ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY 13 ppt

13 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY SECOND EDITION ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY 13 Raffles Schelling Staff Senior Editor: Paula K. Byers Project Editor: Suzanne M. Bourgoin Managing Editor: Neil E. Walker Editorial Staff: Luann Brennan, Frank V. Castronova, Laura S. Hightower, Karen E. Lemerand, Stacy A. McConnell, Jennifer Mossman, Maria L. Munoz, Katherine H. Nemeh, Terrie M. Rooney, Geri Speace Permissions Manager: Susan M. Tosky Production Director: Mary Beth Trimper Permissions Specialist: Maria L. Franklin Production Manager: Evi Seoud Permissions Associate: Michele M. Lonoconus Production Associate: Shanna Heilveil Image Cataloger: Mary K. Grimes Product Design Manager: Cynthia Baldwin Senior Art Director: Mary Claire Krzewinski Research Manager: Victoria B. Cariappa Research Specialists: Michele P. LaMeau, Andrew Guy Malonis, Barbara McNeil, Gary J. Oudersluys Research Associates: Julia C. Daniel, Tamara C. Nott, Norma Sawaya, Cheryl L. Warnock Research Assistant: Talitha A. Jean Graphic Services Supervisor: Barbara Yarrow Image Database Supervisor: Randy Bassett Imaging Specialist: Mike Lugosz Manager of Data Entry Services: Eleanor M. Allison Manager of Technology Support Services: Theresa A. Rocklin Data Entry Coordinator: Kenneth D. Benson Programmers/Analysts: Mira Bossowska, Jeffrey Muhr, Christopher Ward Copyright © 1998 Gale Research 835 Penobscot Bldg. Detroit, MI 48226-4094 ISBN 0-7876-2221-4 (Set) ISBN 0-7876-2553-1 (Volume 13) Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Encyclopedia of world biography / [edited by Suzanne Michele Bourgoin and Paula Kay Byers]. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. Summary: Presents brief biographical sketches which provide vital statistics as well as information on the importance of the person listed. ISBN 0-7876-2221-4 (set : alk. paper) 1. Biography—Dictionaries—Juvenile literature. [1. Biography.] I. Bourgoin, Suzanne Michele, 1968- . II. Byers, Paula K. (Paula Kay), 1954- . CT 103.E56 1997 920’ .003—dc21 97-42327 CIP AC While every effort has been made to ensure the reliability of the information presented in this publication, Gale Research Inc. does not guar- antee the accuracy of the data contained herein. Gale accepts no payment for listing; and inclusion in the publication of any organization, agency, institution, publication, service, or individual does not imply endorsement of the editors or publisher. Errors brought to the attention of the publisher and verified to the satisfaction of the publisher will be corrected in future editions. a This book is printed on acid-free paper that meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences— Permanence Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48-1984. This publication is a creative work fully protected by all applicable copyright laws, as well as by misappropriation, trade secret, unfair compe- tition, and other applicable laws. The authors and editors of this work have added value to the underlying factual material herein through one or more of the following: unique and original selection, coordination, expression, arrangement, and classification of the information. All rights to this publication will be vigorously defended. World Biography FM 13 9/10/02 6:30 PM Page iv 13 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY World Biography FM 13 9/10/02 6:30 PM Page v Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles (1781-1826) was an English colonial administrator, historian, and founder of Singapore. A man of vision, industry, and feeling, he made incalculable contributions to the knowledge of the Malay Archipelago and to the British overseas empire. B orn on July 6, 1781, off the coast of Jamaica on board a ship under the command of his father, Ben- jamin Raffles, Stamford Raffles became a clerk in the office of the East India Company in London at the age of 14. In 1805 he was sent to Penang to serve as assistant secretary. Prior to his departure he married a widow, Mrs. Olivia Fancourt, who died in 1814. On the trip out, Raffles studied the Malay language intensively, and his proficiency in this then little-known language was remarked upon by those who came in contact with him. Three years after his arrival his health broke, and he was sent to Malacca to recuperate. The East India Com- pany was on the point of abandoning this port, but a report which Raffles prepared and in which he argued the superi- ority of Malacca over Penang as a potential port persuaded the company to rescind its order. Java Annexation Lord Minto, the governor general of India, was so im- pressed with the report that he called Raffles on 2 months’ leave to Calcutta. During his visit Raffles convinced Lord Minto of the necessity of annexing Java, then in French hands, and the governor general appointed him agent to the governor general of the Malay States. Raffles then returned to Malacca and participated in preparations for the attack on Java. In August 1811 a British fleet of some 100 ships with an expeditionary force of about 12,000 men arrived off Bata- via, and the city fell without a struggle. Gen. Janssens re- treated to Semarang on the north-central coast of Java; in September he capitulated to the British. Lord Minto there- upon appointed Raffles lieutenant general of Java and ad- monished him, ‘‘While we are in Java, let us do all the good we can.’’ Raffles introduced numerous reforms, among which were the division of Java into 16 residencies, the introduc- tion of a land tax, and improvements in the legal and judicial system; he also attempted to abolish slavery. He himself regarded his new land-tenure system, which pre- vented the native rulers from exacting feudal services, as the most solid accomplishment of his administration. The lands which were withdrawn from the control of feudal rulers were leased on a short-term basis at a moderate rental and were assessed at the value of two-fifths of the rice crop, with the remainder of the yield free of assessment and the grow- ers exempt from personal taxes. In spite of his excellent intentions and superb knowl- edge of the people, their language, and their customs, Raf- fles was not able to make Java a profitable enterprise. His hope of turning Batavia into the hub of a new British insular empire was dashed, and when the Netherlands regained its independence, Lord Castlereagh vigorously opposed British retention of the Dutch holdings in the East. Raffles sent in a report explaining the great importance of Java to Britain, but his failure to make Java financially viable, together with Britain’s desire to conciliate the Dutch, militated against a reversal of Lord Castlereagh’s decision, R 1 and in March 1816 Raffles was removed from office and recalled. The following year he married Sophia Hull in Lon- don. His lasting contributions in Java can be seen in the fact that when the Dutch received this island back they adopted many of his reforms. Founding of Singapore In November 1817 Raffles, now Sir Stamford, departed England for Ft. Marlborough (or Benkoelen), in southern Sumatra, where he assumed the residentship of this town. He and Col. R. J. Farquhar, former British resident at Amboina, were on the lookout for a strategically situated way station in the Malay Archipelago which would play in the East the role Malta was playing in the West. On Jan. 28, 1819, they landed on the Island of Singa- pore and immediately recognized it as ideal for their pur- pose. They arrived at an agreement with the Sultan of Johore, and on February 6 a treaty was signed marking the establishment of Singapore as a British settlement. Farquhar was installed as its first governor under the supervision of Raffles at Benkoelen. As Charles E. Wurtzburg (1954) wrote, ‘‘It would be difficult to imagine that, had there been no Raffles, there would have been any Singapore.’’ During the next 4 years four of Raffles’s children died in Benkoelen; his health and that of his wife deteriorated; and in 1823 he submitted his resignation. Before leaving for England, however, he decided to pay a final visit to Singa- pore, where he remained 9 months. He planned the city, prepared laws, and laid the foundation of the Singapore Institution, a Malay school. In 1824 Raffles returned to England to face a charge brought against him by the East India Company, which required him to repay to it a substantial sum for salaries and expenses that had been disbursed to him and only years later disallowed by the court of directors. Raffles was en- deavoring to arrange payment when he became seriously ill again. On July 5, 1826, less than 3 months after receiving the court’s letter demanding repayment, Raffles died of an apoplectic stroke. In his short span of life Raffles had suffered numerous crushing blows which would have felled a lesser man. That he survived them in spite of a less than robust constitution can be explained, in part at least, by his tremendous interest in, and enthusiasm for, every aspect of life in the East. He was, at once, amateur natural scientist, archeologist, Orien- tal philologist, and reviver and active president of the Bata- vian Society of Arts and Sciences. An enduring monument to his knowledge and indefatigable industry is his famed History of Java (2 vols., 1817), which was the first compre- hensive work on this subject and, although outdated, is still regarded as a classic in its field. Further Reading An intimate and contemporary account of Raffles is in Lady Sophia H. Raffles, Memoir of the Life and Public Services of Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles (1830; new ed., 2 vols., 1835), which contains many private letters and public dispatches. Although there is no adequate biography of Raffles, the most extensive study is Charles E. Wurtzburg, Raffles of the Eastern Isles, edited by Clifford Witting (1954). A very readable ac- count, with interesting plates, is Maurice Collis, Raffles (1966). The following are less valuable because they make little use of the records in the India Office Library: Demetrius C. Boulger, The Life of Sir Stamford Raffles (1897); Hugh Edward Egerton, Sir Stamford Raffles: England in the Far East (1900); J. A. Bethune Cook, Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles (1918); Reginald Coupland, Raffles: 1781-1826 (1926); Emily Hahn, Raffles of Singapore: A Biography (1946); and Colin Clair, Sir Stamford Raffles: Founder of Singapore (1963). Two important studies by John Bastin deal with Raffles’s policies: Raffles’ Ideas on the Land Rent System in Java and the Mackenzie Land Tenure Commission (1954) and The Native Policies of Sir Stamford Raffles in Java and Sumatra (1957). Additional Sources Raffles, Sophia, Lady, Memoir of the life and public services of Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, Singapore; New York: Oxford Uni- versity Press, 1991. Raffles, Thomas Stamford, Sir, Statement of the services of Sir Stamford Raffles, Kuala Lumpur; New York: Oxford Univer- sity Press, 1978. Wurtzburg, C. E. (Charles Edward), Raffles of the Eastern Isles, Singapore; New York: Oxford University Press, 1984. Ⅺ RAFFLES ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY 2 Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani Raised on a pistachio farm, Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani (born 1934) rose to become the most important political leader in revolutionary Iran. Known as a shrewd survivor, Iran’s ‘‘smiling powerbroker’’ worked towards building a ‘‘kinder, gentler’’ Iran. A kbar Hashemi was born in 1934 as the second of nine children of Ali Hashemi, a modest farmer and local clergyman in the remote Kermanian town of Rafsanjan—thus the family name, Rafsanjani. At age 14, Akbar Rafsanjani traveled to Qom to pursue advanced Is- lamic studies. He soon was involved in the ‘‘Devotees of Islam’’ agitation for nationalization of Iran’s oil industry. After the demise of Premier Mussadiq’s nationalist move- ment, Ayatollah Borujerdi, one of Rafsanjani’s eminent mentors, prevailed upon clergy not to criticize politicians. During this period of quietism Ayatollah Rohollah Khomeini had the greatest impact upon Rafsanjani’s formal education, which resulted in his clerical recognition as hojatolislam, a rank just below an ayatollah. With Borujerdi’s death in 1961, Ayatollah Khomeini organized mass protests against the westernizing ‘‘White Revolution’’ of Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi. After the Shah’s agents stormed the Qom Seminary and forced Khomeini into exile, Rafsanjani became a key operative link in Khomeini’s underground resistance. Along the way, Rafsanjani’s writings included two significant books that presaged subsequent thinking. The Story of Palestine angrily chronicles a ‘‘Black Record of Colonialism.’’ His 1967 biog- raphy of Amir Kabir admires the 19th-century Iranian prime minister’s early conception of foreign policy non-alignment. The Shah’s agents suspiciously watched Rafsanjani and meted out periodic imprisonments, tortures, and even an illegal forced stint in military service. According to an offi- cial biography, his 1975 imprisonment resulted from his efforts to ‘‘correct the ideological thinking’’ of the Mujahedin-e-Khalq guerrilla organization, an organization Khomeini later condemned as hypocritically melding Marx- ism and Islam. Disciplinarian of the Revolution As a prominent revolutionary player, some observers perceived Rafsanjani as a mere opportunist who aligned himself with whichever directions the revolutionary winds blew. Others denounced his moderate appearances as sheepskin covering for a hard-line ‘‘wolf.’’ However, Rafsanjani is best understood as a principled pragmatist whose coalition and consensus building efforts help explain the continuing survival of the Islamic revolution. In early revolutionary phases Rafsanjani was Khomeini’s clerical liaison to diverse dissident groups, in- cluding secular nationalists and communists. Rafsanjani later rationalized his collaboration with the Mujahedin as part of a strategy which ‘‘considered any form of struggle against SAVAK [the Shah’s secret police] a blessing.’’ Rafsanjani’s revolutionary credits include: organizer of lo- cal revolutionary Komitehs, crisis foreman of Abadan oil production, member of the secret Islamic Revolutionary Council, co-founder of the Islamic Republican Party, and deputy interior minister. In May 1979 he was nearly assassi- nated by the Furqun (Distinction), a shadowy group claim- ing pious opposition to clerics in government. Rafsanjani arguably sought to slow the momentum towards extremism. When the nationalists sought elections for a constitutional review assembly, Rafsanjani warned that they would regret the resulting ‘‘fistful of ignorant and fanatic fundamen- talists’’ who will ‘‘do such damage.’’ Rafsanjani subsequently was elected to the new Majlis (Islamic Consultative Assembly), which he presided over as parliamentary speaker for nearly a decade. In September 1980 Iraq’s invasion of Iran energized hawkish sentiment, Rafsanjani included. As a populist Friday prayer leader in Tehran and as a Khomeini representative to the powerful Supreme Defense Council, Rafsanjani helped undermine remaining nationalist ‘‘doves’’ by advocating harsh retribu- tion as Iran’s war aim. Rafsanjani also backed a severe 1982 crackdown on the Mujahedin. Given Mujahedin assassina- tions of over 1,200 regime leaders, Rafsanjani later ex- plained that without the ‘‘imperative’’ execution of over 4,000 Mujahedin guerrillas, ‘‘Iran would have become Leb- anon.’’ Grave circumstances demanded ‘‘determined’’ means. With militant opposition crushed and Iraq on the de- fensive, Speaker Rafsanjani deftly maneuvered amidst years of raucous Majlis bickering over the precise social, eco- nomic, and international implications of Islamic gover- nance. Often enigmatically seeming to be all things to all sides, his calls for just wealth redistribution did not square neatly with his reassurances to business interests about the sanctity of private property. Yet Rafsanjani could also re- sourcefully break impasses, as with his 1986 theatrical use of television to intimidate ‘‘conservative’’ recalcitrants from ‘‘standing up’’ to vote against an emotion laden, yet long blocked, land reform bill. (Rafsanjani’s educated [University of California] brother directed Iranian televi- sion.) Rafsanjani’s most dangerous innovation was in foreign policy. Recognizing the severe costs of Iran’s international pariah status, Rafsanjani sought to break Iran’s isolation through openings to both eastern and western countries. Outraged purists leaked the arms dealings with the United States and Israel in what became known to the West as the ‘‘Iran-contra’’ affair. Yet Khomeini squelched recriminations with the admonition that ‘‘the path to hell is paved with discord.’’ As the warfront deteriorated in 1988, Khomeini turned over personal command of all Iranian armed forces to Rafsanjani. Still the coalition builder, Rafsanjani ended the destructive rivalries among regular, ideological, and paramilitary forces by integrating them under one com- mand. Following American pummeling of Iranian naval units and the shooting down of an Iranian civilian airliner, Iran’s radicals called for a river of American blood. But Volume 13 RAFSANJANI 3 Rafsanjani and President Ali Khamenei quietly convinced Khomeini that the time had come to accept a ‘‘poisonous chalice’’ cease-fire. Rafsanjani’s nationally broadcast ser- mon simply asserted that ‘‘the main issue is that we can stop making enemies without reason.’’ A Powerful, Pragmatic President After Khomeini’s death in June 1989, Rafsanjani soon emerged as Iran’s most powerful leader. He was a key architect of Ali Khamenei’s swift selection to Khomeini’s post as supreme spiritual guide. Policy differences between Khamenei and Rafsanjani were real, yet common bonds were much stronger. Khamenei supported Rafsanjani’s pres- idential election, along with the simultaneous constitutional reforms that vastly strengthened the presidency’s authority. Despite howls from the Majlis, Rafsanjani’s cabinet ex- cluded all prominent radicals. As president, Rafsanjani continued the momentum towards pragmatic policies. In social policy Rafsanjani can- didly advocated such reforms as liberalized laws on women’s privileges. In defending pursuit of Western loans and private investments, Rafsanjani castigated ‘‘statists’’ and fanatics with ‘‘religious pretensions’’ for being ‘‘frozen in their beliefs . . . and unable to adjust themselves to the circumstances of the day. Dams cannot be built by slo- gans.’’ Events will reveal Rafsanjani’s popularity with the masses. His relatively easygoing, often witty, Friday ‘‘prayer sermons’’ genuinely seemed to delight Tehran crowds, though grandiloquence at times undercut his pragmatic ef- forts. In May 1989, during services commemorating Jerusa- lem day, Rafsanjani opined that Palestinians could end Israeli repression if they killed five Americans for every martyred Palestinian. Official Iranian news sources quickly toned down such remarks as simply emphasizing that Is- rael’s depredations would be impossible without American financing. Overall, Rafsanjani’s presidency was marked by in- creasingly candid and pragmatic rationales for recasting revolutionary principles in light of necessity. In November 1989 Rafsanjani delighted geographic neighbors with an unprecedented renunciation of Iran’s historical policeman role for the Persian Gulf in favor of cooperative strategies. Soon thereafter Rafsanjani characterized Ayatollah Khomeini’s death decree against author Salman Rushdie for blasphemy as a mere ‘‘expert’’ religious opinion. (However, many Shiites vowed to carry out the sentence.) Such ratio- nalization continued after Iraq’s August 1990 invasion of Kuwait. Rafsanjani supported full compliance with interna- tional sanctions against Iraq, despite massive U.S. military involvement in the Gulf. Rafsanjani was reelected to a second four-year term in June 1993, but only received 63.2 percent of the vote with his opponent, Ahmad Tavakkoli, receiving 27 percent. Ana- lysts said that the failure of Rafsanjani to win a landslide victory indicated that Iranians had lost confidence in the Islamic regime—particularly in regard to its handling of economic conditions. Further Reading Within the growing literature on Iran’s revolution and its regional and world impact, several well written and widely circulated English studies stand out: Shaul Bakhash, The Reign of the Ayatollahs: Iran and the Islamic Revolution (1984); R. K. Ramazani, Revolutionary Iran: Challenge and Response in the Middle East (1988); Robin Wright, In the Name of God: The Khomeini Decade (1989); and R.K. Ramazani, editor, Iran’s Revolution: The Search for Consensus (1990). English transla- tions of key Iranian speeches can be found in the Foreign Broadcast Information Service, available at most U.S. Gov- ernment depository libraries. Ⅺ Karl Rahner The German theologian Karl Rahner (1904-1984) was a major influence on 20th-century Roman Cath- olic thought. His work is characterized by the at- tempt to reinterpret traditional Roman Catholic theology in the light of modern philosophical thought. K arl Rahner was born on March 5, 1904, in Freiburg im Breisgau in what is now the German Federal Republic. He followed his older brother Hugo into the Society of Jesus in 1922 and pursued the Jesuits’ tradi- tional course of studies in philosophy and theology in Ger- many, Austria, and Holland. He was ordained a priest in 1932 and continued his studies at the University of Freiburg. After receiving his doctorate in philosophy in 1936, he taught at the universities of Innsbruck and Munich. In 1967 he was appointed professor of dogmatic theology at the University of Mu¨nster. He was a peritus (official theologian) at the Second Vatican Council (1962-1965), and in 1969 he was one of 30 appointed by Pope Paul VI to evaluate theological developments since the Council. Thomism, Kantianism, and contemporary phenomeno- logy and existentialism are the three sources of Rahner’s thought. During his early years of seminary training, he studied the works of Immanuel Kant and Joseph Mare´chal, along with the works of the great medieval theologian St. Thomas Aquinas. While at the University of Freiburg he came under the influence of Martin Heidegger. The over- riding concern of all his work was the need to bring the best thought of the past into contact with the best thought of the present. Rahner’s Theology Often linked with Bernard Lonergan as a ‘‘transcendental Thomist,’’ Rahner employed a method characterized by an attempt to discover the general princi- ples underlying the various doctrines of the Roman Catholic faith. In his first work, Geist in Welt (1936; Spirit in the World ), he presented his interpretation of Aquinas’s doc- trine of knowledge, indicating that man’s capacity to know, although rooted in the data of the senses, is nonetheless a capacity open to the infinite or to being as such. This ability RAHNER ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY 4 to transcend particular being allows man to think metaphys- ically—to analyze the general structure of being necessary for the actual condition of the world known through the senses. Spirit in the World, in conjunction with Rahner’s second major work, Ho¨rer des Wortes (1941; Hearers of the Word ), established the epistemological and speculative foundation of his later thought. Rahner’s thought is best described as a theological anthropology. Beginning with the nature of man as a being open to the infinite, Rahner’s thought sees a person’s quest for fulfillment satisfied only in union with the God of Chris- tian revelation, the God who became man in Jesus Christ. A proper understanding of humans cannot be divorced from an understanding of God and the context of relationships uniting humans and God. The fundamental fact underlying the existence of the world is that it stands in relation to God. Rahner calls this situation the supernatural existential and sees in this fundamental fact the root of all further explana- tions of sin, grace, and salvation. Rahner’s vision of theol- ogy can also be understood through his work Foundations of Christian Faith: An Introduction to the Idea of Christianity (1976). While most religious scholars see Rahner as one of the most influential theologians of the 20th century, he also encountered critics along the way. Some within the Catho- lic Church found his writings too radical—in the early 1960’s, Rahner’s writings could only be published after ap- proval from the Jesuits in Rome. In March of 1984, after a birthday celebration that also honored his scholarship, Rahner fell ill from exhaustion in Innsbruck, Austria. He did not recover and died on March 30. Rahner was buried at the Jesuit church of the Trinity in Innsbruck. Further Reading Rahner’s own writings are difficult. His The Dynamic Element in the Church (trans. 1964) and Nature and Grace: Dilemmas in the Modern Church (trans. 1964) provide good starting points for the reader interested in sampling his work. Patrick Granfield, Theologians at Work (1967), has an interesting interview with Rahner. The best study of Rahner in English is Louis Roberts, The Achievement of Karl Rahner (1967). Rahner’s ideas are presented in a simplified form in Donald Gelpi, Life and Light: A Guide to the Theology of Karl Rahner (1966). Jakob Laubach’s chapter on Rahner in Leonard Reinisch, ed., Theologians of Our Time: Karl Barth and Others (trans. 1964), provides a brief introduction to his thought. Sylvester Paul Schilling, Contemporary Continental Theolo- gians (1966), has a critique of Rahner’s work. (Dych, William) Karl Rahner Liturgical Press, 1992. (Kelly, Geffrey, ed.) Karl Rahner: Theologian of the Graced Search for Meaning Fortress Press, 1992. The Christian Century (April 11, 1984). Commonweal (April 20, 1984). Ⅺ Lala Lajpat Rai Lala Lajpat Rai (1865-1928) was an Indian national- ist leader and was well known for his many publica- tions regarding national problems. L ala Lajpat Rai was born in the Ferozepore district of the Punjab to a respectable Hindu family. He studied law in Lahore and in 2 years passed the first examina- tion, which qualified him to practice. While a student, he became active in the nationalist and revivalist Arya Samaj Society of Swami Dayananda. Rai joined the Samaj in 1882 and soon emerged as a prominent leader in its ‘‘Progressive,’’ or ‘‘College,’’ wing. He also taught at the Anglo-Vedic College, run by the Samaj; his fiery na- tionalism was largely the product of this involvement. In 1886 Rai moved to Hissar, where he practiced law, led the Arya movement, and was elected to the Municipal Committee (of the local government). In 1888 and 1889 he was a delegate to the annual sessions of the National Con- gress. He moved to Lahore to practice before the High Court in 1892. In 1895 Rai helped found the Punjab National Bank, demonstrating his practical concern for self-help and enter- prise among Hindus. Between 1896 and 1898 he published popular biographies of Mazzini, Garibaldi, Shivajee, and Swami Dayananda. In 1897 he founded the Hindu Orphan Relief Movement to keep the Christian missions from secur- ing custody of these children. In the National Congress in 1900 he stressed the importance of constructive, nation- building activity and programs for self-reliance. In 1905 Rai went as a Congress delegate to London, where he fell under the influence of the Hindu revolutionary Shyamji Krishna Varma. Later, in the 1905 Congress ses- Volume 13 RAI 5 sion, Rai joined Bal Tilak and Bipin Chandra Pal in support of a militant program around boycott, swadeshi (homemade goods), and swaraj (self-rule for India). In 1906 he tried to play the role of mediator between the moderates and the extremists in the Congress. The following year the Punjab government arrested and transported him without trial to Burma; he was released in time for the 1907 meetings of the National Congress, when Tilak backed him for the presi- dency. Rai refused to accept the office for fear of a split in the ranks of that body. Rai lived in the United States from 1914 until 1920. He founded the Indian Home Rule League in New York City and published several important volumes on the Indian problem. Soon after his return to India he was elected presi- dent of the Calcutta session of the Congress. In 1925 he entered the Imperial Legislature as a member of the ‘‘Swarajist’’ group. In 1926 he broke with the leaders of the Swarajist group and formed his own ‘‘Nationalist party’’ within the legislature. In 1928 Rai led the demonstrations against the Simon Commission on Indian constitutional reforms. He was injured by the police in a mass demonstration and died a few weeks later, mourned as a nationalist martyr. Further Reading Among Rai’s many books see especially Young India: An Inter- pretation (1917) and Unhappy India (1928). Extensive selec- tions from his writings are in the works edited by Vijaya C. Joshi: Lal Lajpat Rai: Writings and Speeches (2 vols., 1965- 1966), which also contains information on Rai’s life, and Autobiographical Writings (1965). N. N. Kailas, ed., Laj Patrai: His Relevance for Our Times (1966), contains articles on and by Rai. Works on his life and influence include P. D. Saggi, ed., Life and Work of Lal, Bal, and Pal: A Nation’s Homage (1962), and Naeem Gul Rathore, Indian Nationalist Agitation in the United States: A Study of Lala Lajpat Rai and the India Home Rule League of America, 1914-1920 (1966). Ⅺ Chakravarti Rajagopalachari Chakravarti Rajagopalachari (1879-1972) was a prominent Indian nationalist leader, first Indian gov- ernor general of his country, and founder of the Swatantra party. He also wrote a popular version of the ‘‘Mahabharata.’’ C hakravarti Rajagopalachari was born in a village in Madras and graduated from the Central Hindu Col- lege of Bangalore. He then took a law degree from the Madras Law College. In 1921 Rajagopalachari was cho- sen general secretary of the Indian National Congress under Mohandas Gandhi’s leadership. Soon thereafter his daugh- ter married into Gandhi’s family. In subsequent years he was intermittently a member of the all-powerful Congress Working Committee, the top executive arm of the National Congress, and worked very closely with Gandhi. Government Loyalist In 1937, when the Congress won the provincial elec- tions in several Indian provinces, Rajagopalachari became chief minister of Madras. He held this position until the outbreak of World War II caused all of the Congress provin- cial ministries to resign. In 1942, at the time of the Cripps mission from the British Parliament to India, Rajagopalachari was among the minority of top Congress leaders who favored acceptance of the offer made by Cripps in an effort to end the political deadlock. In 1946 Rajagopalachari maintained his posture as a moderator when he advised acceptance of the Pakistan demand as the price which had to be paid for indepen- dence. Also in 1946, he became minister in the interim government which guided India in the final months up to partition and independence. Parting Ways Rajagopalachari was the first Indian governor of West Bengal after independence in 1947. In 1948 he was named the first Indian governor general of India, succeeding Lord Mountbatten, the last English governor general. In 1950 Rajagopalachari was named home minister in the Jawaharlal Nehru Cabinet, and in 1952 he returned to Ma- dras as chief minister. He, however, disagreed with the Nehru government’s socialist leanings. Soon thereafter Rajagopalachari parted company with the Nehru Congress, and in 1959 he was instrumental in the creation of the anti- Congress Swatantra party, which became the chief propo- RAJAGOPALACHARI ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY 6 [...]... temple complex—one of the most impressive in the area—had been built by a wealthy widow of low caste whose spiritual ideal was the mother goddess Kali This great deity traditionally combines the terror of death and destruction with universal motherly reassurance and is often ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY embodied in a statue of ferocious appearance She represents an immense spectrum of religious and... Africa’s Mining Economy (1985) The best overview of the Black union movement in South Africa is S Friedman, Building Tomorrow Today: African Workers in Trade Unions (1987), which contains a chapter on the rise of the NUM Later studies of the NUM include J Crush, ‘‘Migrancy and ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY Militance: The Case of the National Union of Mineworkers of South Africa,’’ in African Affairs (1989)... hundreds of those books of his teachings have been published by the Osho (formerly Rajneesh) Foundation International, and hundreds of tapes of his discourses are available Several of his books have been published by commercial publishers; probably the most important is My Way: The Way of the White Cloud (1978) A three- volume digest of Rajneesh’s teachings on many subjects is The Book (1982) A biography of. .. 19011950 (1953) A more technical discussion is S Bhagavantam, Scattering of Light and the Raman Effect (1940) A consideration of Raman’s many-sided contribution to science is made by his students and colleagues in Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences, vol 28 (1949) Ⅺ ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY reaching 1860, opened a whole new world to him, and he set out to establish the 6,165 theorems in it... a charge of piracy, but as he was already under a sentence of death, a new trial was not possible His execution would have to proceed from the charge of treason of 1603 James agreed to this course, and Raleigh was beheaded on Oct 29, 1618 Further Reading Raleigh’s History of the World, first published in 1614, has been reissued many times A Report of the Truth of the Fight about the Isles of Acores... the principle of non-alignment—and in establishing its foreign service He was actively involved in ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY Caribbean politics and in the major international organizations of which Guyana is a member—the United Nations, the Commonwealth, the Group of 77, and the Non-Aligned Movement He also strengthened relations between the countries of the Caribbean and those of Latin America... result was a defeat for the Egyp- RAMSEY Volume 13 Arthur Michael Ramsey The Right Reverend and Right Honorable Arthur Michael Ramsey (1904-1988) was the 100th archbishop of Canterbury He also served as archbishop of York and bishop of Durham and was a leading ecumenical churchman and a president of the World Council of Churches Ramsey was Regius Professor of Divinity at Cambridge University and an influential... nomination as bishop of Durham He was consecrated bishop in York Minster on September 29, 1952 A seat in the House of Lords came as a prerogative of the See of Durham In 1954 Ramsey took an active, if critical, role in the deliberations of the World Council of Churches at its meetings in Evanston, Illinois On April 25, 1956, Ramsey was enthroned as primate of England and 92nd archbishop of York, the second... head of the Physics Department On the 50th anniversary of the lab in 1995 he delivered the keynote speech He held many administrative positions, including director of the Harvard Cyclotron; chairman of the MIT-Harvard committee in charge of the construction of the Cambridge electron accelerator; president of Universities Research Association, the governing body of Fermilab in Illinois; president of the... Puritans of New England Nonetheless, the controversies which he aroused in the 16th century now seem merely tendentious Further Reading A readable biography of Ramus is Frank Pierrepont Graves, Peter Ramus and the Educational Reformation of the Sixteenth Century (1912) Indispensable for a thorough study of Ramus are the works of Father Walter J Ong, Ramus: Method, and the 27 28 RANDOLPH ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD . classification of the information. All rights to this publication will be vigorously defended. World Biography FM 13 9/10/02 6:30 PM Page iv 13 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY World Biography FM 13 9/10/02. 13 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY SECOND EDITION ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY 13 Raffles Schelling Staff Senior Editor: Paula K. Byers Project. (Set) ISBN 0-7876-2553-1 (Volume 13) Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Encyclopedia of world biography / [edited by Suzanne