover fresh storytelling methods that captivate and surprise readers.
Therefore, understanding the text styles helps the translators in deciding suitable translation strategies to achieve a good translated version as expected.
The translators should characterize the readership of the original, then that of the translation, and decide how much attention they have to pay to the TL readers.
To effectively understand their audience, translators often evaluate factors such as education level, social class, age, and gender Typically, translated texts are aimed at an educated, middle-class demographic and are presented in an informal yet non-colloquial style.
All of these considerations help the translators decide on the degree of formality, generality (or specificity) and emotional tone they must express when working on the text.
The quality of the writing has to be judged in relation to the author’s intention and/or the requirements of the subject matter.
A well-crafted text prioritizes the author's nuances over the reader's reactions, ensuring that every word is strategically placed with minimal redundancy The syntax of a well-written piece mirrors the writer's personality; for example, complex syntax conveys subtlety, while plain syntax emphasizes simplicity.
A poorly written text often includes clichéd phrases and trendy buzzwords, leading to a disorganized structure Consequently, translators must first refine the text before proceeding with the translation process.
Extra readings
The exact number of languages spoken worldwide remains uncertain, with estimates ranging from two to eight thousand Despite advanced communication systems, it is challenging for individuals to master the vast array of languages in use today.
Effective communication within a single speech community often falls short, leading to misunderstandings among individuals This challenge becomes more pronounced when attempting to communicate across significant distances or time periods, creating barriers to understanding.
To address the challenge of language barriers, individuals should strive to learn foreign languages; however, this approach has its limits since no one can master all existing languages Even the most accomplished polyglots know only about twenty-five languages Consequently, people still seek to understand the writings and speeches of others Therefore, translation and interpreting emerge as the most widely accepted solutions to overcome these obstacles, highlighting the ongoing demand for professional translators and interpreters.
In conclusion, translation work will help to solve most of the obstacles of language barriers.
Translation has been done for a long time It has always been done by someone and for some purposes The first trace of translation dates from
3000 B.C., during the Egyptian Old Kingdom, the area of the First Cataract, Elephantine, where inscriptions in two languages have been found.
Translation gained prominence in the Western world around 300 BC with the Romans embracing Greek culture The 12th century marked a significant period of cultural exchange between the West and Islam in Spain, fostering extensive translation efforts due to diverse languages and cultural interactions The 1500s and 1600s saw influential Bible translations, such as Luther's in German and the King James Version in English, which left a lasting impact on society Throughout history, translation has played a crucial role, notably before Shakespeare, during the era of French classicism, and throughout the Romantic Movements.
In the 19th century, translation served primarily as a one-way communication tool, connecting influential writers, philosophers, and scientists with their educated audiences internationally Meanwhile, trade was predominantly conducted in the language of the leading nation, and diplomacy, which had previously relied on Latin, transitioned to French.
The 20th century is often referred to as the "age of translation and interpreting," highlighting the critical role these services play in international agreements among states and organizations, regardless of language barriers The establishment of new international bodies, independent states, and multinational companies underscores the growing significance of translation Additionally, advancements in technology, including patents and documentation, alongside the global distribution of publications in multiple languages, have heightened the demand for translation and interpretation services The very existence of organizations like the United Nations further emphasizes the essential nature of these services in facilitating global communication and cooperation.
In modem time, translation and interpreting have become extremely important in almost every aspect of life, and their significance is expected to increase remarkably in the future.
Establishing equivalence between the source text (ST) and the target text (TT) across various linguistic levels is crucial for effective translation The primary goal of a translator is to convey the same meaning or message in the target language (TL) as intended by the original author This concept of 'sameness' is typically viewed as an equivalence relation between the ST and TT, which is recognized as a key characteristic of high-quality translations.
Achieving an exact equivalence between a translation and the source text (ST) poses significant challenges for three primary reasons.
Text interpretations are not static, even for the same individual at different times (Hervey et al., 1995, p 14) To objectively evaluate the effects of a text, a comprehensive theory of psychological impact is essential, particularly one that can explain the aesthetic sensations frequently elicited by the text (Hervey et al., 1995, p 14).
Translation involves the subjective interpretation of the source language (SL) text by translators, making it unrealistic to expect the target text (TT) readers to experience the same effect as the source text (ST) readers Additionally, translators often cannot ascertain how audiences initially responded to the ST, complicating the translation process further (Hervey et al., 1995, p 14).
Miao (2000) illustrates the challenges of achieving equivalence in translation, noting that a simplified translation of an ancient text may resonate more with modern readers than the original did with its contemporaries This highlights that translators prioritize reader comprehension over strict adherence to the original text, as using overly complex language could impede understanding (Miao, 2000, p 202).
Because the TT can never be equivalent to the ST at all levels, researchers have distinguished different types of equivalence (Lauscher,
Nida (1964) distinguishes between formal and dynamic equivalence in translation Formal equivalence emphasizes a close match between the source language (SL) and target language (TL) in both form and content, ensuring that the message retains its original structure In contrast, dynamic equivalence focuses on achieving an equivalent effect, aiming for a similar response from the target audience as that experienced by the original audience.
Newmark (1988) differentiates between communicative and semantic translation, highlighting that communicative translation, similar to Nida's concept of dynamic equivalence, aims to evoke the same response in the target text (TT) reader as that experienced by readers of the source language (SL) text.
Koller (1977) proposes denotative, connotative, pragmatic, textual, formal and aesthetic equivalence.
Munday (2001, p 47) describes these five different types of equivalence as follows:
1 Denotative equivalence is related to equivalence of the extra- linguistic content of a text.
2 Connotative equivalence is related to lexical choices, especially between near-synonyms.
3 Text-normative equivalence is related to text types, with texts behaving in different ways.
4 Pragmatic equivalence or 'communicative equivalence' is oriented towards the receiver of the text or message.
5 Formal equivalence is related to the form and aesthetics of the text, including word plays and the individual stylistic features of the source text.
Popovic (1976) identifies four distinct types of equivalence in translation: linguistic, paradigmatic, stylistic, and textual These equivalence types serve as a framework for translators, enabling them to analyze the relationship between the source text (ST) and the target text (TL), ultimately guiding their decisions on how to effectively convey meaning in the translation process.
SL text into the TL. a Linguistic equivalence
Linguistic equivalence occurs when there is a direct correspondence between the source text (ST) and the target text (TT) at the word level, often resulting in a word-for-word translation This equivalence can manifest both at the word level and beyond, as translators analyze the source language (SL) to identify direct 'equivalent' terms in the target language (TL) It's important to recognize that a single word may carry different meanings across languages and can be viewed as a more complex unit, such as a morpheme Consequently, translators must consider various factors, including number, gender, and tense, when evaluating individual words In essence, linguistic equivalence involves aligning specific words and expressions from the SL with their counterparts in the TL.
Paradigmatic equivalenceoccurs where there is equivalence of “the elements of a paradigmatic expressive axis”, i.e., elements of grammar. c Stylistic equivalence
Stylistic (translational) equivalence happens where there is
Approaches to translating
According to Newmark (1988, p 21), there are two approaches to translating.
1 The translators may start translating sentence by sentence, for say the paragraph or chapter, to get the feel and the feeling tone of the text, and then they deliberately sit back, review the position, and read the rest of the SLtext;
2 The translators may read the whole text two or three times, and find the intention, register, tone, mark the difficult words and passages and start translating only when they have taken their bearings.
Translators often select their methods based on personal temperament and their confidence in intuition or analytical skills The intuitive approach is generally more effective for literary translations, while the analytical method is better suited for technical or institutional texts.
The first approach to translation can be inefficient, often requiring extensive revisions on the initial sections, which wastes valuable time In contrast, the second method, while typically more effective, may come across as overly mechanical.
Levels of translating
Translators approach their work by considering four essential levels: the SL textual level, the referential level, the cohesive level, and the level of naturalness, as outlined by Newmark (1988, p 19).
Translators convert the grammar of the source language (SL) into their corresponding structures in the target language (TL), ensuring that clauses and groups are accurately represented They also translate lexical units to convey meanings that are contextually relevant within the sentence.
Translators begin their work at the text level, focusing on the literal translation from the source language (SL) to the target language (TL) While this foundational level is crucial, it often needs to be refined through paraphrasing and the use of synonyms Consequently, translators must juggle multiple aspects of the translation process simultaneously, balancing attention between the text and broader contextual considerations This multifaceted thinking is essential in the art of translation.
Translators must consistently assess the nature of a text—whether technical, literary, or institutional—by determining its purpose and understanding the author's unique perspective.
Translators must clarify ambiguous or abstract sentences by asking themselves, “What is happening here and why?” They should consider the purpose behind the text and visualize the context If they struggle to form a mental picture, it’s essential to enhance the linguistic content with factual information, ensuring a comprehensive understanding of the material.
The cohesive level of a text is influenced by its structure and moods, with structure being the primary factor This structure is established through various connective elements such as conjunctions, enumeration, reiterations, definite articles, general terms, referential synonyms, and punctuation marks These elements work together to link sentences, typically transitioning from known information (theme) to new information (rheme).
The second factor influencing cohesion is the fluctuation of mood between positive and negative, as well as emotive and neutral tones Translators must recognize the nuances between positive and neutral expressions, such as distinguishing "passed away" from "died" and "appreciate" from "evaluate."
Translators must ensure that their translations are coherent and meaningful, utilizing natural language that adheres to common grammar and idiomatic expressions appropriate for the context.
Translators often need to detach themselves from the source language text, evaluating their translation as if the original did not exist They must consider whether their work would be suitable for reputable publications like The Times or The Economist, or fit for inclusion in academic textbooks.
In writing, it's essential to consider the common usage of words and expressions, as this impacts clarity and comprehension Translators should regularly consult an up-to-date dictionary to verify the accuracy of their vocabulary choices and carefully note any terms that raise doubts.
According to Newmark (1998, p 29), the translators should keep in parallel the four levels They are distinct from but frequently impinge on and may be in conflict with each other.
Translators prioritize the text as their primary focus, while also considering the level of reality They incorporate this reality into the text only when essential for enhancing the reader's understanding, typically within informative and vocative contexts.
The relation of translating to translation theory
The connection between translation theory and practice is highlighted by the concept of naturalness, which eliminates any gap between the two According to Newmark (1998), the theory of translation is fundamentally rooted in the principle of achieving a natural level of expression in translated texts.
The relation of translating to translation theory is illustrated in the Figure 2.2 below:
Figure 2.2 A functional theory of language
Unit of translating
The unit of translating can vary It is what the translators are translating at that moment It can range from a word, a sentence to a paragraph or the w hole passage
Translators often translate sentence by sentence, which can lead to insufficient attention to the connections between sentences (Newmark, 1988) A successful translation typically relies on a literal approach when the sentence presents no issues The sentence serves as the fundamental unit of thought, encapsulating an object and its actions or states Consequently, translators prioritize identifying the object and its circumstances within each sentence.
Translators analyze text at the clause level, focusing on both finite and non-finite clauses They often utilize cohesive collocations, such as adjective-noun pairs or verb-object combinations, while also considering less context-specific groupings.
In pairs, analyze the Vietnamese translations of English extracts 1-4, focusing on the italic underlined phrases that require improvement Identify the issues at the textual, referential, cohesive, or naturalness levels, providing explanations for each Then, revise the translations accordingly to enhance clarity and accuracy Context notes for each extract will assist in understanding the intended meaning.
1) A tulip tree, which weighed 650 tons, was transported by barge to a new park in Georgia (Note: This is an extract from a newspaper article.)
Một cây uất kim hương nặng 650 tấn dấ được vận chuyển bằng sà lan đến một công viên mới ở Georgia.
The Le Dynasty, founded in the early 16th century by Le Loi (1385-1433), emerged after he successfully expelled the Ming army from Vietnam.
Nhà Lê được thành lập vào nửa đầu thế kỷ mười sáu bởi Lê Lợi
(1385-1433), người chiến đấu với quânỉvíỉnh.
3) Velvet is a soft, luxurious fabric, which is used for many kinds of garments (Note: This is an extract from an article about materials in the fashion industry.)
Nhung là một loại vải mềm yếu, sang cả, được sử dụng cho nhiều loai trang!, phục.
4) The weather was cold and wet Still, we had a great time (Note: This is an extract from a traveler’s diary.)
Thời tiết lạnh lẽo và ẩm ướt Chúng! tôi đã có một quãng thời gian tuyệt vời.
Literal translation
The SL grammatical constructions are converted to their nearest
TL equivalents but the lexical words are again translated singly, out of context As a pre-translation process, this indicates the problems to be solved.
Faithful translation
A faithful translation aims to accurately convey the original's contextual meaning while adhering to the grammatical structures of the target language It effectively transfers cultural terms and maintains the level of grammatical and lexical deviation from the source language norms Ultimately, it strives to remain true to the intentions and stylistic choices of the original writer.
Semantic translation
Semantic translation prioritizes the aesthetic value of the source language (SL) text, allowing for compromises on meaning to preserve beauty and naturalness, while avoiding jarring elements like assonance or wordplay In contrast to faithful translation, which is rigid and uncompromising, semantic translation is more flexible, permitting creative exceptions to strict fidelity and embracing the translator's intuitive connection with the original text Additionally, less significant cultural terms may be translated using culturally neutral or functional terms rather than direct cultural equivalents.
Communicative translation
Communicative translation attempts to render the exact contextual meaning of the original in such a way that both content and language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readership.
Idiomatic translation
Idiomatic translation reproduces the “message” of the original but tends to distort nuances of meaning by preferring colloquialisms and idioms where these do not exist in the original.
Free translation
Free translation conveys the content of the original text while neglecting its form, often resulting in a paraphrase that is significantly longer than the source material This process, referred to as "intralingual translation," deviates from traditional translation practices.
Adaptation
Free translation is a highly flexible approach primarily utilized for plays, such as comedies, and poetry In this method, the essential themes, characters, and plots are maintained while adapting the source language (SL) culture to the target language (TL) culture The text is often reimagined by a skilled dramatist or poet, ensuring a cohesive and culturally relevant interpretation.
Semantic translation versus Communicative translation
This form of translation is the most flexible, primarily applied to plays and poetry, such as comedies It focuses on maintaining the themes, characters, and plots while adapting the source language culture to the target language culture The text is often rewritten by a recognized dramatist or poet to ensure coherence and artistic integrity.
3.9 SEMANTIC TRANSLATION VERSUS COMMUNICATIVE TRANSLATION
Below is the V diagram created by Newmark (1988, p 45) that illustrates the translation methods in the relation with the SL and the TL.
Word-for-word translation Adaptation
Figure 3 Translation methods in the relation with the SL and the TL
Semantic translation is more flexible than faithful translation, which attempts to reproduce the precise and contextual meaning of the original, restricting the grammatical structure of the TL.
Semantic translation prioritizes the aesthetic qualities of the source language (SL) text, focusing on the harmony and resonance of words Unlike faithful translation, which strictly adheres to the original meaning, semantic translation seeks to preserve the assonance and sound patterns, ensuring that the final version maintains a pleasing auditory effect.
Communicative translation aims to evoke a similar response in readers as the original text does, while semantic translation focuses on accurately conveying the original's contextual meaning within the constraints of the second language's semantic and syntactic structures.
Communicative and semantic translation often overlap, especially when a text conveys a general message rather than one tied to specific cultural contexts This is particularly relevant in translating significant religious, philosophical, artistic, and scientific works, where both content and delivery matter Additionally, different sections of a text may require varying approaches, with some needing a communicative translation and others a semantic one, such as quotations There is no singular method for translation; instead, these approaches exist on a spectrum, allowing for varying degrees of semantic and communicative focus within a single text or even a specific sentence.
Effective translation prioritizes the intrinsic significance of each semantic unit, leading to the necessity for communicative translation in most texts This approach is particularly relevant for non-literary works such as journalism, informative articles, textbooks, reports, and popular fiction, which often require translation today but were largely absent a century ago Conversely, original expressions that emphasize the specific language of the author—whether in philosophical, religious, political, scientific, technical, or literary contexts—demand semantic translation to preserve their nuanced meaning.
In other words, sematic translation and communicative translation are distinguished as below:
The stress lies on: The stress lies on:
Mostly inferior to its original Often better its original
Wide and universal, responds to “Tailor made” for one category of the author and addresses itself to readership, suitable for a specific all readers purpose or purposes
Table 3 Ỉ Semantic translation vs Communicative translation
Secure truth Extend unit of translation
12 Religions, philosophical, artistic, scientific, & legal texts
Aspects of language
This part will provide fundamental terminologies about different aspects of language.
According to Richards and Schmidt (2002), words are the smallest linguistic units capable of standing alone in both speech and writing In written language, word boundaries are typically marked by spaces, whereas in spoken language, they are indicated by brief pauses.
Syntax refers to the rules and structures that dictate how words combine to create sentences in a specific language, determining the grammaticality of certain sentence formations while rendering others impossible (Richards & Schmidt, 2002).
Idiolect, as defined by Richards and Schmidt (2002), refers to the unique language system of an individual, reflected in their speaking and writing style Bui and Dang (1999) elaborate that every native speaker has a distinctive way of communicating influenced by factors such as age, gender, mood, and education, collectively termed idiolect This personal linguistic signature enables us to identify individuals by their voice alone, even in their absence With approximately 400 million English speakers worldwide, it can be said that each person possesses a unique idiolect of the English language.
A dialect, as defined by Richards and Schmidt (2002), is a distinct variety of a language that can be characterized by regional differences or social class distinctions, differing in vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation from other forms of the same language Additionally, a dialect is often linked to a specific accent, and in some cases, it may gain prestige and evolve into the standard form of the language within a country.
Meanwhile, the Cambridge Dictionary’s definition of “dialect” includes the idea of “standard dialect”:
A dialect refers to a specific form of a language spoken in particular regions or by distinct groups of people, with English featuring numerous dialects that vary in vocabulary and grammar Most English learners tend to study standard dialects, which include variations such as standard British English, standard American English, standard New Zealand English, and standard Indian English These standard dialects are commonly utilized by governments, media, educational institutions, and for international communication.
Two dialects become different languages when they are mutually unintelligible, which means when the members of one language group cannot understand members of the other group (Bui & Dang, 1999, p 22).
To define briefly, slang is “casual, very informal speech, using expressive but informal words and expressions” (also called slang words/expressions), e g “rack off’, which means “leave” (Richards & Schmidt, 2002, p 490).
Slang deserves careful attention as its interpretation varies among individuals; for some, it is synonymous with colloquial speech, while for others, it holds a different connotation (Richards & Schmidt, 2002, p 490).
“undesirable speech” Usually, “colloquial speech” refers to a speech variety used in informal situations with colleagues, friends or relatives, and
“slang” is used for a very informal speech variety which often serves as an
In-group language, commonly used among specific groups like teenagers, army recruits, or pop groups, is characterized by its rapidly changing slang This instability means that the words and expressions within these groups can evolve quickly over time.
Jargon is a specialized language used within various professions, sciences, trades, and occupations, as noted by Bui and Dang (1999) This unique vocabulary often includes terms that are only understood by those within the field For instance, in a legal context, a doctor may refer to a "peri-orbital hematoma," which means "a black eye," illustrating how jargon can create communication barriers between professionals and laypersons.
Richards and Schmidt (2002, p 278) explain that the term "jargon" is often used by outsiders who may find it unappealing due to its unique vocabulary that can be difficult to understand This specialized language is typically not referred to as jargon by the group that uses it, but rather by those unfamiliar with it Additionally, they note a connection between jargon and pidgin languages, describing jargon as the initial developmental stage of a pidgin, characterized by significant individual variation, a simplified sound system, short sentences, and a limited vocabulary.
As defined by Richards and Schmidt (2002, p 246), an idiom is
Idioms are expressions that convey meanings not deducible from their individual components Common English idioms like "to cost an arm and a leg" and "to see eye to eye" are well-known, while others can be more challenging to grasp Similarly, the Vietnamese language is rich with numerous idioms that are widely used across the country.
Read the following texts and their translations Then indicate the translation method being used in each text. a Text 1
THERE IS NO FRIGATE LIKE A
BOOK There is no Frigate like a Book
To take us Lands away,
Nor any Coursers like a Page
This Traverse may the poorest take
How frugal is the Chariot
That bears the Human soul.
KHONG CHỈÈC TÀƯBƯÔM NÀO VIĐƯỢC VỚỈCUÔN SÁCH Không chiếc tàu buồm nào ví được với cuốn sách Đe đưa tôi tới những miền đất lạ xa xôi,
Không ngựa chiến nào vi được với một trang giấy Đẩy vần thơ cố âm điệu nhịp nhàng Đường này kẻ nghèo nhất cũng qua được
Mà không phải nộp tiền mãi lộ - Chiếc xe chở linh hồn nhân loại Đơn sơ thanh thản biết bao ỉ
Translation method: Reasons for your answer: b Text 2
Từ tháng 5 tới, người Việt phải mua vé vào phố cổ Hội zAn
Thay vì được "du di" như lâu nay, từ ngày ỉ 5-5 tới đây tất cả người
Việt, trừ người Hội An có lý do chính đáng, khi vào phố cổ Hội
An sẽ buộc phải mua vé.
Visitors to Vietnam's Hoi An need to buy entrance tickets from mid-May.
All Vietnamese visitors to Hoi An Ancient Town, a famous tourist destination in central Vietnam, except for Hoi An residents with legitimate
Thông tin này được UBND TP
Hội An cho biết trong kế hoạch tăng cường quản lý hướng dẫn tham quan khu pho co.
Theo đó, giá vé tham quan vẫn không đổi Với khách quốc tế là
120.000 đồng/vé, khách nội địa là 80.000 đồng/vé Lâu nay khách mua vé đa phần là khách quốc tế, khách đi theo tour.
Hiện nay, phố cổ thu hút khoảng 15.000 lượt khách tham quan mỗi ngày, tuy nhiên, số vé bán ra chỉ đạt chưa đến 50% số lượng khách đến.
Sẽ có hai luồng vào ra phố đi bộ
Người dân địa phương một lối và du khách đi lối riêng.
Thông tin này đang gây nhiều ý kiến trái chiều từ vài ngày qua
Một số ý kiến cho rằng việc phân luồng, kiểm soát người ra vào phố đi bộ là biểu hiện của sự "tận thu".
Nhiều ý kiến cho rằng Hội An, nổi tiếng với lòng hiếu khách và sự thuần hậu, sẽ gặp khó khăn trong việc thu hút khách quay lại nếu áp dụng vé đại trà.
Starting May 15, visitors to the Old Quarter will need to purchase entrance tickets, making it unreasonable to pay three to four times more just for a few cups of coffee or a bottle of water.
The Hoi An City People’s Committee in Quang Nam Province has implemented a ticketing system to improve the management of the ancient town Tickets are priced at VND 120,000 (approximately US$5.1) for foreign visitors and VND 80,000 ($3.4) for domestic tourists While both local and international visitors are required to purchase tickets, the majority of buyers have been foreign travelers and tour participants Notably, Vietnamese citizens are exempt from this ticket fee.
.At present, Hoi An Ancient Town welcomes around 15,000 visitors per day but the number of tickets sold is below 50 percent of the figure.
There will be two entrances to the ancient town, one for local residents and one for tourists.
Hoi An City’s decision has caused controversies.
The city's renowned hospitality may be overshadowed by the implementation of mandatory entrance tickets for all visitors, potentially deterring tourists from returning.
Strategies to deal with non-equivalence at word level
Translating between languages is challenging due to the dual nature of words, which possess both denotative and connotative meanings Additionally, the influence of context and culture complicates the translation process, making it nearly impossible to find exact equivalents across different languages.
4.1.1 Commonstrategies to deal withnon-equivalence at word level 4.1.1.1 Translation byusing a more specificword
Translating between English and Vietnamese often requires selecting more specific Vietnamese terms to convey the meaning of broader English words, due to the limited availability of equivalent pairs in both languages For instance, Vietnamese offers multiple translations for the term "return," highlighting the nuances in meaning that a translator must consider.
In English, the word "you" varies based on context, while Vietnamese features a rich vocabulary for family relations Consequently, translating kinship terms from English to Vietnamese requires selecting a more precise word, informed by a thorough analysis of the relationships involved, such as distinguishing between "sister" (chị for older sister and em gái for younger sister).
“brother” (anh, em trai), “grandfather” (ông nội, ông ngoại),
“grandmother” (bà nội, bà ngoại), “aunt” (cô, dì, thím, mợ, bác gái) or
“uncle” (chú, bác, cậu, dượng), or “cousin” (chị họ, anh họ, em họ).
In Vietnamese-English translation, using more specific words is common because Vietnamese terms often encompass broader meanings than their English counterparts A notable example is the Vietnamese word "cười," which conveys various nuances depending on the presence of adverbs that modify the action or state, illustrating the complexity of translation between the two languages.
The Vietnamese word "cười" encompasses a range of expressions, including "smile," "laugh," "smirk," and "giggle," necessitating careful translation to convey the intended meaning For instance, the phrase "Đừng cười tôi nhé" translates to "Don't laugh at me," while "Tôi nhớ mãi nụ cười của cô giáo lớp 1" can be rendered as "I never forget the smile of my Grade 1 teacher." Selecting the appropriate English term is crucial for accurate communication.
4.1.1.2 Translation by using a more generalword
Translating specific terms into more general words is a common technique in language translation For instance, the English phrases "a tomato plant" and "an apple tree" can both be translated into Vietnamese using a general term This method highlights the flexibility and adaptability of language in conveying meaning across different cultures.
“cây”: “cây cà chua” and “cây táo” As Bui and Dang (1999) notice,
“mopeds”, “scooters”, and “motorcycles” are normally translated by a common word in Vietnamese “xe máy”, while "chân" is used for either
Translation by cultural substitution is a strategy that replaces culture-specific items or expressions with target-language equivalents that may not convey the same literal meaning but resonate similarly with the target audience This approach provides readers with relatable concepts that are familiar and engaging, enhancing their understanding and connection to the text (Baker, 2001, p 31).
The author demonstrates a translation strategy using an example from a business leaflet, comparing the original English phrase, “The Patrick Collection has restaurant facilities to suit every taste - from the discerning gourmet to the Cream Tea expert,” with its Italian counterpart, which translates to, “ di soddisfare tutti i gusti: da quelli del gastronome esigente a quelli dell’esperto di pasticceria.” This illustrates the importance of maintaining the essence of the original message while adapting it to the target language.
Cream Tea is a quintessential English tradition, embodying the cultural significance of afternoon tea, while "pasticceria," the Italian equivalent of pastry, holds a prominent place in Italian culinary culture.
As for when to use cultural substitution, Baker makes further comments about the various levels on which this strategy can be judged for appropriateness.
The translator's choice of strategy is influenced by the degree of freedom allowed by the commissioning party and the intended purpose of the translation Additionally, this decision is shaped by the prevailing translation norms within the linguistic community, which can differ in their tolerance for approaches that significantly deviate from the original text's propositional meaning.
In the realm of English-Vietnamese translation, Bui and Dang (1999) highlight that many Vietnamese translators prefer direct translation due to their "respect" for the original text Despite this, instances of creative translation strategies persist A notable example is found in Sir Walter Scott's novel Ivanhoe, where Lady Rowena's beauty is depicted using culturally specific imagery When translating this description, Tran Kiem incorporates a famous line from Nguyen Du's "The Tale of Kieu," enhancing the text's resonance with Vietnamese readers Additionally, he provides a footnote with the literal translation of the original English phrase, bridging cultural contexts effectively.
Cultural substitution in translation necessitates careful consideration, as it can significantly alter readers' perceptions of the subject The decision to implement this strategy hinges on various factors, such as the translator's personal preferences, the publication's style, the target audience, and the translation's intended purpose For instance, when a text aims to entertain, cultural substitutions may be beneficial to enhance the reading experience and ensure it flows smoothly for the audience.
When translating culture-specific terms in referential documents like Shakespeare's plays or renowned poems, using equivalent terms from the source text along with explanatory notes or footnotes can enhance comprehension This approach not only aids in delivering clear translations but also preserves the original style and atmosphere of these literary masterpieces.
4.1.1.4 Translation byusing a loan word plusexplanation
Vietnamese speakers often use loanwords from foreign languages, primarily French in the past and increasingly English in recent years, with examples like “tia laser” and “đèn led.” When translation equivalents or paraphrasing are ineffective, these loanwords are retained in the text, sometimes accompanied by explanations for clarity Bui and Dang (1999) note that while some Vietnamese translators resist this approach in favor of creating new Vietnamese terms, borrowing can be beneficial for introducing new concepts, culturally specific items, and widely recognized medical terms, such as “HIV (Virus gầy suy giảm miễn dịch ở người).”
“AIDS (Hội chứng suy giảm miễn dịch mắc phải)”, and “ORS (muối bù mất nước) ” are some popular loan words followed by an explanation.
In translation, paraphrases are essential for clarifying new concepts and bridging language differences For instance, Bui and Dang (1999) illustrate this with the example, "Pregnant women should avoid alcohol," which translates to "Phụ nữ có thai nên tránh các đồ uống có chứa cồn như rượu, bia." This paraphrased version is more effective and communicative than a literal translation.
Strategies to deal with idioms and fixed expressions
Translating idioms and fixed expressions presents challenges for translators, who may misinterpret their meanings or translate them literally Such phrases often require a figurative approach rather than a direct translation to convey their true significance.
4.2.1 Using anidiomorfixed expression of similar meaning and form
Translating idioms effectively often involves finding an equivalent expression that maintains both the meaning and structure of the original phrase For instance, the English idiom “fight like cats and dogs” translates to the Vietnamese “cãi nhau như chó với mèo,” illustrating how direct equivalents can convey the same sentiment across languages.
“Like father like son” - “Cha nào con nay”, “Better late than never” -
“Muộn còn hơn không” are typical examples for this strategy.
4.2.2 Using an idiom or fixed expression of similar meaning but dissimilar form
When translators encounter idioms that lack a direct equivalent in both meaning and form, they can utilize a second strategy that involves selecting idioms or fixed expressions with similar meanings but different structures Cultural, environmental, and historical variations lead speakers of different languages to express analogous ideas in unique ways As a result, translators may opt for idioms that differ in wording or imagery yet convey the same concept For instance, "to carry coals to Newcastle" corresponds with "chở củi về rừng," while "Thôi đừng tiếc rẻ con gà quạ tha" translates to "Don’t cry over spilt milk."
The idiom "When the cat is away, the mice will play" reflects the idea that without supervision, individuals may take liberties, similar to the Vietnamese saying "Vang chủ nhà gà vọc niêu tôm." Additionally, the phrase "When in Rome, do as the Romans do" emphasizes the importance of adapting to local customs, paralleling the Vietnamese expression "Nhập gia tùy tục." These idioms highlight the themes of behavior in the absence of authority and the necessity of cultural adaptation.
Translators often face challenges when they cannot find a suitable idiom or fixed expression in the target language that matches the source text In such cases, they may opt for paraphrasing, which involves explaining the meaning behind the original expression to ensure that readers grasp the intended message The decision to paraphrase or use an alternative idiom can depend heavily on the context in which the expression appears For example, the idiom "A rolling stone gathers no moss" can have different interpretations based on the surrounding circumstances.
(1) You should not change your job so often You know, a rolling stone gathers no moss.
(2) You should not move your house so often You know, a rolling stone gathers no moss.
A translator can effectively convey the meaning of the idiom "a rolling stone gathers no moss" by using different approaches In one instance, they might paraphrase it as "You shouldn't change jobs too often; constant changes will make it hard for you to succeed." Alternatively, the translator could use a Vietnamese idiom, translating it as "You shouldn't move houses too frequently; stability leads to success!" Both methods capture the essence of the original saying while adapting it to the cultural context.
When a TL idiom cannot be used and paraphrasing is ineffective or unnecessary, translators may opt to omit the idiom altogether According to Baker (2001, p 77), this approach can be taken for stylistic reasons, particularly when the idiom lacks a close equivalent in the target language or when its meaning is difficult to paraphrase.
The decision to omit an idiom in translation hinges on the translator's chosen method and the context of the text In free translation, idioms are often omitted, whereas semantic translation tends to retain them For instance, the Vietnamese phrase “Nhanh lên Sap trễ rồi kìa! Đừng có để nước tới chân mới nhảy” can be translated simply as “Hurry up! We are almost late” if the idiom is omitted Alternatively, using the English equivalent “don’t have your cloak to make when it begins to rain” is also valid, but this results in a longer translation Therefore, to maintain a natural flow in the target language, omitting the idiom may be the more effective choice.
Strategies to deal with non-equivalence of structures
4.3.1 Translation of tenses and verb patterns from English into Vietnamese
English verbs are typically altered with suffixes like “-s,” “-es,” “-ed,” “-d,” and “-ing,” along with auxiliary verbs, to indicate different tenses In contrast, Vietnamese verbs do not change form regardless of tense or context Instead, Vietnamese speakers and writers rely on adverbs such as “đã,” “đang,” “sẽ,” and “sắp” to convey tense.
“gan”, etc to express the tenses in this language.
When translating texts from English into Vietnamese, we need to consider using these Vietnamese adverbs effectively The repeating use of
The use of Vietnamese adverbs such as "đã," "đang," "sẽ," "sắp," or "gần" can make sentences feel cumbersome and mechanical Conversely, omitting necessary adverbs can result in ambiguity Translators must skillfully incorporate or imply these adverbs For instance, "Mùa hè năm ngoái, tôi đến Paris" translates more effectively to "Last summer, I went to Paris" than "Mùa hè năm ngoái, tôi đã đến Paris," as the context does not require the explicit use of "đã."
In both English and Vietnamese, certain expressions like “lẽ ra” (should have) and “đã sap” (was going to) require careful translation to prevent loss of meaning.
4.3.2 Translation ofnon-subject sentences in Vietnamese
Translators occasionally encounter Vietnamese sentences where the subject is not explicitly stated, exemplified by the phrase "Cần đẩy mạnh công nghiệp hoá, hiện đại hoá." According to Bui and Dang (1999, p [insert page number]), understanding these structures is essential for accurate translation.
34) suggested five possible ways to render this kind of Vietnamese sentences into English, which are presented in Table 4.2 below.
Table 4.2 Translating Vietnamese “non-subject” sentences
Structure to use/ Technique to apply
Examples of Vietnamese “non subject” sentences and their English translations
1 Passive structure Cần đẩy mạnh công nghiệp hoá, hiện đại hoá — Industrialization and modernization should be promoted.
2 It + to be + adjective + to do something
Can thiết phải cung cấp nền giáo dục tiểu học cho tất cả trẻ em — It is necessary to provide primary education for all children.
3 There + be Van chưa có cách chữa trị căn bệnh này — There has been no cure for this disease.
4 V + -ing (S) + V + o Trường họp này là phải thay đổi quy trình - Changing the processes is a must in this case.
5 Put in the real subject that can be inferred by analyzing the context.
Can đấu tranh loại trừ nạn phá rừng trên đất nước của chúng ta — All of US need to fight against deforestation in our country.
How to deal with the so-called “non-subject sentences” depends much on the capacity of the translator to get the gist of the sentence in the
SL for recreating it in the TL, rather than getting stuck with the sentence structure itself.
4.3.3 Translation ofdummy-subject sentences in English
In English, the dummy "it" should not be directly translated into Vietnamese Instead, it's essential to identify the true subject of the sentence and express it appropriately in Vietnamese.
Learning at least one foreign language is essential Mastering a foreign language opens up new opportunities and enhances communication skills It is important to prioritize language learning for personal and professional growth.
Both English and Vietnamese languages have passive constructions However, the formation and usage of those structures are fairly different, which can cause some confusion for translators.
Parrott (2006) categorizes passive constructions in English into two main types: standard passive constructions and causative passive constructions Standard passives utilize forms of "be" or "get" followed by the past participle, often including constructions with "it" as the subject and reduced relative clauses These constructions indicate actions that occur to the subject, with the possibility of omitting the agent and the manner of the action In contrast, causative passive constructions convey arrangements made by individuals for others to perform actions on their behalf or describe unfortunate events, employing "have" or "get" along with a past participle.
The following table presents some examples of English passive structures and their possible Vietnamese translation.
Examples of sentences with passive structures (adapted from Parrott, 2006)
The whole house was flooded/ gotflooded
Toàn bộ ngôi nhà bị ngập lụt
They produced various plans drafted bydifferent consultants.
Họ thiết lập một so bản vẽ khác nhau dưa trên phác thảocủa một số chuyên viên tư vấn/do một số chuyên gia tư vấn phác thảo
It is understood that no one speaks during the time for private prayers.
Mọi người đều hiếu rằng cần giữ im lặng trong
Table 4.3 Examples of English sentences with passive structures khoảng thời gian đành cho việc cầu nguyện riêng tư.
She had her blood pressure taken
Bà ấy nhờ người đo huyết áp.
He got his leg broken playing football.
Anh ấy bị gãy chân trong lúc chơi bóng đá.
Passive structures in English can be translated into various forms in Vietnamese while maintaining the original meaning Although English employs passive constructions more frequently than Vietnamese, using passive structures in Vietnamese is often appropriate, particularly when conveying clear negative or positive connotations.
Hedy Lamarr valued her identity as a scientist more than her fame as an iconic actress, emphasizing her contributions to science over her legendary status in film.
Diep (2004, p 205) discusses the passive structures in Vietnamese, highlighting that an active sentence can often be rephrased using multiple passive forms For instance, the sentence “Giáp gửi thư cho Tị” can be expressed as “Thư được Giáp gửi cho Tị” or “Tị được Giáp gửi thư cho.” Similarly, “Chủ nhà treo tranh đầy tường” can be paraphrased as “Tranh được chủ nhà treo đầy tường” and “Tường được chủ nhà treo đầy tranh.”
In Vietnamese passive structures, the function words "bị" and "được" are commonly used but not mandatory While "được" conveys a positive occurrence, "bị" carries a negative implication This optionality is exemplified in the sentence: "This temple was built by local people in the nineteenth century," which can be translated as "Ngôi đền này do người dân địa phương xây cất vào thế kỷ 19" or "Ngôi đền này được người dân địa phương xây cất vào thế kỷ 19."
While the Vietnamese words “bi” and “được” are commonly used, they do not consistently indicate the use of passive structures in English translations The following examples illustrate this distinction.
“được” only indicate the negative or positive side of the event. s Examples:
Cậu ẩy bị ngã khỉ đang trượt tuyết - He fell while skiing.
Em bé bi sot - The baby had a fever.
Chúng tôi được xem một trận đấu tuyệt vời - We had the chance to watch a fantastic match.
A thorough analysis of the content and context is essential for selecting the appropriate target structure in translation For instance, the Vietnamese sentence “Chiếc ghế này đã bị gãy một chân” translates more effectively to “A leg of this chair is broken” rather than starting with “This chair is broken.” Similarly, “Chiếc áo này đã bị bẩn ở một bên tay” can be translated as “There is a stain at one sleeve of this shirt,” demonstrating the importance of structural shifts in accurate translation.
Strategies to deal with proper names
4.4.1 Translation of people’ s proper names and geographical terms
Influenced by the long history of exposure to and exchange with other languages, there are many ways in which foreign names in English are translated into Vietnamese.
4.4.1.1 Translation by keeping the original terms
Vietnamese translators often retain the original English names of countries, territories, or cities in their translations, as seen in examples like Ukraine, Argentina, Singapore, and Berlin A notable instance is the headline of a VnExpress article, "Một ngày khám phá vẻ đẹp ẩn mình của Singapore," which highlights this practice (Thy, 2023).
Many foreign names in English texts are often Latinized versions of their original forms, such as Shenzhen, a city in China, and Zhang Ziyi, a renowned Chinese actress In Vietnamese translations of these English texts, these Latinized names are frequently retained.
4.4.I.2 Translation by using Sino-Vietnamese terms
Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary is crucial for translating foreign geographic terms into Vietnamese Notable examples include Bac Kinh for Beijing, Thượng Hải for Shanghai, Anh for England, Y for Italy, Uc for Australia, Tiệp Khắc for Czechoslovakia, Hà Lan for the Netherlands, Nga for Russia, Nam Tư for Yugoslavia, Địa Trung Hải for the Mediterranean, and Mũi Hảo Vọng for Cape of Good Hope.
Many Sino-Vietnamese words for geographic names are gradually fading from use, with terms like Nữu Ước for New York and Bá Linh for Berlin no longer appearing in newspapers In contrast, the name London continues to be commonly translated as "Luân Đôn," as seen in phrases like "Du lịch Luân Đôn dễ dàng với 6 bí quyết" (Dan tri, 2019).
In many cases, geographical terms are translated phonologically, like
“Xin-ga-po” for “Singapore”, “Bra-xin” for Brazil, or “Ôx-trây-lia” for
The Dan Sinh newspaper features a phonetic transcription of "Australia" using Vietnamese spelling conventions, as seen in the headline: “The General Department of Vocational Education collaborates with the Australian Embassy” (Phuong Minh, 2019).
4.4.1.4 Translation byusing an equivalent term in the TL
Certain terms associated with country names are typically translated into Vietnamese as follows: "Vương quốc" for Kingdom, "Liên Hiệp" or "Khối Thịnh Vượng Chung" for Commonwealth, "Xã hội chủ nghĩa" for Socialist, "Cộng hoà" for Republic, "Nhân dân" for People's, and "Hợp chủng quốc" for United States of.
The same strategy is applied to the translation of “Dead Sea” into “Biển Chết”, “Red Sea” into “Biển ĐỎ”, and “Black Sea” into “Biển Den”.
The translation of geographical terms relies significantly on the translator's decisions and the stylistic preferences of the newspaper or organization they represent To achieve the best possible translation into Vietnamese, it is advisable for translators to consult with their supervisors and colleagues within the same agency.
4.4.2 Translation of names of organizations
When translating the names of organizations, it is essential for translators to refer to how these names are presented by the organizations themselves, including their official websites and documents Additionally, reputable news agencies serve as valuable resources for new translators Typically, organizational names are translated in one of several established methods.
• keep them unchanged (e.g., UNESCO, UNICEF)
• translate the translatable parts (e.g., Tata Group - Tập đoàn Tata, Harvard University - Đại học Harvard)
The UNDP - Tổ chức UNDP focuses on sustainable development initiatives worldwide KPMG - Công ty kiểm toán KPMG provides auditing and consulting services to enhance organizational efficiency Local NGOs - Tổ chức phi chính phủ địa phương work tirelessly to address community needs and promote social welfare The WHO - Tổ chức Y tế Thế giới plays a crucial role in global health management and disease prevention These organizations collaborate to drive impactful change and foster growth within their respective sectors.
When translating Vietnamese organization names into English, a reverse order may occur, as seen in the translation of “Tổng cục thống kê” to “General Statistics Office.” Additionally, translations often employ noun phrases with the prepositions “of” or “for.” Common translations include “Ministry” for “BỘ” and “Department” for various organizational titles.
“SỞ”, “Bank” for “Ngân hàng” and “Corporation” for “Tổng công ty”.
- Bộ Tài nguyên Môi trường - Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment
- Sở Ngoại vụ - Department of External Relations
- Ngân hàng Nông nghiệp và Phát triển Nông thôn Việt Nam- Vietnam Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development
4.4.3 Translation of governmental and administrative positions
Similar to names of governmental organizations, governmental positions are translated according to the system that is approved by the concerning government itself.
- Thủ tướng Phạm Minh Chính - Prime Minister Phạm Minh Chính
- zAngela Merkel, Chancellor of Germany/ Chancellor Angela Merkel - Thủ tướng Đức Angela Merkel
- United States Secretary of State - Bộ trưởng Bộ Ngoại giao Mỹ
- The United States Department of State/ The State Department - Bộ Ngoại giao Mỹ
- Bộ Ngoại giao Việt Nam - Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam
4.4.4 Translation ofproper names in scientificdocuments
English scientific documents, especially medical texts, often include proper names, many of which are used as names of diseases, or parts of the body.
Experts in the field have determined that certain terms should be translated into Vietnamese In specific instances, diseases or body parts named after individuals in English are capitalized, but in Vietnamese, they may be rendered as general nouns without capitalization.
Adam’s needle cây ngọc giá (họ măng tây, lá nhọn, hoa trắng) Hodgkin’s disease bệnh Hodgkin/bệnh u lympho Hodgkin
Parkinson’s disease/paralysis agitans/shaking palsy bệnh Parkinson/bệnh liệt rung
SDAT: Senile Dementia of the Alzheimer Type (SDAT) bệnh Alzheimer (bệnh mất trí nhớ do te bào não suy thoái)/ chứng lú lẫn của tuồi già dạng Alzheimer
Table 4.4 Examples of English general nouns containing proper names
Translation of newspaper headlines
The following are some guidelines for newspaper headlines, which are applied in a majority of newspaper articles, though not totally obligatorily.
The form in the headline
The content that the headline expresses
Events that happened in the past
Chinese professors turn to business
Các giáo SU Trung Quốc (đã) chuyển sang (con đường) kinh doanh
US Secretary of State visiting
Vietnam Ngoại trưởng Mỹ đang thăm Việt Nam
Future events Oil price to rise?
Table 4.5 Guidelines for translating newspaper headlines projects licensed this year Thêm ba dự án đầu tư nữa được cấp phép trong năm nay
Past events or current phenomena
Imperative or reporting of an imperative
At least 41 dead after heavy rain and flash floods in northern India
It nhat 41 người tử vong sau đợt mưa lớn và lũ quét ở miền Bắc Ân Độ
Wh-+to V How to Meditate
Hướng dẫn thực hành thiền định
Capitalization rules for newspaper headlines are typically established by the news agency, traditionally involving capitalizing the first letters of specific words, including the first word, nouns, adjectives, and verbs However, many writers now prefer sentence capitalization, which only capitalizes the first letter of the first word, proper nouns, and adjectives derived from proper nouns Prominent news outlets like The Washington Post, Reuters, and CNN utilize this style in their online headlines Additionally, punctuation marks are generally omitted in headlines, with the exception of question and exclamation marks, or periods when a headline consists of multiple sentences, as seen in examples like “India’s recent rice ban sent people into a panic Here’s what’s going on now” (Wiemer-Bronner, 2023).
Modes and types of interpreting
Interpretation occurs in two main modes: simultaneous and consecutive.
Simultaneous interpretation, though rare in true simultaneity, occurs when the target language (TL) speech is delivered nearly in parallel with the source language (SL), often with a slight delay of a few seconds This interpretation mode presents significant challenges due to its time constraints and the high skill level required from interpreters However, it offers advantages to audiences by maximizing time efficiency and minimizing interruptions The primary methods utilized in simultaneous interpretation include whispering interpretation, booth and microphone interpretation, and sight translation, where the interpreter vocalizes the SL text in the TL as if it were originally composed in the TL.
Consecutive interpretation happens when the interpreter produces the TL speech upon the time the SL speakers finishes their speaking turns
Consecutive interpreting requires more time than simultaneous interpreting, making the interpreters' ability to adjust the length of their interpretations crucial, as long as it preserves the original meaning and intention (Frishberg, 2015) According to Nguyen (2012), common activities in consecutive interpreting include whole-speech interpreting, community interpreting (also known as dialogue or public interpreting), lecture interpreting, and escort interpreting, which is sometimes referred to as cultural interpreting.
Interpretation can be categorized as unilateral, where an interpreter conveys the messages of a speaker or their own delegation's statements Conversely, interpretation frequently occurs in a bilateral or multilateral context, involving multiple groups of participants in a meeting (Kadric et al., 2022).
Interactio is a global leader in remote simultaneous interpretation services, offering various types of interpreting tailored to diverse client needs It's important to note that terminology may vary among clients and service providers, leading to different names for these interpretation types Additionally, advancements in technology have enabled many of these interpreting services to be conducted on virtual platforms, reflecting the ongoing evolution in the field.
Remote simultaneous interpretation is an innovative and rapidly growing service that supports a wide range of global events This interpreting method can be conducted entirely online or in a hybrid format, where some interpreters work on-site in booths while others participate from various locations around the world.
Simultaneous interpreting, often referred to as conference interpreting, involves the real-time translation of spoken language without pauses for interpretation This demanding skill requires interpreters to quickly comprehend and convey messages accurately Its importance has surged, attracting a diverse clientele that includes businesses, large conference organizers, and governmental bodies such as the European Commission, European Parliament, and the United Nations.
In consecutive interpreting, speakers and interpreters alternate in conveying messages between the original and target languages After delivering a few sentences, speakers pause to allow the interpreter, positioned nearby, to translate the content using structured notes This method necessitates silence from both parties during the process, making it time-consuming, which contributes to its decreasing popularity as simultaneous interpretation becomes more prevalent in various events.
Whispered interpreters perform their duties by attentively listening to the original messages, mentally translating them, and then softly conveying the translated content to the client in the target language While similar to simultaneous interpreting due to the need for immediate understanding of the original language, whispered interpreting is particularly suited for small meetings, allowing interpreters to sit close to their clients.
Relay interpretation is a time-intensive process used when a client speaks a less common language and no interpreter is proficient in both the original and target languages For instance, if a speaker communicates in Finnish, the first interpreter translates the message into Chinese for a second interpreter, who understands Chinese but has limited Finnish skills Subsequently, the second interpreter conveys the message in German to a client from Germany.
An other form of interpretation is liaison interpretation
Dialogue interpretation, also known as conversation interpreting, focuses on enhancing working relationships and facilitating successful negotiations among two to four participants While maintaining a level of accuracy is essential, it allows for some flexibility, as utmost precision is not always necessary in this form of interpreting.
Travel interpretation, also known as escort interpretation, demands interpreters to possess a unique set of qualities These include essential personality traits, high language proficiency, and a thorough understanding of the administrative procedures and cultural nuances of the client's destination.
When interpreters engage in long-distance assignments, they often rely on over-the-phone interpretation (OPI), which is commonly utilized by governmental institutions for medical and public matters However, this method presents several challenges, primarily the inability to observe facial expressions and non-verbal cues that are crucial for accurate interpretation This limitation can result in misunderstandings, interruptions, and pauses during conversations, further exacerbated by potential background noise that disrupts communication.
The common settings of consecutive interpreting
According to Gile (1992), consecutive interpreting (CI) consists of two phases as follows:
CI1 = L (Listening) + M (Short-term Memory) + N (Note taking)
In the initial phase of interpretation, interpreters focus intently on the source language (SL) speech, actively listening and selectively processing the information They utilize their short-term memory (STM) along with notes to effectively retain the message for accurate translation.
CỈ2 = R (Remember) + R (Read the notes) + p(Produce the speech in TL)
Then in the second phase, interpreters retrieve the messages that have been stored in the STM as well as from the notes to produce the speech in the TL.
A strong Short-Term Memory (STM) is essential for consecutive interpreters, but relying solely on it to recall spoken source language (SL) statements is insufficient To enhance memory retention, interpreters should utilize note-taking as a supportive tool While note-taking techniques can vary among interpreters, adhering to fundamental guidelines can significantly improve their effectiveness.
6.2 THE COMMON SETTINGS OF CONSECUTIVE INTERPRETING
Before 1945, conference interpreting primarily involved consecutive interpreting, as simultaneous interpreting had not yet been developed This method dominated international meetings until after World War II, when simultaneous interpreting emerged and eventually became the preferred approach by the 1970s.
Below are the most common work settings where consecutive interpreting occurs:
Formal speeches often require consecutive interpretation, particularly during ceremonial events such as receptions, cultural celebrations, and post-dinner speeches at banquets.
Community interpreting, also known as liaison interpreting, dialogue interpreting, or public service interpreting, is a prevalent form of interpreting where an interpreter facilitates communication between speakers of different languages This bilateral interpretation is frequently utilized in various contexts, including business meetings, interviews, healthcare, social work, legal settings, and negotiations with limited participants In legal environments, community interpreting encompasses both courtroom and non-courtroom interpreting, ensuring effective communication in critical situations.
In community interpreting, the interpreters act as a mediator between two parties and translate each party’s speech “The interpreters constantly switch back and forth between the two languages”, namely the
SL and the TL Or “they may work face-to-face with each party or over phones” (Nguyen, 2012; Elaine, 2003).
Business professionals frequently travel to foreign countries for work, often including field trips to observe local operations During these visits, interpreters are sometimes needed to assist non-English speaking groups at events such as trade fairs or expositions In these scenarios, consecutive interpreters play a crucial role by translating the insights provided by knowledgeable guides about local practices It is important to note that interpreters may not have prior knowledge of the specific locations they will be visiting.
Consecutive interpreting is commonly utilized in working meetings where smaller groups convene in rooms lacking telephonic interpreting facilities In these settings, interpreters typically sit next to the speakers and provide interpretations at intervals (Gillies, 2019).
Some principles for the job of on-site interpretation
Following is a list of what interpreters should do during an interpretation assignment.
1 Introduce themselves to both parties in the meeting, including the organization they are working for.
2 Explain the professional principles, i.e., everything is kept confidential and is interpreted without additions or omissions.
3 Arrange seating, perfectly in “a triangle with participants at equal distances from each other, so that eye contact can be maintained at all time”, as illustrated in Figure 6.
4 Use the first-person pronouns.
5 Deliver the target message with speed control.
6 Request the speaker to repeat, explain or clarify what is unclear when it is necessary.
9 Deliver the target message with inner strength and confidence.
Figure 6 Seat arrangement for interpretation (Bui & Dang, Ỉ999, p 37) https://www.flexlanguageservices.com/interpretation
6.3.2 Instructions on how to cany out an interpretation task
Here are some further detailed steps for trainee interpreters to follow before, during and after an interpretation task:
Preparation (before the interpreting task)
• Read and study the materials related to the interpreting task
• Familiarize themselves with the topic and the context of the interpreting task
• Identify key terminologies and concepts
• Research any unfamiliar terms or concepts
• Practice interpreting the text or conversation, both silently and aloud
• Create glossaries or lists of key terms and concepts
• Anticipate potential challenges or difficult areas in the interpreting task
• Prepare a script or outline of the interpreting task, if possible
• Review and refine their preparation as needed
• Introduce themselves and establish a rapport with the participants
• Explain the interpreting process and their role as an interpreter, if necessary
• Start interpreting, paying attention to pace, tone, and clarity of their speech
• Monitor the participants' reactions and adjust their interpreting as necessary
• Clarify any ambiguous or unclear points
• Use note-taking techniques to support memory
• Summarize or restate the key points as needed
• Stay focused and attentive throughout the interpreting task
• Reflect on the interpreting task and identify areas of strength and weakness
• Seek feedback from other interpreters or language experts
• Analyze any errors or difficulties encountered during the task
• Identify strategies for improving their interpreting skills
• Develop an action plan for further practice and improvement
• Continue to review and evaluate their progress over time.
Confidentiality
Interpreters must prioritize the privacy and trust of all parties by treating all information acquired during their professional duties as confidential Adhering to strict disclosure requirements is essential to uphold this commitment to confidentiality.
So, the objective of the principle of confidentiality is to protect the privacy of all parties and information involved as well as to maintain the trust of all parties.
Some of the expectations for the interpreter include:
1) The interpreter keeps all information confidential and does not share it with anyone outside the interaction between the clients and the service providers, unless required by the law.
2) The interpreter takes measures to safeguard confidentiality and prevent unauthorized disclosure of private or personal information related to the parties involved This also involves protecting any documents held by the interpreter.
Impartiality
Interpreters must uphold impartiality by remaining neutral and avoiding the provision of advice, counseling, or personal opinions that could influence their interpretations It is essential for interpreters to disclose any potential or actual conflicts of interest to ensure fairness The primary objective of maintaining impartiality is to eliminate any bias or favoritism towards either party involved.
Therefore, the objective of this “impartiality” is to eliminate the interpreter’s bias or preference towards either party involved.
Some of the expectations for the interpreter include:
1) The interpreter must remain unbiased and objective, not allowing personal beliefs or values to interfere with their interpretation They must make it clear to all parties that they are obligated to remain impartial.
2) The interpreter should not accept or continue an assignment if their personal beliefs or biases have the potential to affect their impartiality.
3) The interpreter should not engage in personal relationships or communication with any parties involved in the interpretation.
4) The interpreter should not accept an assignment if they have a personal relationship with any of the parties involved that could impact their impartiality.
5) The interpreter should be aware of their nonverbal expressions and body language and avoid any emotional displays that could be interpreted as a lack of neutrality by any of the parties involved.
Respect
The ethical principle of respect mandates that interpreters treat all participants with dignity and equality, irrespective of their ethnicity, race, age, gender, religion, political beliefs, socio-economic status, or cultural backgrounds They must employ culturally appropriate methods to demonstrate respect and facilitate direct communication among all parties Additionally, interpreters should ensure spatial and visual privacy while promoting the autonomy and personal choices of individuals involved Ultimately, this principle aims to acknowledge and uphold the dignity of everyone in the interview process.
Some of the expectations for the interpreter include:
1) The interpreter demonstrates equal respect and dignity towards all parties, regardless of factors such as ethnicity, race, age, color, gender, sexual orientation, religion, nationality, political viewpoint, socio-economic status, and cultural beliefs.
2) The interpreter facilitates direct communication among all parties while using professional and culturally appropriate ways of showing respect.
3) The interpreter ensures the necessary spatial and visual privacy is maintained during the interpretation process.
4) The interpreter promotes the autonomy and personal choice of the individuals involved through their behavior during the interpretation process.
Cultural responsiveness
Cultural responsiveness is the interpreter's recognition of cultural similarities and differences encountered in their professional role This ethical principle aims to enhance effective communication between parties, preventing misunderstandings that may arise from cultural disparities.
Some of the expectations for the interpreter include:
1) The interpreter strives to be aware of and understand the cultures associated with the languages they interpret.
2) The interpreter maintains the rules of cultural etiquette appropriate to all parties.
3) The interpreter recognizes and respects cultural differences and similarities, and adapts their communication style accordingly.
4) The interpreter avoids ethnocentric attitudes or behavior, and refrains from imposing their own cultural beliefs or values.
5) The interpreter seeks to understand the cultural context of the communication and asks questions to clarify meaning.
6) The interpreter may provide cultural brokering services by explaining cultural differences and similarities to help parties understand each other.
7) The interpreter maintains up-to-date knowledge of cultural practices, traditions, and beliefs of the communities they serve.
Role boundaries
Interpreters must establish clear role boundaries by limiting their professional involvement and refraining from personal engagement This ethical principle is essential for defining the scope and limitations of an interpreter's responsibilities, ensuring a professional and impartial service.
The objective of this ethical principle is to clarify the scope and limits of the interpreting role.
Some of the expectations for the interpreter include:
1) The interpreter must remain neutral and avoid expressing opinions, offering advice, or reacting emotionally to any of the parties involved.
2) The interpreter should limit contact with the parties involved to only what is necessary for the interpreting assignment.
3) The interpreter should avoid taking on any duties that are outside of their role as an interpreter.
4) The interpreter should not alter the communication in any way or act as a mediator, speaker or advocate for any party involved.
5) The interpreter should prioritize their own safety and well-being during the interpreting assignment.
Accountability
Accountability in interpretation entails the interpreter's responsibility to answer for their actions and decisions while delivering interpretation services This includes transparency regarding their qualifications, adherence to ethical and professional standards, and taking responsibility for any errors or misunderstandings that occur during the interpretation process.
Accountability in interpretation is essential for upholding professionalism and integrity, fostering trust among all parties involved in the communication process.
Some of the expectations for the interpreter include:
1) The interpreter is responsible for their professional conduct and upholding the standards of their profession and relevant policies or laws.
2) The interpreter will refuse assignments that require knowledge or skills outside their area of competence.
3) The interpreter will recognize and rectify any interpretation errors promptly.
4) The interpreter will manage confidential information properly, including storage and disposal, in accordance with applicable policies and laws.
Professionalism in interpretation encompasses the expected conduct and behavior of interpreters as language mediators It involves adhering to ethical principles and standards of practice, committing to continuous professional development, and upholding confidentiality and impartiality Additionally, interpreters play a crucial role in ensuring accurate and effective communication between parties speaking different languages.
Professionalism also involves being aware of and respectful towards cultural differences and nuances, as well as recognizing and addressing potential biases or conflicts of interest.
The objective of this principle is for the interpreters to maintain professional conduct and uphold public trust in the interpreting profession. Some of the expectations for the interpreter include:
1) The interpreter adheres to established proficiency standards, acts in a manner consistent with professional standards, and conducts themselves with honesty and ethics in all related practices.
2) The interpreter is ready for all assignments, maintains good hygiene, and wears appropriate attire for the occasion.
3) The interpreter arrives on time to the designated location and completes all accepted assignments.
4) The interpreter avoids performing in situations or conditions that could jeopardize the quality of their interpretation.
5) The interpreter demonstrates respect for all parties involved, including fellow interpreters, and performs their job duties as unobtrusively as possible.
6) The interpreter refrains from conducting personal or other unrelated business while on an interpreting assignment.
7) The interpreter follows due process before bringing in any additional personnel to assist with the interpretation.
8) The interpreter does not solicit or accept gifts or favors from any party involved, and if they are unable to decline a gift, they disclose the situation to their supervisor at the earliest opportunity.
9) If providing remote interpretation sendees, the interpreter ensures a professional and private work environment.
10) If unable to fulfill an assignment, the interpreter notifies people involved as soon as possible and refrains from assigning the work to another interpreter.
Professional development for interpreters is the continuous process of improving and updating their knowledge, skills, and abilities in interpretation This includes participating in training, continuing education, and various learning activities to enhance proficiency and stay informed about industry changes By committing to professional development, interpreters can deliver high-quality services and adapt to the evolving needs of the interpreting profession.
Some of the expectations for the interpreter include:
1) The interpreter engages in ongoing learning and development to maintain and enhance their skills and knowledge.
2) The interpreter seeks feedback and takes steps to address any areas for improvement.
3) The interpreter participates in professional development opportunities and keeps up to date with industry trends and practices.
4) The interpreter engages in reflective practice, critically evaluating their own work to identify areas for improvement.
5) The interpreter seeks out opportunities to work with more experienced interpreters or mentors to learn from their expertise.
How are the codes of ethics practiced in the stages of the assignment? Put a tick in the appropriate box in the table below and elaborate on your choice(s).
Codes of ethics Before the assignment
To effectively manage anxiety disorders, one key solution is to regain a sense of control over your life Research indicates that individuals who feel more in control experience improved mental health If you often struggle with indecision—whether it's choosing what to wear, eat, or which job to pursue—it's crucial to engage in activities that empower you Instead of waiting for the perfect moment or striving for perfection, consider taking action, even if it feels imperfect Embracing the idea of "doing it badly" can alleviate the pressure and help you overcome feelings of helplessness, allowing you to move forward and take charge of your life.
Forgiving yourself is a powerful coping strategy for managing anxiety Individuals with anxiety often focus on their mistakes and negative feelings, similar to having a friend who constantly criticizes them This self-criticism can be detrimental, as it prevents self-kindness and exacerbates feelings of distress Embracing self-forgiveness can help break this cycle and promote a healthier mindset.
It's essential to practice self-kindness and support, which begins with forgiving ourselves for past mistakes, whether recent or long-standing.
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