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Lý thuyết dịch What is Nida's theory of translating? The first influential theory put forward was reflected in the Bible Good News Version According to Nida’s guiding ideology, a “common language” that both ordinary people and high-level and high-culture intellectuals can understand and accept must be used in the translated text After being published, translated works have become the bestsellers, welcomed and affirmed by readers and highly praised by scholars in the translation field This is the famous “dynamic equivalence” translation theory It can be seen that the “dynamic equivalence” translation theory has been successfully verified in practice The so-called “dynamic equivalence” translation is to use the most appropriate and natural equivalent language to reproduce the information of the original text ( Tan, 1989) The most fundamental task of translation is to maximize the most appropriate and natural equivalence of language of the translated text and the language of the original text, so that the language can conform to the language conventions of the target language and be expressed smoothly When proposing the “dynamic equivalence” translation theory, Nida believed that the translator should focus on the meaning and spirit of the original text, rather than the formal equivalence of the language structure of the original text It can be seen that the “dynamic equivalence” translation theory has certain limitations and provides the possibility for further improvement and amendment In From One Language to Another published in 1986, Nida mentioned “functional equivalence” for the first time, which not only retained the essence of “dynamic equivalence” translation theory, but also made its meaning clearer and more accurate The “functional equivalence” theory amended the previous “formal equivalence tends to emphasize fidelity to the language structure of the original language” It holds that in translation, attention should be paid not only to the meaning and spirit of the language, but also to the form as much as possible, because form also has meaning If formal equivalence can be preserved without affecting the appropriateness and natural transmission of meaning and spirit, it is the best If meaning and spirit are restricted by form, then form equivalence can be ignored, that is, “meaning first, form second” It can be seen that Nida’s translation theory has been continuously amended, perfected, developed and sublimated in practice to achieve the optimization the translation effect Meanwhile, it has become applicable to more and more extensive range with greater universality The “function” in Nida’s “functional equivalence” refers to different pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary and discourse, but with the same or similar expression function This is the “reader’s response theory” frequently mentioned by Nida, that is, the readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in potentially the same manner as the original readers did The target readers can comprehend the spirit and meaning of the original author from the lines in the translated text However, it should be noted that, general readers cannot response the same way in the original text and the translation at the same time, because most general readers cannot master both languages at the same time Only those scholars who can understand the original text and appreciate the translated text can response the same way after reading It can be seen that the translator plays an extremely important role as a bridge in translation The translator’s knowledge, culture and professional qualification have an important influence on the translation quality of the work, and at the same time they also put forward high requirements for the translator What are Nida’s several stages of contextual analysis? Dynamic equivalence is Nida’s great composition, consists of three stages: 1) analysis, in which grammatical and semantic relationships are analyzed at the simplest level, 2) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred from the source language to the receptor language, and 3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured into a grammatically and semantically clear and concise message in the receptor language (Nida & Taber, 2003) What is Nida’s Philological Theories of translating? Philological theories rely upon ‘philology’ as the study of the development of language, and the classical literary studies They are mainly concerned with the comparison of structures in the native and foreign languages, especially the functional correspondence and the literary genres in addition to stylistics and rhetoric Philological theories of translating deal with the problem of the equivalence of literary texts by comparing and contrasting the source language and the target language They also focus on the literary quality, i.e., the form of the text and its stylistic features and rhetorical devices Another major issue in philological theories of translating is the problem of equivalence of literary genres between the source language and the target language The question whether poetry should be translated as poetry or prose or whether an epic in the source language should be rendered as such in the target language was one of the main obsessions of such theories What is Nida’s Linguistic Theories of Translating? Linguistic theories of translation, according to Nida, are based on a comparison of the Linguistic structures of the source texts and target texts, rather than a comparison of literary genres and stylistic features of the philological theories Thus, ‘Linguistic Translation’ (or Linguistic Approach) is a product of these theories which view translation as simply a question of replacing the linguistic units of the source text with “equivalent” target language units without reference to factors such as context or connotation According to Nida and Taber, it is only a linguistic translation that can be considered ‘faithful’, because it “is one which only contains elements which can be directly derived from the source text wording, avoiding any kind of explanatory interpolation or cultural adjustment which can be justified on this basis.” One major difference between linguistic theories of translating and philological theories of translating is that linguistic theories are descriptive rather than prescriptive They demonstrate how people translate rather than how they should translate According to Nida (1976): The principal differences between various linguistic theories (or semitheories) of translation lie in the extent to which the focus is on surface structures or corresponding deep structures Theories based on surface-structure comparisons involve the use of more-or-less elaborate sets of rules for matching roughly corresponding structures What is Nida’s Sociolinguistic Theories of Translating? Sociolinguistic theories of translating emerged out of the dissatisfaction with linguistic theories of translating, and the growing interest in communication Such interest resulted from the work of anthropologists who recognized the role of text recipients in the process of translating Sociolinguistic theories of translating relate linguistic structures to a higher level where they can be viewed in terms of their function in communication When discussing a text, the sociolinguist is concerned particularly with its author, its historical background, the circumstances involved in its production, and the history of its interpretation Nida and Taber (1969) have pointed out that the old focus on the form of the message in translation has shifted to the receptors, i.e the readers Therefore, it is the reader's response to the translated message that determines the correctness of that message They set the average reader as the only criterion for measuring correctness in translating Correctness, in their view, is not only the possibility of understanding the message by readers but rather the impossibility of misunderstanding it What are Nida and Taber's views on Dynamic Equivalence Method in translating? According to Nida and Taber (2003), dynamic equivalence is defined as the “quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors” This kind of translation involves taking each thought from the original text and rendering it into a thought in the receptor language that conveys the same meaning, but may not use the exact form, or structure, of the original (Shakernia, 2013) Nida strongly believed that “reproducing the message” ought to be the primary aim of the translator, but that he must also be careful to make appropriate and accurate adjustments with regards to grammar and vocabulary (Nida & Taber, 2003) Nida and Taber (2003) established four fundamental priorities to ensure dynamic equivalence: 1) contextual consistency over verbal consistency, 2) dynamic equivalence over formal correspondence, 3) the aural form over the written form, and 4) forms that are used by the intended audience over more prestigious forms What is Catford’s definition on translation? Translation is a process and a product According to Catford (1995), translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (SL) by equivalent textual material in another language (TL) " This definition shows that translation is a process in the sense that is an activity Performed by people through time, when expressions are translated into simpler ones in the same language (Rewording and paraphrasing) It can be done also from one language into another different language Translation is, on the other hand, a product since it provides us with other different cultures, to ancient societies and civilization life when the translated texts reach us What are Catford’s four types of translation? Catford (1965) had pointed out that translation shifts mean the changes of small linguistic form that occur between source text and target text He named two majors of shifts, namely level shift and category shift which consists of structure shift, class shift, unit shift and intra-system shift a Stucture Shifts According to Catford (1965:77), structure-shifts are the most frequent category shifts occurred in translation They occur in phonological and graphological translation as well as in total translation Grammatically, structure-shifts can occur at all ranks Structure-shifts can occur when there are two languages, source language and target language, which have different element of structure and they have formal correspondence b Class Shifts According to Catford (1965:78)), class-shift is a shift that occurs when the translation equivalent of source language item is a member of a different class from the original item It means that source language has different class with target language It can occur from a noun into an adjective, a verb into an adjective, an adjective into a verb, etc c Unit Shifts Catford (1965) defined unit-shift means changes of the rank that departures from formal correspondence in which the translation equivalent of a unit at one rank in the source language is a unit at a different rank in the target language A unit shift can occur from word to phrase, phrase to word or phrase to clause d Intra-system Shifts Intra-system shift means a departure from formal correspondence in which (a term operating in) one system in the source language has as its translation equivalent (a term operating in) a different–noncorresponding–system in the target language This shift occurs internally within the system Furthermore, the system in each language is one of two terms, they can be either singular or plural and these terms are also regarded as formally corresponding, but the formally equivalent terms in the system not function in the same context What is a full translation? When doing translating, almost all translators have to face up two big problems as follows: trying to convert everything or leaving some untranslated According to J.C Carford, translation falls into two categories: full and partial In a full translation, the entire text is submitted to the translation process: that is, the TL material replaces every part of the SL Example: The race ended and ended the hopes too What La Liga has is just the name of Real Madrid Barca has been left behind Translated version: Chấm dứt hy vọng, đua khép lại La Liga tên Real Madrid Barca bị bỏ lại phía sau lưng In the example above, it can clearly be recognized that the texts are fully translated, semantically and culturally 10 What is a partial translation? When doing translating, almost all translators have to face up two big problems as follows: trying to convert everything or leaving some untranslated According to J.C Carford, translation falls into two categories: full and partial In a partial translation, some part or parts of the SL are left untranslated: they are simply transferred to and incorporated into the TL In literary translation, it is not uncommon for some SL lexical items to be translated this way either because they are regarded as ‘untranslatable’ or for the deliberate purpose of introducing ‘local color’ to the TL Example: In partial translation: “Áo dài” là trang phục truyền thống của phụ nữ Việt Nam In English translation version, we have: “Ao dai” is one of the traditional costumes of Vietnamese women In the translated version, there still remains the word “Ao dai” No equivalence of this word can be found in English because it belongs to the cultural term; therefore, it should be retained when rendered into English 11 What is the total translation? For use as a technical term, Total Translation may best be defined as: Replacement of SL grammar and lexis by equivalent TL grammar and lexis with consequential replacement of SL phonology/graphology by(non-equivalent) TL phonology/graphology Example: There is a legend about a bird which sings just once in its life, more sweetly than any other creature on the face of the earth Có truyền thuyết về chim hót lần đời, nó hót ngào loại chim nào trái đất này It seems that this kind of translation is quite easy to realize, especially in the example above; the translation versions can help readers to be able to understand easily due to its fully clear content 12 What is the restricted translation? Restricted translation is the replacement of SL textual material by equivalent TL textual material, at only one level, that is translation performed only at the phonological or at the graphological level, or at only one of the two levels of grammar and lexis Example: “Khi mới bước chân về làm dâu, sợ thày lắm” At the time to be your daughter-in-law, I was afraid of you, father! In this example, the word “thày” cannot be transferred from Vietnamese into English because it is limited by cultural meaning The word “thày” is widely used by the Northern people in Vietnam to address their male parent; it can be understood that is a/one way of calling Father or dad, with a distinctive feature of a specific dialect 13 What is the rank-bound translation? Catford (1978: 21) divides the three aspects of translation differently, those are: extent, level, and ranks In terms of rank, translation is divided into: Rank-bound translation is translation in which the selection of TL equivalents is deliberately confined to one rank or a few ranks in the hierarchy of grammatical units, usually at word or morpheme rank, that is, setting up word-to-word or morpheme-to-morpheme equivalence 14 What is the unbounded translation? In contrast with Rank-bound translation, normal total translation in which equivalences shift freely up and down the rank scale is called unbounded translation 15 What is Wilss’ definition on translation? According to Wills in Choliludin (2007: 3), translation is a procedure which leads from a written source language text to an optimally equivalent target language text and requires the syntactic, semantic, stylistic and text pragmatic comprehension by the translator of the original text 16 How did Hatim and Mason define translation? In Hatim and Mason’s interpretation, the process of translation should be semiotics conscious The reason for such an interpretation is that all the languages differ in the perception and partition of reality, which means that the translator copes with both source and target languages, paying attention to the connotative and denotative peculiarities of each sign Therefore, it is evident that a text should be considered as a semiotic entity that encompasses a variety of signs with their own meaning and form Considering a semiotic entity as a unit of translation, one uses a discourse analysis in order to preserve the message of the original According to Hatim and Mason (1990), “Translating can be now envisaged as the process which transforms one semiotic entity into another, under certain equivalence conditions to with semiotic codes, pragmatic action and general communicative requirements” 17 What are Bell’s views on translation? Roger Bell's definition of the translating process sounds rather straightforward: “The translation is the replacement of a representation of a text in one language by a representation of an equivalent in a second language” (1991) 18 What is the role of contextual analysis in translation? When it comes to communication in any language, context is really important For good translation, it is important to always let your translators know the context of the text you have provided The context influences the meaning of a phrase or sentence It is linked to the environment in which the communication takes place In translation, the context is very important: one word may mean a different thing depending on the context in which it is used To translate you need to understand the text A good understanding is the key to an efficient translation A sentence or a text is composed of words and phrases, but it requires thought, comparing the sentences around it to fully understand its meaning Translation has to take into account in which the industry or field the document will be used, and its purpose Translation / language can be targeted at specific fields; its context can be technical, medical, legislative etc Being able to translate specialized documentation means the translator has to have specific skills and knowledge in order to understand the context and how to phrase a translation That means translators need to be specialized in a specific field to translate correctly You need to understand engines, for example, to describe them Knowing an engine is powered by combustion and a motor by electricity would mean you should use different words to describe how power is supplied 19 What is Malinowski’s notion of context of situation in translation? "The Problem of Meaning in Primitive Languages" is an essay by Malinowski, published in 1923 as a supplement in Ogden and Richards, The Meaning of Meaning In this essay, Malinowski sets out his arguments for the role of context (of situation and of culture) in the construction of meaning This essay is used in Halliday 1985 as part of the emergence of context as necessary to understanding of how text works and what it does/can Citing Malinowski, he notes that one can argue there was "a theory of context before there was a theory of text" (Halliday 1985/89: 5) Halliday notes that Malinowski's views that the notion of 'context of situation' was relevant in the study of a 'primitive' language, the language of an unwritten culture changed over time In 1935, Malinowski wrote: "I opposed civilised and scientific to primitive speech and argued as it the theoretical uses of words in modern philosophic and scientific writing were completely detached from their pragmatic sources This was an error, and a serious error at that Between the savage use of words and the most abstract and theoretical one there is only a difference of degree Ultimately all the meaning of all words is derived from bodily experience" (Malinowski 1935, vol 2, p58) 20 What is Malinowski’s notion of context of culture in translation? Malinowski was a pioneer in terms of cultural approaches to translation, though he was neither a linguist nor a translator As an anthropologist he realized that explaining “the native view” of the magic in Trioband stories to an English audience required more than a literal translation, and hence he was “continually striven to link up grammar with the context of situation and with the context of culture” (1935, p 73) The context of culture is a wide encompassing frame relating to assumptions regarding appropriate behavior, practices, and values as cued by language 21 Field: Describe the appearance of a guy whose life was saved by writer, talk about the activities they did and explain the meaning of his name Tenor: Here we can see that the writer saved the life of the guy mentioned in the passages, so the relationship between them can be considered as intimate friends Therefore, the writer is telling the reader about a friend of him, the atmosphere is free and casual Mode: The form of communication is writing, describing, narrating, and listing The writer uses informal language with simple grammar structure and vocabulary that easy to understand and often used in daily life Personal pronouns in the first and third person (such as I, he), active voice are used